BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

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HANDBOOK  OF  BIRDS 
OF  EASTERN  NORTH  AMERICA 


By  FRANK  M.  CHAPMAN 

Curator  of  Ornithology  in  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History 


HANDBOOK  OF  BIRDS  OF  EASTERN  NORTH  AMERICA 

Revised    Edition.      With    Keys    to   the    Species, 
Descriptions  of  their   Plumages,  Nests,  etc.,  and 
their   Distribution    and    Migrations.      With   over 
200  Illustrations.     I2mo. 
LIBRARY  EDITION,  $3.50  net.    Postpaid,  $3.64. 
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BIRD=LIFE.     A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Our  Common  Birds 

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BIRD    STUDIES    WITH    A    CAMERA.     With   Introductory 
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Illustrated  with  over  100  Photographs  from  Nature 
by  the  Author.     I2mo.     Cloth,  $1.75,  postpaid. 

THE  WARBLERS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

With  Contributions  from  other  Ornithologists  and 
24  full-page  Colored  Plates  illustrating  every 
Species,  from  Drawings  by  L.  A.  Fuertes  and  B. 
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D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK 
HI 


PLATE  I 


SCREECH  OWL 
Gray  and  rufous  phases  of  plumage 


HANDBOOK  OF  BIRDS 

OF  EASTERN  NORTH  AMERICA 


WITH  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTERS   ON 
THE   STUDY  OF  BIRDS   IN   NATURE 


BY 
FRANK  M.   CHAPMAN 

\^ 
CURATOR  OF  ORNITHOLOGY  IN  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

FELLOW  OF  THE  AMERICAN  ORNITHOLOGISTS'   UNION 
FOREIGN  MEMBER  OF  THE  BRITISH  ORNITHOLOGISTS*  UNION,  ETC. 


WITH  FULL-PAGE  PLATES  IN  COLORS  AND  BLACK  AND  WHITE 

BY  LOUIS  AQ4.SSIZ  FU3RmSS 
AND  TEXT-CUTS  BY  TAPPAN  ADNEY  AND  EliNEST  THOMPSON  SETON 


REVISED  EDITION 


NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 
D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY 

1914 


COPYRIGHT,  1895,  1912 
By  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


TO  MY  MOTHER 

WHO   HAS   EVER   ENCOURAGED    HER   SON   IN   HIS 

NATURAL   HISTORY    STUDIES 
THIS  BOOK   IS   AFFECTIONATELY    DEDICATED 


o  /^k  O  O  Q 


PREFACE   TO   THE   REVISED   EDITION 

In  preparing  a  revised  edition  of  the  "Handbook,"  it  was  decided 
that  any  increase  in  size  which  would  remove  it  from  the  ranks  of  true 
handbooks  was  not  to  be  considered  for  a  moment.  The  question,  then, 
with  which  I  have  been  confronted,  was,  how,  within  given  limits,  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  bird  student  of  today,  who  demands,  primarity,  infor- 
mation concerning  the  bird  in  nature.  To  add  materially  to  the  space 
given  to  each  of  the  species  contained  in  the  first  edition  would  result 
in  widely  overstepping  the  bounds  set  by  necessity.  But,  if  it  were  not 
possible  to  present  a  complete  biography  of  every  bird,  at  least  a  sug- 
gestive biography  of  the  bird  could  be  given,  and  the  expansion  in  size 
permitted  has  been  largely  used  for  this  purpose. 

This  added  material  will  be  found  in  the  introductory  pages,  which 
number  116,  as  compared  with  31  in  the  original  edition. 

Here  I  have  dealt  with  those  phases  of  bird-life  which,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  enter  into  the  existence  of  every  species.  These  chapters 
on  migration,  song,  nesting  habits,  color,  structure  and  function,  food, 
etc.,  may  be  read,  not  only  alone,  but  they  are  intended  to  be  a  guide  to 
the  study  in  life  of  any  bird  to  which  we  may  devote  our  attention.  In 
short,  they  are  designed  to  arouse  an  interest  in  the  bird  in  relation 
to  its  environment,  and  to  stimulate  and  direct  original  observations. 

Aside  from  this  Introduction,  which  constitutes  both  the  largest 
and  most  important  addition  to  the  new  "Handbook,"  the  balance 
of  the  book  has  been  thoroughly  revised,  much  of  it  has  been  rewritten, 
and  not  a  little  of  it  is  wholly  new.  The  nomenclature  is  that  of  the 
last  (1910)  edition  of  the  A.  O.  U.  Check-List.  The  Ranges  have  also 
been  taken  from  this  same  authoritative  source,  and  are  a  vast  improve- 
ment over  those  of  the  first  edition  of  the  "Handbook."  In  addition 
to  the  migration  notes  given  in  preceding  editions,  data  are  now  also 
included  for  northern  Ohio,  Glen  Ellyn,  Illinois,  and  southeastern 
Minnesota.  A  new  feature,  which  we  believe  will  prove  helpful,  is  the 
series  of  nesting  dates  from  localities  often  covering  the  breeding  range 
of  the  species. 

If  space  has  prohibited  giving  all  that  is  known  about  a  bird,  at 
least  one  may  say  where  recent  information  concerning  it  may  be 
found,  and  to  this  end  I  have  added  many  references  not  contained  in 
earlier  editions.  This  bibliographical  feature  of  the  new  "Handbook" 
is  best  shown  in  the  Appendix  giving  references  to  the  more  important 
faunal  lists  of  birds  in  Eastern  North  America,  a  knowledge  of  which 
is  believed  to  be  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  local  student. 

(vii) 


viii       PREFACE  TO   THE   REVISED  EDITION 

In  the  preparation  of  the  first  edition  of  this  book,  the  authof 
gratefully  acknowledged  assistance  which  he  had  received  from  Florence 
Merriam  Bailey,  J.  A.  Allen,  and  Ernest  Thompson  Seton,  and  he 
now  desires  to  express  his  indebtedness  to  Waldron  DeWitt  Miller  for 
aid  in  reading  the  proof  of  the  present  edition,  and  to  Henry  W.  Henshaw, 
Chief  of  the  Biological  Survey,  for  permission  to  reproduce  the  faunal 
map  appearing  on  the  cover  pages. 

It  is  proper,  in  closing  this  preface,  for  the  author  to  express  the 
pleasure  and  gratification  which  the  reception  of  the  first  edition  of 
the  "Handbook"  has  given  him.  So  far  as  circumstances  permit,  he 
has  endeavored  to  make  this  new  "Handbook"  worthy  of  the  praise 
which  has  so  generously  been  accorded  its  predecessor. 

FRANK  M.  CHAPMAN. 

AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY, 
New  York  City,  October  1,  1911. 


HISTORICAL    REVIEW 

A  review  of  the  progress  which  has  been  made  in  the  study  of  North 
American  birds  during  the  eighteen  years  since  the  first  edition  of  the 
"Handbook"  was  published  must  impress  one  with  the  fact  that  it  is 
our  knowledge  of  living  rather  than  of  dead  birds  which  has  increased. 

A  more  exact  discrimination,  larger  and  better  collections,  and 
gradually  changed  standards  as  to  the  degree  of  differentiation  which 
deserves  recognition  by  name,  have  added  many  forms  to  our  "Check- 
List,"  and  rendered  more  definite  our  knowledge  of  the  relationships 
of  others.  Particularly  is  this  true  of  the  birds  of  the  Pacific  coast 
region.  This  systematic  work  has  appeared  in  various  special  papers 
and  monographs,  the  most  thorough  of  which,  not  only  for  the  period 
under  consideration,  but  for  any  preceding  period  in  the  history  of 
North  American  ornithology,  is  Ridgway's  "Birds  of  North  and  Middle 
America,"  of  which  five  volumes  have  thus  far  been  issued. 

Thanks  to  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union,  our  nomenclature 
has  been  revised  with  the  utmost  care  and,  while  the  numerous  result- 
ing changes  in  names  may  be  annoying  to  present-day  students,  those 
who  follow  us  will  enjoy,  in  greater  measure,  that  stability  which  is 
the  ideal  of  the  biologist.  The  third  (1910)  edition  of  the  Union's 
"Check-List"  contains  this  modern  nomenclature;  but  it  is  worthy  of 
note  that  the  classification  employed  in  this  work  is  the  same  as  that 
used  in  the  first  (1886)  edition  of  the  "Check-List."  So  little  advance 
has  been  made  in  this  branch  of  ornithology  that  no  system  of  classi- 
fication proposed  since  1886  was  considered  sufficiently  satisfactory 
to  warrant  adoption  by  the  Committee  of  the  Union  having  in  charge 
the  preparation  of  the  1910  edition. 

The  studies  of  Dwight  and  others  have  made  far  more  definite 
our  knowledge  of  the  molt  of  birds,  the  times  and  manner  of  feather- 
loss  and  renewal  having  been  determined  for  many  species,  with  an 
exactness  made  possible  only  by  the  collecting  of  specimens  for  this 
special  purpose.  At  the  same  time,  Beebe,  by  experiments  on  captive 
birds,  has  attacked  the  problem  of  the  causes  of  molt,  while  Strong's 
histological  work  on  the  feather  has  increased  our  understanding  of 
its  growth  and  development. 

In  laboratory  experiment  on  living  birds,  Beebe  has  shown  certain 
effects  of  humidity  upon  the  colors  of  feathers;  Davenport  has  used 
Canaries  and  domestic  fowls  in  working  on  the  laws  of  heredity;  Porter 
and  others  have  conducted  psychological  investigations  upon  certain 
species;  and  Watson  has  pursued  similar  studies  upon  the  Noddy  and 
the  Sooty  Tern  in  nature.  The  highly  original  researches  of  Thayer 

fa) 


x  HISTORICAL  REVIEW 

have  greatly  stimulated  interest  in  the  study  of  the  colors  of  birds  in 
relation  to  their  environment. 

Dealing  still  with  the  more  technical  branches  of  ornithology,  the 
investigations  of  Fisher,  Beal,  and  other  members  of  the  Biological 
Survey  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  of  Forbush 
in  Massachusetts,  and  of  other  state  ornithologists,  have  supplied  by 
far  the  larger  part  of  our  exact  knowledge  of  the  food-habits  of  our 
birds  and  determined  for  the  first  time  the  economic  status  of  many 
species.  This  work  constitutes  one  of  the  most  pronounced  and  impor- 
tant phases  of  research  during  the  period  under  consideration.  While 
based,  primarily,  on  field  work  in  observing  as  well  as  in  collecting, 
special  training  in  laboratory  methods  is  required  to  make  the  analyses 
of  stomach  contents,  from  which,  in  the  main,  the  nature  of  a  bird's 
food  is  ascertained. 

Field,  as  well  as  laboratory  work,  has  also  been  required  to  produce 
the  faunal  papers  and  books  which,  in  volume,  form  the  greatest  addi- 
tion to  the  ornithological  literature  of  the  past  decade  and  a  half.  From 
the  pioneer  explorations  of  Merriam,  Fisher,  Nelson,  Bailey,  Preble, 
Osgood,  and  other  members  of  the  Biological  Survey,  in  new  or  but 
little-known  regions,  to  the  almost  final  reports  of  Brewster  and  others 
on  .the  bird-life  of  localities  which  have  been  studied  for  years  by  many 
observers,  these  publications  have  added  enormously  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  distribution  of  North  American  birds.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  western  North  America,  especially  of  the  Pacific  coast  region,  where 
Grinnell,  W.  K.  Fisher,  Swarth,  and  other  members  of  the  Cooper 
Ornithological  Club,  have  placed  on  record  a  vast  amount  of  data 
concerning  the  birds  of  this  area. 

Besides  furnishing  material  for  the  more  philosophic  phases  of 
faunal  work,  these  monographs  and  local  lists  often  treat  also  of  the 
migration  of  the  birds  with  which  they  deal.  Most  important  contribu- 
tions to  this  subject  have  been  made  by  the  large  and  widely  distributed 
corps  of  observers  acting  under  the  direction  of  the  Biological  Survey, 
which,  under  the  authorship  of  Cooke,  has  published  several  important 
bulletins  on  migration.  Here  also  should  be  mentioned  the  significant 
experiments  of  Watson  upon  the  homing  instincts  of  Terns,  which  are 
referred  to  beyond  (p.  54). 

Possibly,  in  no  other  branch  of  definitely  directed  ornithological 
research  has  greater  advance  been  made  than  in  the  study  of  the  nesting 
habits  of  birds.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  ornithology,  trained 
biologists  have  devoted  an  entire  nesting  season  to  the  continuous 
study  of  certain  species,  and  the  results  obtained  by  Watson,  Herrick, 
Finley,  and  others,  have,  in  a  high  degree,  both  scientific  value  and 
popular  interest. 

No  small  part  of  the  educational  value  of  work  of  this  kind  is  due 
to  the  photographic  illustrations  by  which  it  is  usually  accompanied, 
and  bird  study  with  a  camera  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  novel  and, 
in  many  respects,  the  most  important  development  in  ornithological 


HISTORICAL  REVIEW  xi 

field  work  during  the  past  fifteen  years.  Not  only  has  the  fascination 
of  camera  hunting  itself  stimulated  the  bird  photographer,  but  the 
results  he  has  obtained  have  at  times  had  a  commercial  value,  which 
has  enabled  him  to  pursue  his  labors  in  before  unexplored  fields.  In 
consequence,  in  the  books  of  Job,  Finley,  Dugmore,  and  others,  and  in 
numerous  magazine  articles,  we  now  have  thousands  of  graphic  records, 
not  one  of  which  existed  fifteen  years  ago,  depicting  the  home-life 
of  some  of  our  rarest  as  well  as  commonest  birds,  and  possessed  of  a 
power  for  conveying  and  diffusing  information  with  which  the  written 
word  cannot  compare. 

Here,  too,  should  be  mentioned  the  work  of  the  ornithological 
artists  who,  led  by  Fuertes,  have  given  us  an  unsurpassed  series  of 
faithful  and  beautiful  portraits  of  our  birds,  to  the  educational  value 
of  which,  in  no  small  measure,  is  to  be  attributed  the  existing  wide- 
spread interest  in  bird  study. 

It  is  the  growth  of  this  interest  which  has  chiefly  distinguished  the 
past  two  decades;  for,  much  as  they  have  been  marked  by  activity  in 
various  branches  of  ornithology,  it  is  less  as  an  exponent  of  natural  laws 
than  as  a  most  attractive  form  of  wild  life  that  the  bird  has  made  its 
appeal.  In  the  history  of  North  American  ornithology,  therefore,this 
period  may  well  stand  as  the  Epoch  of  Popular  Bird  Study.  Where,  in 
1895,  there  was  one  person  who  could  claim  acquaintance  with  our 
commoner  birds,  today  there  are  hundreds;  and  the  plea  for  the  develop- 
ment of  our  inherent  love  of  birds,  which  was  made  in  the  first  edition 
of  the  "Handbook,"  has  been  answered  with  an  effectiveness  few 
would  have  predicted. 

Opportunity  alone  was  needed  to  bring  to  its  fulfilment  this  inborn 
interest  in  creatures  which  have  such  manifold  claims  to  our  attention, 
and  with  which  we  may  become  so  intimately  associated.  This  oppor- 
tunity has  come  in  popular  manuals  of  bird  study,  which,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, have  been  sold  by  hundreds  of  thousands;  in  the  introduction  of 
nature  study  in  the  schools,  in  the  formation  of  bird  clubs  and  classes, 
through  the  far-reaching  and  important  work  of  the  National  and  State 
Audubon  Societies,  through  popular  lectures,  through  magazines 
devoted  to  bird  study,  and  the  greater  attention  of  the  press  in  general 
to  bird  studies — particularly  such  as  are  illustrated  by  photographs, — 
through  increased  museum  facilities,  and  through  the  closer  relation 
everywhere  existing  between  the  professional  or  advanced  student  and 
the  amateur,  a  relation  which  must  be  attributed  primarily  to  the  influence 
exerted  by  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union. 

It  is  the  diffusion  of  this  widespread  knowledge  of  the  economic,  as 
well  as  the  esthetic  importance  of  birds,  which  has  made  it  possible  to 
secure  the  passage  and  enforcement  of  effective  laws  for  their  protection ; 
and  it  is  in  this  continued  and  increasing  interest  in  birds,  not  alone  as 
our  efficient  co-workers  in  garden,  field,  orchard  and  forest,  but  as  the 
most  eloquent  expression  of  nature's  beauty,  joy  and  freedom,  that  we 
shall  doubtless  find  a  true  measure  of  their  greatest  value  to  man. 


LIST   OP   ABBREVIATIONS 

Ad.  Adult;  a  fully  matured  bird. 

A.  V.  Accidental  visitant  (see  page  33). 

B.  Bill. 

B.  from  N.  Bill  from  nostril. 

9  The  sign  employed  to  designate  female  sex  (see  page  20). 

cf  The  sign  employed  to  designate  male  sex  (see  page  20). 

Im.  Immature;  the  term  is  generally  applied  to  birds  less 

than  a  year  old,  or  to  those  in  first  winter  plumage. 

L.  Total  length. 

P.  R.  Permanent  resident  (see  page  32). 

S.  R.  Summer  resident  (see  page  32). 

T.  Tail. 

Tar.  Tarsus= Metatarsus. 

T.  V.  Transient  visitant  (see  page  33). 

W.  Wing. 

W.  V.  Winter  visitant  (see  page  33). 


(xii) 


PLAN  OF   THE  WORK 

Introduction. — The  Introduction  to  the  present  edition  of  the 
"Handbook"  is  wholly  new,  and  rg  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  a 
class  of  bird-students  which  was  almost  unknown  when  the  first  edition 
of  the  ' 'Handbook"  was  written.  Field  work  in  eastern  North  America 
then  meant  chiefly  collecting.  Now  it  means  chiefly  observing.  The 
observation  blind,  the  camera,  the  note-book  to  record  prolonged,  con- 
secutive, definitely  directed  studies,  were  then  used  rarely,  if  at  all. 
Now  they  form  part  of  the  equipment  of  all  serious  students  of  birds 
in  nature,  and  it  is  to  them  that  this  Introduction  is  addressed. 

Nomenclature. — The  nomenclature  of  the  American  Ornithologists' 
Union's  '  'Check-List  of  North  American  Birds"  (third  edition,  1910)  has 
been  adopted.  The  number  preceding  the  name  of  each  species  is  its 
permanent  number  in  the  Union's  ' 'Check-List." 

Through  an  oversight,  trinomials  were  not  employed  in  the  "Check- 
List"  for  certain  races,  of  which  only  the  one  first  described  occurs  in 
North  America,  and  such  species  are  here  entered  under  their  proper 
trinomial  designation. 

I  have  not,  however,  followed  this  plan  for  species  of  wholly  acci- 
dental occurrence,  with  which  a  re-examination  of  the  specimen  or 
specimens  on  which  the  records  are  based  might  be  essential  to  their 
correct  subspecific  determination. 

With  the  object  of  encouraging  uniformity  in  the  use  of  common  or 
vernacular  names  of  our  birds,  I  have  given  in  the  body  of  the  book 
only  one  such  name  for  each  species — that  adopted  for  it  in  the  "Check- 
List"  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union.  Other  common  names, 
which  have  been  or  are  in  more  or  less  general  use,  are  given  in  the 
index,  with  a  cross  reference  to  the  name  with  which  they  are  syn- 
onymous. 

In  some  instances,  I  have  taken  the  common  names  of  the  earlier, 
rather  than  of  the  last,  edition  of  the  "Check-List,"  in  which  abbre- 
viations have  been  made  with  consequent  loss  of  definiteness.  Exam- 
ples are  "Scaup,"  "Scoter,"  "Crossbill,"  and  other  instances  where  two  or 
more  species,  having  the  same  general  name,  are  found  in  the  same 
locality.  In  such  cases,  it  is  evident  that,  to  avoid  ambiguity,  each  one 
should  have  some  qualifying  title. 

Definition  of  Terms. — The  accompanying  figure,  with  its  named 
parts,  will  explain  the  meaning  of  the  terms  used  in  the  following 
descriptions  of  birds.  The  words  upperparts  and  underparts,  mentioned 
so  frequently,  refer  respectively  to  the  whole  upper  or  under  surfaces 
of  the  body  of  the  bird,  from  the  base  of  the  bill  to  the  root  of  the  tail, 
but  are  not  applied  to  either  wings  or  tail. 

(xiii) 


XIV 


PLAN   OF  THE  WORK 


There  are  infinite  variations  in  the  markings  of  feathers,  and  those 
figured  present  only  the  patterns  most  frequently  met  with.     The 


shaft  of  the  feather  is  the  midrib,  to  either  side  of  which  the  vanes, 
or  webs,  are  attached.  (See  Fig.  2.) 

The  Keys. — It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  thoroughly  to  under- 


PLAN  OF  THE  WORK  xv 

stand  the  use  of  the  keys.  At  first  sight  they  will,  no  doubt,  appear 
confusing,  but  in  reality  they  are  exceedingly  simple.  The  system 
upon  which  they  are  arranged  may  be  mastered  in  a  few  minutes,  and 
you  will  then  be  surprised  at  the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which,  even 
in  large  families,  you  can  "run  a  bird  down." 

The  Key  to  Families. — The  scheme  of  this  key  which,  since  its 
appearance  in  the  first  edition  of  the  "Handbook,"  has  been  so  widely 
adopted,  originated  with  Ernest  Thompson  Seton.  The  key  here 
presented  is,  with  some  modifications  and  expansions,  based  on  one 
contributed  by  Mr.  Seton  at  a  time  when  he  was  expected  to  be  a  joint 
author  of  this  work.  Strictly  speaking  this  is  not  one  key  but  a  series 
of  keys,  one  under  each  order.  The  orders  are  placed  in  a  natural 
sequence, — that  is,  we  begin  with  the  oldest,  or  lowest,  forms  of  birds, 
Loons,  Grebes,  etc.,  and  end  with  the  most  highly  developed  ones, 
Thrushes,  Bluebirds,  etc.  Two  main  divisions  are  given:  first,  Water 
Birds;  second,  Land  Birds.  In  no  case  will  it  be  difficult  to  decide  in 
which  of  these  groups  a  bird  belongs.  Now  glance  over  the  illustra- 
tions, and  select  the  one  which  you  think  most  nearly  resembles  the 
bird  you  are  identifying.  At  each  step,  test  your  decision  by  reading 
the  brief  diagnoses  of  orders  and  families.  In  this  way  you  may  readily 
place  your  bird  in  its  proper  family. 

The  Keys  to  Species. — If  a  bird  always  wore  the  same  plumage,  it 
would  be  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  place  it  in  a  certain  section 
of  a  key  and  keep  it  there.  But,  unfortunately,  not  only  are  the  males 
and  females  of  the  same  species  frequently  quite  unlike,  and  the  young 
different  from  either,  but  their  plumages  may  vary  with  the  season. 
Furthermore,  an  individual  of  a  given  species  may  not  only  wear  two 
very  different  costumes,  but,  in  doffing  one  for  another,  he  does  it 
gradually,  and,  in  the  meantime,  appears  in  '  hanging  or  transition 
plumage. 

For  this  reason  it  has  been  customary  to  base  keys  on  only  adult 
males.  Such  keys  do  very  well  in  the  nesting  season,  when  birds  are 
in  song,  and  when  males  constitute  probably  nine-tenths  of  the  birds 
one  sees.  But  at  other  times  of  the  year  young  birds  outnumber  the 
old  ones,  and  the  adults  themselves  may  lose  their  breeding  plumage 
and  wear  quite  a  different  one.  I  have,  therefore,  attempted  to  make 
keys  which  will  identify  a  bird  in  any  plumage.  To  do  this,  it  was 
necessary  to  use  many  more  specimens  than  there  were  species.  For 
example,  the  key  to  our  some  40  species  of  Warblers  is  based  on  110 
specimens,  representing  as  many  phases  of  plumage. 

With  identification  as  the  sole  end  in  view,  I  have,  in  the  keys, 
abandoned  all  attempts  to  follow  the  current  system  of  classification, 
and,  taking  color  as  the  most  tangible  character,  have  to  a  great  extent 
arranged  the  species  on  this  character  alone.  The  result,  from  the  sys- 
tematist's  standpoint,  is  most  unnatural.  Species  of  different  genera 
are  brought  into  the  same  subsections,  and  the  more  variable  species 
may  be  placed  in  several  widely  separated  sections. 


xvi  PLAN  OF  THE  WORK 

The  maker  of  keys,  however,  should  not  try  to  serve  two  masters. 
If  the  keys  will  identify,  they  will  have  accomplished  their  purpose. 
The  classification  of  our  birds  is  shown  in  the  body  of  the  book,  where 
the  species  are  arranged  according  to  the  system  adopted  by  the  American 
Ornithologists'  Union.  The  keys  proper  are  dichotomous,  but  1  have 
not  hesitated  to  divide  the  larger  families  into  three,  or  even  four, 
primary  sections,  the  characters  of  which  are  placed  together  at  the 
head  of  the  keys  to  permit  of  direct  comparison.  The  heading  of  a 
group  or  section  applies  to  all  the  species  included  in  it.  Thus,  if  I 
does  not  apply  to  the  bird  you  are  identifying,  you  must  pass  at  once 
to  II,  or  III,  or  IV,  as  the  case  may  be.  Even  should  the  first  section 
describe  your  bird,  it  is  well  to  read  the  sections  which  are  contrasted 
with  it. 

As  a  model  to  show  how  the  keys  are  used,  let  us  identify  a  male 
English  Sparrow,  a  bird  which  has  a  black  patch  on  the  throat  and 
breast,  a  slate-colored 'crown,  chestnut  marks  on  the  sides  of  the  head, 
and  a  streaked  back.  Turning  to  the  key  to  the  family  FringillidaB, 
or  Finches,  Sparrows,  etc.,  we  read  first  the  headings  to  the  main 
divisions,  which  are  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  key  in  order  that 
they  may  be  more  readily  compared. 

"I.  Underparts  with  red. 

"II.  Underparts  with  no  red,  and  without  distinct  streaks;  throat 
or  breast  sometimes  with  a  patch  or  spot. 

"III.  Underparts  without  red,  and  with  numerous  streaks." 

Our  bird  evidently  belongs  in  Section  II.  Under  this  section  we 
read  first:  "1.  Tail  with  white  spots,  bars  or  patches."  Our  bird  has 
no  white  in  the  tail,  so  we  go  to  "2"  and  read:  "Tail  without  large  white 
spots  or  patches."  The  first  subsection  here  is:  "A.  Back  plain,  without 
distinct  streaks."  Our  bird  is  unquestionably  streaked,  so  we  therefore 
go  to  "B.  Back  distinctly  streaked."  Under  B  we  have  "a.  Bend  of 
the  wing  yellow,"  and  "b.  Bend  of  the  wing  not  yellow."  Our  bird 
has  no  yellow  on  the  wing,  and  we  therefore  place  it  in  subsection  "6." 
This  subsection  is  subdivided  into  "61.  Crown  bright  reddish  brown," 
etc.,  and  "c1.  Crown  not  bright  reddish  brown."  Evidently  our  bird 
belongs  in  the  group  headed  "c1,"  which  is  further  divided  into  "c2.  Crown 
streaked  or  spotted  with  black  or  black  and  white"  and  "d2.  Crown 
mixed  grayish  brown,  and  rufous,  ashy  or  slate-color,  without  black 
streaks."  It  is  clear  that  our  bird  with  its  slate-colored  crown,  belongs 
in  the  second  of  these  sections.  This,  we  observe,  contains  four  species, 
and  we  soon  discover  that  "d6.  Crown  slate-color;  a  chestnut  patch 
behind  the  eye;  throat  black,"  fits  our  bird,  and  to  prove  the  identifi- 
cation we  turn  to  the  detailed  description  beyond. 

If  this  more  than  usually  complicated  case  has  been  clearly  demon- 
strated, you  should  have  no  difficulty  in  using  the  keys,  so  far  as 
their  construction  goes.  One  has  only  to  remember  that  if  the  descrip- 
tive matter  following  I  does  not  fit,  one  should  try  II;  similarly  1 
is  contrasted  with  2,  A  with  B,  a  with  6,  a1  with  61,  62  with  c2,  etc. 


PLAN  OF  THE  WORK 


xvu 


Descriptions  of  Plumage. — The  descriptions,  with  quoted  exceptions, 
are  from  specimens  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  and 
my  thanks  are  due  the  authorities  of  that  instutition  for  permission 
to  use  its  valuable  collections.  I  have  tried  to  make  them  as  concise 
and  simple  and,  at  the  same  time,  as  detailed,  as  seemed  necessary  for 
the  purpose  of  identification. 

It  has  not  always  been  possible  to  describe  in  detail  all  the  plumages 
assumed  by  a  species  at  various  ages  and  seasons,  but  at  least  the  more 
important  plumage  changes,  and  the  differences  due  to  sex,  age,  and 
season  are  indicated.  It  should  be  explained  that,  where  the  sexes 
are  alike,  they  are  described  under  the  subheading  "Ads.,"  meaning 
adult  specimens  in  breeding  dress.  The  subheading  "Im."  in  the  light 


FIG.  2.    Spotted  (a),  streaked  (6),  barred  (c)  and  margined  (d)  feathers. 

of  our  present  more  exact  knowledge,  is  somewhat  indefinite;  but,  as 
has  just  been  said,  absolute  exactness  in  this  connection  is  not  possible 
in  a  book  of  this  size,  where  descriptions  are  intended  primarily  for  the 
purpose  of  identification.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  "Im."  signifies  a  bird  in  first  winter  plumage,  or  the  one 
following  that  (the  Juvenal)  in  which  the  bird  leaves  the  nest.  Where, 
however,  the  Juvenal  plumage  is  worn  for  some  time,  as  with  the  Snipe, 
in  which  it  largely  takes  the  place  of  a  first  winter  plumage,  then  it  is 
described  under  the  term  "Juv." 

Measurements. — All  the  measurements  given  are  in  English  inches 
and  hundredths.  Those  of  birds  are  average  measurements,  taken  for 
the  most  part  from  specimens  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History.  I  have  also,  with  the  author's  permission,  made  use  of  the  excel- 
lent series  of  measurements  in  Dr.  E.  A.  Mearn's  Birds  of  the  Hudson 
Highlands.  A  variation  of  about  ten  per  cent  from  the  figures  given  may 
be  expected. 

The  total  length  (=  L.)  of  a  bird  is  found  by  gently  stretching  the 
specimen,  laying  it  on  its  back,  and  measuring  the  distance  from  the 


xviii  PLAN  OF  THE  WORK 

end  of  its  bill  to  the  tip  of  its  longest  tail-feather.  The  length  of  the 
wing  (=  W.)  is  the  distance  from  the  "bend  of  the  wing"  to  the  end  of 
the  longest  primary.  The  length  of  the  tail  (=  T.)  is  the  distance  from 
the  base,  or  insertion  of  the  middle  feathers,  to  the  end  of  the  longest 
feather.  The  length  of  the  tarsus  (=  Tar.)  is  the  distance  from  the 
base,  or  insertion  of  the  toes,  to  the  end  of  the  tibia,  or  what  in  reality 
is  the  heel.  The  "tarsus"  is  therefore  the  true  foot  of  the  bird,  while 
the  part  to  which  this  name  is  generally  applied  consists  only  of  the 
toes.  The  length  of  the  bill  (=  B.),  or  "culmen,"  is  the  distance  from 
the  base  of  the  feathers  on  the  forehead  to  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible 
in  a  straight  line.  With  the  exception  of  total  length,  these  measure- 
ments are  generally  taken  with  a  pair  of  dividers. 

Range. — The  paragraphs  under  this  heading  are  taken  from  the 
"Check-List"  (third  edition,  1910)  of  the  American  Ornithologists' 
Union.  In  some  few  instances  I  have  abridged,  and  in  others  expanded 
or  emended  the  original.  Based  primarily  on  the  unexampled  series  of 
records  on  file  in  the  Biological  Survey  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  these  outlines  of  distribution  are  more  accurate 
and  detailed  than  any  we  have  before  had  of  North  American  birds. 

Following  the  paragraphs  on  range  are  exact,  concise  statements 
of  the  birds'  status,  manner  and  times  of  occurrence,  at  various  local- 
ities from  the  District  of  Columbia  northward  to  Cambridge,  Mass., 
and  thence  westward  to  southeastern  Minnesota.  Each  locality  is 
treated  by  a  recognized  authority,  from  notes  based  on  observations 
extending  over  many  years.  The  statement  in  italics  in  the  first  edition 
of  the  "Handbook,"  that  the  dates  given  represent  the  "usual  times 
of  migration"  appears,  by  some  readers,  to  have  been  overlooked.  It 
may  be  well,  therefore,  to  emphasize  it  here. 

The  data  from  Washington,  D.  C.,  were  supplied  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Rich- 
mond of  the  United  States  National  Museum.  Not  only  has  Dr.  Rich- 
mond had  a  prolonged  personal  experience  in  this  field,  but  he  has  had 
access  to  the  notes  of  other  local  ornithologists. 

The  water  birds  of  Long  Island  are  treated  by  William  Dutcher, 
who  for  years  made  our  coast  birds  a  subject  of  special  investigation. 
Sportsmen,  lighthouse  keepers,  and  ornithologists  have  all  contributed 
to  his  splendid  series  of  notes  on  the  movements  of  waterfowl  and  bay 
birds.  In  more  recent  years,  Mr.  Dutcher's  work  has  been  continued 
by  Dr.  W.  C.  Braislin,  from  whose  paper  on  the  Birds  of  Long  Island 
(Abst.  Proc.  Linnaean  Society,  Nos.  17-19,  1904-7)  I  have  supple- 
mented or  emended  Mr.  Dutcher's  notes. 

Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher  supplied  the  notes  from  Ossining,  New  York.  This 
locality  formed  the  field  of  his  ornithological  labors  for  fifteen  years. 
Within  the  limits  of  the  town  of  Ossining,  he  has  observed  no  less  than 
236  species  of  birds.  I  doubt  if  any  other  one  person  in  northeastern 
America  has  recorded  so  large  a  number  from  so  small  an  area. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  is  historic  ground  [in  the  annals  of 
ornithology.  From  the  time  of  Nuttall,  its  bird-life  has  been  studied 


PLAN   OF  THE  WORK  xix 

by  an  ever-increasing  number  of  enthusiastic  field  students,  whose 
acknowledged  leader  for  the  past  forty  odd  years  has  been  William 
Brewster.  Mr.  Brewster  contributed  to  the  first  edition  of  the  ' 'Hand- 
book" data  on  Cambridge  birds  of  much  value;  but,  since  that  time, 
he  has  fortunately  embodied  his  life  studies  in  his  " Birds  of  the  Cam- 
bridge Region"  (Memoir  No.  4,  Nutt.  Orn.  Club),  beyond  question 
the  most  important  local  work  on  American  birds  which  has  as  yet  been 
published.  The  data  from  the  Cambridge  region  given  in  this  edition 
of  the  "Handbook"  are  quoted,  by  permission,  from  Mr.  Brewster's 
book,  where  the  exact  limits  of  the  area  covered  will  be  found  stated. 

None  of  the  additional  records  were  contained  in  the  first  edition 
of  the  "Handbook."  Those  from  Ohio  were  supplied  by  Professor 
Lynds  Jones,  of  Oberlin,  long  the  authority  on  the  birds,  of  that  State. 
They  cover  Lorain  and  Erie  Counties.  The  dates,  Professor  Jones 
states,  are  "median  dates  of  first  arrival." 

B.  T.  Gault,  who  has  contributed  the  notes  from  Glen  Ellyn,  writes: 
"The  dates  given  are  extreme  [thus  contrary  to  the  plan  followed  by 
other  contributors],  excepting  in  isolated  cases  of  extra-limital  species. 
My  observations  really  cover  the  township  of  Milton,  but  every  bird 
listed,  except  Gallinula  galeata,  Strix  varia,  and  Aquila  chrysaetos,  has 
been  noted  within  the  corporate  limits  of  the  village  of  Glen  Ellyn." 

The  records  from  southeastern  Minnesota  were  supplied  by  Dr. 
Thomas  S.  Roberts,  for  many  years  the  leading  authority  on  the  birds 
of  Minnesota.  -They  are  based,  in  the  main,  on  observations  made  in 
the  vicinity  of  Minneapolis. 

Nests  and  Eggs. — The  brief  descriptions  of  nests  and  eggs  are  based 
on  the  collections  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  supple- 
mented by  the  use  of  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgway's  "History  of  North 
American  Birds,"  Davie's  "Nests  and  Eggs  of  North  American  Birds," 
Ridgway's  "Manual,"  and  Bendire's  "Life  Histories  of  North  American 
Birds."  In  describing  the  eggs,  the  color  chart  was  used  when  possible; 
but  it  was  designed  with  particular  reference  to  the  plumages  of  our 
birds,  and  is  of  less  assistance  in  describing  their  eggs.  The  measure- 
ments of  eggs  are  mostly  from  series  of  measurements  made  by  Mr.  H. 
B.  Bailey,  accompanying  the  Bailey  collection  in  the  American  Museum, 
supplemented  by  reference  to  the  works  mentioned  above. 

Nesting  Dates. — The  dates  following  the  descriptions  of  nest  and  eggs 
are  designed  to  indicate  when  the  nesting  season  of  the  species  in  ques- 
tion begins  at  various  localities.  They  are  the  earliest  dates  I  have  found 
for  the  taking  of  full  sets  of  (presumably)  fresh  eggs  of  the  first  laying. 
These  records  were  compiled  chiefly  from  the  data  accompanying  the 
collections  of  the  United  States  National  Museum  (to  which  I  have 
kindly  been  given  access  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Richmond),  those  of  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  National  History,  and  the  collection  of  Mr.  J.  P. 
Norris,  Jr.,  to  whom  I  gratefully  express  my  indebtedness.  The  "Cam- 
bridge" records  are  all  extracted,  by  permission,  from  Brewster's 
"Birds  of  the  Cambridge  Region,"  while  for  those  from  "SE.  Minn." 


xx  PLAN  OF  THE  WORK 

I  have  to  thank  my  friend  Dr.  Thomas  S.  Roberts.  The  Charleston 
and  South  Carolina  coast  records  are  from  Wayne's  excellent  work 
on  "The  Birds  of  South  Carolina." 

Biographies. — After  devoting  separate  paragraphs  to  the  bird's 
general  range,  its  manner  of  occurrence,  comparative  numbers,  times 
of  migration  at  several  specific  points,  and  its  nest  and  eggs,  the  space 
remaining  is  given  to  a  brief  sketch  of  its  haunts,  notes,  and  disposi- 
tion, with  the  particular  object  of  aiding  in  its  identification  in  the 
field. 

In  preparing  these  biographical  sketches,  I  have  aimed  to  secure 
the  best  material  possible,  using  my  own  notes  only  when  I  felt  they 
were  based  on  adequate  observations.  Not  only  have  I  carefully  exam- 
ined the  literature  relating  to  the  habits  of  our  birds,  selecting  what 
seemed  to  be  the  most  trustworthy  accounts  of  their  appearance  in 
life,  but,  through  the  generous  cooperation  of  fellow-students  of  living 
birds,  I  am  able  to  present  character  sketches  of  some  of  our  birds, 
written  by  observers  who  are  everywhere  known  for  their  sympathy 
with  birds  out-of-doors.  Thus,  I  have  to  thank  Mrs.  Miller,  Mrs. 
Bailey,  Mr.  Bicknell,  Mr.  Brewster,  Dr.  Dwight,  Mr.  Seton,  and  Mr. 
Torrey,  for  pen  pictures  of  birds  with  which  they  are  especially  familiar, 
each  sketch  being  signed  by  its  author. 

Illustrations. — Tappan  Adney's  pen-and-ink  drawings,  which  have 
added  so  much  to  the  value  of  the  preceding  editions  of  the  "Hand- 
book," appear  in  the  present  edition.  To  them  have  been  added  others 
by  Ernest  Thompson  Seton,  from  "Bird-Life." 

In  the  matter  of  illustrations,  the  present  edition  of  the  "Hand- 
book" is  chiefly  distinguished  from  its  predecessors  by  the  inclusion 
of  fifteen  full-page  plates  by  America's  foremost  painter  of  birds,  Louis 
Agassiz  Fuertes.  Of  those  in  color,  some  are  designed  to  aid  in  identify- 
ing the  more  difficult  species  of  birds,  like  Flycatchers  and  Thrushes, 
while  others  are  intended  to  illustrate  various  phenomena  in  connection 
with  the  plumage  of  birds. 

The  Color  Chart. — It  must  not  be  supposed  for  a  moment  that  the 
colors  on  this  chart  represent  the  colors  of  all  the  birds  of  eastern  North 
America.  It  does  not  do  so  any  more  than  an  artist's  palette  shows  all 
the  colors  of  his  picture;  in  fact,  I  have  called  this  plate  my  mental 
palette,  and  have  frequently  used  two,  and  even  three,  terms  to  describe 
a  given  shade  or  tint. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood,  therefore,  that  when  grayish  brown, 
for  example,  is  mentioned,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  feathers  to  which 
the  term  is  applied  are  of  exactly  the  same  color  as  the  plate,  but  that 
they  are  nearer  to  this  color  than  to  any  other  in  the  plate.  Used  even 
in  this  general  way,  the  plate  will  prove  a  far  more  definite  basis  for 
description  than  if  every  one  were  left  to  form  his  own  idea  of  the  colors 
named. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

HISTORICAL  REVIEW ix 

LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS xii 

PLAN  OF  THE  WORK xiii 

INTRODUCTION          .........  1 

CHAPTER  I. — WHY  WE  SHOULD  STUDY  BIRDS           ...  1 

CHAPTER  II. — A  WORD  TO  THE  BEGINNER  3 

Finding  and  Naming  Birds      .          .  .         .         .         .3 

The  Equipment  of  the  Field  Student  ....       9 

Collecting  Birds,  Their  Nests  and  Eggs  .          .          .          .15 

American  Ornithological  Societies     .  .          .         .          .23 

Current  Ornithological  Magazines    .  .          .         .         .24 

CHAPTER  III. — THE  STUDY  OF  BIRDS  IN  NATURE     .         .         .26 

The  Distribution  of  Birds 27 

The  Migration  of  Birds 32 

The  Voice  of  Birds 60 

The  Nesting  Season 66 

The  Plumage  of  Birds 84 

The  Food  of  Birds 98 

General  Activities  of  the  Adult  Bird          .         .         .         .103 

THE  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  EAST  OF  THE  NINE- 
TIETH MERIDIAN 118 

KEY  TO  ORDERS  AND  FAMILIES     .         .         .         .         .         .118 

FIELD  KEY  TO  LAND  BIRDS  .         .         .         .         .         .133 

I.  ORDER  PYGOPODES:  Diving  Birds        ....     138 

1.  Family  Colymbidae:  Grebes       .          .          .          .138 

2.  Family  Gaviidse:  Loons 142 

3.  Family  Alcidae:  Auks,  Murres,  and  Puffins          .     145 

(xxi) 


xxii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

II.  ORDER  LONGIPENNES:  LONG-WINGED  SWIMMERS  .     150 

4.  Family  Stercorariidse :  Jaegers  and  Skuas  .     150 

5.  Family  Laridse:  Gulls  and  Terns        .          .  .152 

6.  Family  Rynchopidse:  Skimmers          .         .  .     172 

III.  ORDER  TUBINARES:  TUBE-NOSED  SWIMMERS         .         .     172 

7.  Family  Diomedeidae:  Albatrosses       .          .          .172 

8.  Family  Procellariidse :   Fulmars,  Shearwaters,  and 

Petrels 173 

IV.  ORDER  STEGANOPODES:  TOTIPALMATE  SWIMMERS          .     178 

9.  Family  Phaethontidae:  Tropic-birds  .         .          .178 

10.  Family  Sulidse:  Gannets  .         .         .         .179 

11.  Family  Anhingidse:  Darters      ....     181 

12.  Family  Phalacrocoracidse :  Cormorants       .         .     182 
13.'  Family  Pelecanidse:  Pelicans     .  .         .     183 

14.  Family  Fregatidae:  Man-o'-war-birds          .         .     185 

V.  ORDER  ANSERES:  LAMELLIROSTRAL  SWIMMERS     .         .     186 

15.  Family  Anatidse:  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans         f    186 

VI.  ORDER  ODONTOGLOSS^E  :  LAMELLIROSTRAL  GRALLATORES   216 

16.  Family  Phcenicopteridae :  Flamingoes          .         .     216 

VII.  ORDER  HERODIONES:  HERONS',  STORKS,  IBISES,  ETC.     ,     217 

17.  Family  Plataleidse:  Spoonbills  .         .         .217 

18.  Family  Ibididse:  Ibises 218 

19.  Family  Ciconiidse:  Storks          .          .          .          .219 

20.  Family  Ardeidae:  Herons  and  Bitterns        .         .219 

VIII.  ORDER  PALUDICOL^:  CRANES,  RAILS,  ETC.  .         .  229 

21.  Family  Gruidae:  Cranes 229 

22.  Family  Aramidse:  Courlans       ....  230 

23.  Family  Rallidse:  Rails,  Gallinules,  and  Coots       .  230 

IX.  ORDER  LIMICOL^E:  SHORE  BIRDS         ....  238 

24.  Family  Phalaropodidse :  Phalaropes    .         .  .  239 

25.  Family  Recurvirostridae :  Stilts  and  Avocets  .  241 

26.  Family  Scolopacidse :  Snipes,  Sandpipers,  etc.  .  242 

27.  Family  Charadriidse :  Plovers    .          .          .  .263 

28.  Family  Aphrizidse:  Surf-birds  and  Turnstones  .  268 

29.  Family  Haematopodidse:  Oyster-catchers    ,  ,  268 


CONTENTS  xxiii 

PAGE 

X.  ORDER  GALLING:  GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS      .         .         .  269 

30.  Family  Odontophoridae :  American  Quail  .         .  269 

31.  Family  Tetraonidse :  Grouse       ....  272 

32.  Family  Meleagridae :  Turkeys              .         .         .  278 

XL  ORDER  COLUMB^E:  PIGEONS  AND  DOVES      .         .         .  281 

33.  Family  Columbidse:  Pigeons  and  Doves     .          .281 

XII.  ORDER  RAPTORES  :  BIRDS  OF  PREY      ....  286 

34.  Family  Cathartidse:  American  Vultures      .          .  286 

35.  Family  Buteonidse :  Hawks,  Eagles,  Kites,  etc.     .  287 

36.  Family  Falconidse:  Falcons,  Caracaras,  etc.         .  303 

37.  Family  Pandionidse:  Ospreys     ....  307 

38.  Family  Aluconidae:  Barn  Owls  .          .          .308 

39.  Family  Strigidse:  Horned  Owls,  Hoot  Owls,  etc.  .  309 

XIII.  ORDER  PSITTACI:  PARROTS,  MACAWS,  PAROQUETS, 

COCKATOOS            .         .          .         .         .         .  317 

40.  Family  Psittacidse:  Parrots  and  Paroquets         .  317 

XIV.  ORDER  COCCYGES:  CUCKOOS,  KINGFISHERS,  ETC.           .  318 

41.  Family  Cuculidae:  Cuckoos,  Anis,  etc.         .         .  318 

42.  Family  Alcedinidse:  Kingfishers          .         .         .  320 

XV.  ORDER  PICI:  WOODPECKERS,  WRYNECKS,  ETC.      .         .  322 

43.  Family  Picidse:  Woodpeckers             .         .         .  322 

XVI.  ORDER  M ACROCHIRES  :  GOATSUCKERS,  SWIFTS,  HUMMING- 
BIRDS, ETC.  .......  331 

44.  Family  Caprimulgidae:    Nighthawks,  Whip-poor- 

wills,  etc 331 

45.  Family  Micropodidse :  Swifts     ....  334 

46.  Family  Trochilidse:  Hummingbirds    .         .         .  335 

XVII.  ORDER  PASSERES:  PERCHING  BIRDS    ....  337 

47.  Family  Tyrannidae:  Flycatchers         .         .         .338 

48.  Family  Alaudidse:  Larks 347 

49.  Family  Corvidse:  Crows,  Jays,  etc.    .         .         .  350 

50.  Family  Sturnidse:  Starlings        ....  355 

51.  Family  Icteridse:  Blackbirds,  Orioles,  etc.  .          .  357 

52.  Family  Fringillidse :  Finches,  Sparrows,  etc.         .  369 

53.  Family  Tangaridse:  Tanagers              .         .         .  413 

54.  Family  Hirundinidse:  Swallows          .         .         .  415 


xxiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

55.  Family  Bombycillidse:  Waxwings       .         .         .     420 

56.  Family  Laniidae:  Shrikes  ....     422 

57.  Family  Vireonidse:  Vireos          ....     424 

58.  Family  Mniotiltidse :  Wood  Warblers          .         .     430 

59.  Family  Motacillidse:  Wagtails  and  Pipits   .         .     470 

60.  Family  Mimidse:  Thrashers,  Mockingbirds,  etc.  .     472 

61.  Family  Troglodytidse :  Wrens  .         .         .475 

62.  Family  Certhiidaj:  Creepers      .         .         .         .481 

63.  Family  Sittidse:  Nuthatches      .         .         .         .482 

64.  Family  Paridse:  Titmice  .         .         .         .485 

65.  Family  Sylviidse:  Old-World  Warblers,  Kinglets, 

and  Gnatcatchers  .....     488 

66.  Family  Turdidae:  Thrushes,  Bluebirds,  etc.       .     491 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 501 

'         i 
INDEX      •         •         ••         •         •         •         •         •         •.        •     517 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FULL-PAGE  PLATES 

PLATE  FACING  PAGE 

I.  SCREECH  OWL.     (In  color.)     L.  A.  Fuertes.     Frontispiece. 
COLOR  CHART.     (Double  page  in  color.)       ....       26 
II.  NESTS  OF  RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRD  AND  OF  PHEASANT. 

Photographed  by  F.  M.  C. 75 

III.  EGGS  OF  MEADOWLARK,  UPLAND  PLOVER,  AND  COMMON 

TERN.    Photographed  by  F.  M.  C 78 

IV.  PLUMAGES  OF  THE  SCARLET  TANAGER.    (In  color.)   L.  A. 

Fuertes.  .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .85 

V.  ADULT  MALE  WOOD  DUCK  IN  'ECLIPSE'  PLUMAGE.    (In 

color.)   L.  A.  Fuertes 86 

VI.  RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRDS  AND  CHICKADEES  IN  JUVENAL 

PLUMAGE.   Photographed  by  F.  M.  C.          .          .          .       88 
VII.  SONG  SPARROWS.    (In  color.)   L.  A.  Fuertes.  ...       91 
VIII.  WOODCOCK  ON  NEST.    Photographed  by  E.  Van  Altena. 

BLACK  SKIMMER  ON  NEST.    Photographed  by  F.  M.  C.      95 
IX.  GANNET,  MURRES,  PUFFINS,  AND  RAZOR-BILLED  AUKS. 

Photographed  by  F.  M.  C 145 

X.  GULLS  AND  PETRELS.   L.  A.  Fuertes.     .         .         .         .152 
XI.  TERNS   AND    SKIMMERS.     From   Habitat   Group   in   the 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History.        .          .          .162 
XII.  HEADS  OF  DUCKS.    Photographed  from  Specimens  in  the 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History.        .         .         .     186 

XIII.  DUCKS  AND  GEESE.   L.  A.  Fuertes.      ....     198 

XIV.  CLAPPER  RAIL.    From  Group  in  the  American  Museum 

of  Natural  History.            ......  232 

XV.  SPOTTED   SANDPIPER   AND   YOUNG.     Photographed  from 

Specimens  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  261 

XVI.  PASSENGER  PIGEON.   L.  A.  Fuertes 282 

XVII.  FLYING  HAWKS.   L.  A.  Fuertes 287 

XVIII.  HEADS  OF  OWLS.   L.  A.  Fuertes.  .         .         .         .309 

XIX.  FLYCATCHERS.    (In  color.)   L.  A.  Fuertes.       .         .         .  345 

XX.  PLUMAGES  OF  THE  BOBOLINK.    (In  color.)   L.  A.  Fuertes.  358 
XXI.  PLUMAGES  OF  THE  ORCHARD  ORIOLE.    (In  color.)    L.  A. 

Fuertes 364 

(XXV) 


xxvi  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATE  FACING    PAGE 

XXII.  PINE  SISKIN,  REDPOLL,  TREE  SPARROW,  SNOW  BUNTING. 

L.  A.  Fuertes 381 

XXIII.  BACHMAN'S,  SWAINSON'S,  AND  WORM-EATING  WARBLERS. 

L.  A.  Fuertes. 441 

XXIV.  THRUSHES    OF   THE    GENUS    HYLOCICHLA.     (In   color.) 

L.  A.  Fuertes.  492 


FIGURES  IN  THE  TEXT 

FIGURE 

1.  Topography  of  a  bird         ..... 

2.  Spotted  (a),  streaked  (6),  barred  (c),  margined  (d)  feathers.  . 

3.  The  Umbrella  blind 

4.  A  completed  bird  skin        ....... 

5.  Migration  of  the  Blackpoll  Warbler    ..... 

6.  Migration  of  the  Mourning  Warbler  ..... 
,7.  Migration  of  the  Bobolink          ...... 

8.  Migration  of  the  Redstart  .          . 

9.  Migration  of  the  Golden  Plover  ..... 

10.  Feathers  of  Snow  Bunting  ...... 

11.  Bill  of  Woodcock 

12.  Bill  of  Avocet 

13.  Wing  and  foot  of  Tree  Swallow 

14.  Wing  and  foot  of  Little  Black  Rail 

15.  Man-o'-war-bird       ........ 

16.  Wing  of  Woodcock 

17.  Tail  of  (a)  Downy  Woodpecker,  (6)  Brown  Creeper 

18.  Flamingo 

19.  Toes  of  Ruffed  Grouse 

20.  Foot  of  Osprey 

21.  Feet  of  (a)  Phalarope,  (6)  Coot 

22.  Feet  of  (a)  Pied-billed  Grebe,  (6)  Loon,  (c)  Puffin 

23.  (a)  Bill  of  Parasitic  Jaeger;  (6)  bill  and  foot  of  Laughing  Gull 

24.  Bill  of  Common  Tern 

25.  Bill  of  Skimmer         . 

26.  (a)  Bill  and  foot  of  Black-footed  Albatross;  (6)  bill  and  foot 

of  Fulmar 

27.  Bill  of  Gannet 

28.  Bill  of  Yellow-billed  Tropic  Bird 

29.  Foot  of  Cormorant    ....... 

30.  Bill  of  Anhinga 

31.  Bill  of  Cormorant 

32.  Bill  of  Man-o'-war-bird 

33.  Bill  of  Merganser 

34.  (a)  Bill  and  foot  of  Mallard;  (6)  foot  of  Canvasback     . 

35.  Bill  of  Flamingo 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xxvii 

FIGURE  PAGE 

36.  Bill  and  toe-nail  of  Green  Heron 122 

37.  Bill  of  White  Ibis .         .122 

38.  Bill  of  Roseate  Spoonbill 122 

39.  (a)  Bill  and  foot  of  Clapper  Rail;  bills  of  (b)  Yellow  Rail, 

(c)  Sora,  (d)  Florida  Gallinule;  (e)  bill  and  foot  of  Coot      .  123 

40.  Bill  of  Sandhill  Crane 123 

41.  Bill  of  Limpkin 123 

42.  Bills  of   (a)   Dowitcher,  (b)  Knot,  (c)  Black-bellied  Plover, 

(d)  Semipalmated  Plover       ......      124 

43.  Feet   of    (a)  Red    Phalarope,   (6)  Knot,   (c)  Dowitcher,   (d) 

Black-bellied  Plover,  (e)  Semipalmated  Plover         .          .     124 

44.  Bill  of  Ruffed  Grouse 125 

45.  Bill  of  Wild  Pigeon  ..:....     125 

46.  Feet  of  (a)  Barred  Owl,  (6)  Red-shouldered  Hawk         .          .     125 

47.  Head  of  Barn  Owl 125 

48.  Head  of  Barred  Owl 125 

49.  Head  of  Turkey  Vulture  .          .         .         .         .         .126 

50.  Head  of  Red-shouldered  Hawk 126 

51.  Bill  and  foot  of  Carolina  Paroquet      .....     126 

52.  Bill  and  foot  of  Belted  Kingfisher 126 

53.  Bill  and  foot  of  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  .          .          .          .126 

54.  (a)  Bill  and  foot  of  Hairy  Woodpecker,  (6)  foot  of  Arctic 

Three-toed  Woodpecker 127 

55.  Bill  and  foot  of  Nighthawk 127 

56.  Bill  and  tail-feather  of  Chimney  Swift          .         .          .          .127 

57.  Bill  of  Hummingbird 127 

58.  Foot  of  Robin 128 

59.  Bill  and  wing  of  Phoebe 128 

60.  Bill  and  hind-toe  of  Horned  Lark 128 

61.  (a)  Bill  and  wing  of  Blue  Jay,  (6)  bill  of  Crow     .          .          .128 

62.  Bill  and  wing  of  Starling 129 

63.  (a)  Bill  and  wing  of  Baltimore  Oriole;  bills  of  (6)  Meadow- 

lark,  (c)  Purple  Grackle 129 

64.  Bills  of   (a)   Cardinal,  (6)  Pine  Grosbeak,  (c)  Purple  Finch, 

(d)  Am.  Crossbill,  (e)  Seaside  Finch,  (/)  Goldfinch  .          .  129 

65.  Bill  of  Scarlet  Tanager 129 

66.  Bill  and  foot  of  Cliff  Swallow 130 

67.  Head  of  Cedar  Waxwing 130 

68.  Bill  of  Loggerhead  Shrike 130 

69.  Bill  of  Blue-headed  Vireo  .          .          .          .          .          .130 

70.  (a)  Bill  of  Tennessee  Warbler;  (b)  bill,  wing,  and  hind-toe 

of  Pine  Warbler;  bills  of  (c)  Redstart,  (d)  Water-Thrush; 

(e)  Chat 130 

71.  Bill  and  hind-toe  of  American  Pipit    .....      131 

72.  (a)  Bill  of  Brown  Thrasher,  (b)   bill   and  wing  of  Catbird; 

bills  of  (c)  Carolina  Wren,  (d)  House  Wren     .         .         .131 


XXV111 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 

73.  Bill  and  tail  of  Brown  Creeper  ..... 

74.  (a)  Bill  of  White-breasted  Nuthatch,   (b)  bill  and  wing  of 

Chickadee  ........ 

75.  Bill  and  wing  of  Golden-crowned  Kinglet,  (6)  bill  of  Blue- 

gray  Gnatcatcher        ....... 

76.  (a)  Bill  of  Robin,  {&)  bill  and  wing  of  Bluebird 

77.  Great  Auk 

78.  First  primaries  of  (a)  Herring  Gull,   (b)  Ring-billed  Gull, 

(c)  Laughing  Gull,  (d)  Franklin's  Gull,  (e)  Bonaparte's 
Gull.         .  

79.  First  primaries  of   (a)   Caspian  Tern,  (b)  Royal  Tern,  (c) 

Common  Tern,  (d)  Arctic  Tern,  (e)  Roseate  Tern 

80.  Head  of  Least  Sandpiper 

81.  Head  of  Red-backed  Sandpiper 

82.  Wing  of  Solitary  Sandpiper 

83.  Head  of  Semipalmated  Plover  . 

84.  Head  of  Wilson's  Plover  .... 

85.  Tail  of  Sharp-shinned  Hawk     . 

86.  Tail  of  Cooper's  Hawk     .... 

87.  Primaries  of  Red-shouldered  Hawk  . 

88.  Primaries  of  Broad-winged  Hawk      •         . 

89.  Foot  of  Golden  Eagle       .... 

90.  Foot  of  Bald  Eagle  .... 

91.  Tail-feathers  of  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo 

92.  Tail-feathers  of  Black-billed  Cuckoo 

93.  Tongue  of  Pileated  Woodpecker 

94.  Whip-poor-will        ..... 

95.  Head  of  Crested  Flycatcher      . 

96.  Head  of  Prairie  Horned  Lark   . 

97.  Starling; —  Summer  plumage    . 

98.  Starling; — Winter  plumage       .         .         • 

99.  Head  of  Cowbird 

100.  Head  of  Purple  Finch      .... 

101.  Head  of  Redpoll 

102.  Hind-toe  of  Lapland  Longspur 

103.  Tail-feathers  of  Vesper  Sparrow         .         . 

104.  Tail  of  Grasshopper  Sparrow    .         .         . 

105.  Head  of  Seaside  Sparrow 

106.  Head  of  Lark  Sparrow     .... 

107.  Head  of  Chipping  Sparrow 

108.  Head  of  Fox  Sparrow       .... 

109.  Head  of  Dickcissel 

110.  Barn,  Cliff,  Tree,  and  Bank  Swallows 

111.  Section  of  primary  of  Rough-winged  Swallow 

112.  Head  of  Red-eyed  Vireo  .... 

113.  Wing  of  Warbling  Vireo  .... 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xxix 

FIGURE  PAGE 

114.  Head  of  Black  and  White  Warbler    ...                   .  445 

115.  Head  of  Worm-eating  Warbler           .....  445 

116.  Head  of  Blue- winged  Warbler  ......  445 

117.  Head  of  Golden-winged  Warbler 445 

118.  Head  of  Parula  Warbler 445 

119.  Head  of  Myrtle  Warbler  .          .         .         .         .         .445 

120.  Head  of  Magnolia  Warbler 445 

121.  Head  of  Chestnut-sided  Warbler 445 

122.  Black-throated  Blue  Warbler 449 

123.  Head  of  Blackpoll  Warbler 462 

124.  Head  of  Prairie  Warbler            .......  462 

125.  Head  of  Ovenbird 462 

126.  Head  of  Kentucky  Warbler 462 

127.  Head  of  Maryland  Yellow-throat 462 

128.  Head  of  Wilson's  Warbler 462 

129.  Head  of  Hooded  Warbler 462 

130.  Head  of  Canadian  Warbler 462 

131.  Head  of  Yellow-breasted  Chat 467 

132.  Head  of  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren '479 

133.  Head  of  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren 480 

134.  Head  of  Red-breasted  Nuthatch 484 

135.  Head  of  Tufted  Titmouse 486 

136.  Head  of  Golden-crowned  Kinglet 489 


A  HANDBOOK  *  OF   THE 
BIRDS  OF  EASTERN  NORTH  AMERICA 


INTRODUCTION 

WHY   WE    SHOULD  STUDY    BIRDS 

A   WORD   TO   THE    BEGINNER 

THE    STUDY   OF   BIRDS    IN    NATURE 


CHAPTER  I 
WHY  WE  SHOULD  STUDY  BIRDS 

Birds  occupy  a  fourfold  relation  to  man:  an  economic,  esthetic, 
what  may  be  termed  a  mythological  or  symbolic,  and  a  scientific  rela- 
tion. 

Birds  are  Nature's  most  potent  checks  upon  the  undue  increase 
of  noxious  insects  and  harmful  rodents;  they  devour  the  seeds  of  weeds 
and  act  as  scavengers.  The  more  we  learn  of  their  food  habits,  the 
greater  becomes  the  realization  of  our  indebtedness  to  them,  and 
economic  ornithologists  now  agree  that,  without  the  services  rendered 
by  birds,  the  ravages  of  the  animals  they  prey  upon  would  render  the 
earth  uninhabitable. 

Birds,  however,  not  only  make  life  upon  the  globe  possible,  but 
they  may  add  immeasurably  to  our  enjoyment  of  it.  Where  in  all 
animate  nature  shall  we  find  so  marvelous  a  combination  of  beauty 
of  form  and  color,  of  grace  and  power  of  motion,  of  musical  ability 
and  intelligence,  to  delight  our  eyes,  charm  our  ears  and  appeal  to 
our  imagination? 

To  the  birds'  mastery  of  the  air,  to  their  mysterious  appearances 
and  disappearances  occasioned  by  migration,  to  the  weird  or  peculiar 
character  of  their  notes,  as  well  as  to  their  human-like  characteristics, 
we  may  doubtless  attribute  the  influence  they  have  exerted  on  the  mind 
of  primitive  man.  This  is  shown  in  a  thousand  myths  and  legends 
investing  the  bird  with  supernatural  powers,  and  in  savage  art  and 
symbolism,  and  is  reflected  in  the  folk-lore  of  a  later  day.  It  is  not 
surprising,  therefore,  that  civilized  man  should  devote  especial  atten- 
tion to  creatures  possessed  of  such  unusual  interest,  studying  their 
origin  and  relationships,  their  distribution  in  time  and  space,  their 
migrations,  their  nesting  habits,  their  form  and  color,  and  all  the  details 

(1) 


2  WHY  WE  SHOULD  STUDY  BIRDS 

of  their  structure  and  life  which  go  to  make  up  the  science  of  ornithol- 
ogy. The  claimc  of  birds  to  our  attention  may  then  be  formally  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

Firct.  because,  as  the  natural  enemies  of  harmful  insects  and  rodents, 
as  destroyers  of  weed  seeds  and  as  scavengers,  birds  are  of  inestimable 
value  in  the  economics  of  nature. 

Second,  because  birds  are  sensitively  organized  creatures,  and 
respond  so  readily  to  the  influences  of  their  surroundings  that  in  their 
structure,  distribution,  migration  and  habits  they  furnish  naturalists 
with  numerous  and  important  clews  to  the  workings  of  natural  laws. 

Third,  because  birds,  more  effectively  than  any  other  forms  of 
life,  arouse  our  inborn  interest  in  animals,  not  only  through  their 
abundance  and  familiarity,  but  because  their  form,  color  and  power 
of  flight  stimulate  our  love  of  beauty  and  of  grace;  because  their 
songs  appeal  to  us  as  the  most  eloquent  of  nature's  voices;  because 
their  migrations  excite  our  wonder  and  continually  renew  our  interest 
in  the  bird-life  of  the  same  locality,  and  because  the  human-like  traits 
displayed  during  their  nesting  season  emphasize  our  kinship  with  them. 
Hence  it  follows  that  birds,  more  than  any  other  animals,  may  serve 
as  bonds  between  man  and  nature, 


CHAPTER  II 

A   WORD  TO   THE  BEGINNER 

FINDING  AND  NAMING  BIRDS 
THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  FIELD  STUDENT 
COLLECTING  BIRDS,  THEIR  NESTS  AND  EGGS 
AMERICAN  ORNITHOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES 
CURRENT  ORNITHOLOGICAL  MAGAZINES 

FINDING  AND  NAMING  BIRDS 

i 

How  to  Find  Birds 
How  to  Identify  Birds 
How  Birds  Are  Named 

How  to  Find  Birds.— The  best  times  of  the  day  in  which  to  look 
for  birds  are  early  morning  and  late  afternoon.  After  a  night  of  fast- 
ing and  resting,  birds  are  active  and  hungry.  When  their  appetites 
are  satisfied,  they  may  rest  quietly  until  hunger  again  sends  them  forth 
in  search  of  food. 

Experience  will  soon  show  you  where  birds  are  most  abundant. 
The  more  varied  the  nature  of  the  country  the  greater  number  of 
species  you  may  expect  to  find  inhabiting  it.  An  ideal  locality  would 
be  a  bit  of  tree-dotted  meadow  with  a  reed-bordered  pond  or  stream, 
surrounded  by  woods,  rolling  uplands  and  orchards. 

Common  sense  will  tell  you  how  to  act  in  the  field.  Birds  are  gen- 
erally shy  creatures  and  must  be  approached  with  caution.  You  must 
not,  therefore,  go  observing  or  collecting  dressed  in  flaming  red,  but 
in  some  inconspicuous  garb  and  as  quietly  as  a  cat.  Furthermore,  go 
alone  and  keep  the  sun  at  your  back — two  apparently  unrelated  but 
equally  important  bits  of  advice. 

The  naturalist  generally  has  the  instincts  of  the  hunter,  and  prac- 
tice will  develop  them.  The  'squeak'  is  one  of  his  most  valuable  aids. 
It  is  made  by  placing  the  lips  to  the  back  of  the  hand  or  finger  and  kiss- 
ing vigorously.  The  sound  produced  bears  some  resemblance  to  the 
cries  of  a  wounded  or  young  bird.  In  the  nesting  season  its  utterance 
frequently  creates  much  excitement  in  the  bird-world,  and  at  all  times 
it  is  useful  as  a  means  of  drawing  bush-  or  reed-haunting  species  from 
their  retreats.  One  may  enter  an  apparently  deserted  thicket,  and, 
after  a  few  minutes'  squeaking,  find  himself  surrounded  by  an  anxious 
or  curious  group  of  its  feathered  inhabitants. 

The  observer  of  birds  will  find  that  by  far  the  best  way  to  study 

3  (3) 


4  HOW   TO   IDENTIFY   BIRDS 

their  habits  is  to  take  a  sheltered  seat  in  some  favored  locality  and 
become  a  part  of  the  background.  Your  passage  through  the  woods 
is  generally  attended  by  sufficient  noise  to  warn  birds  of  your  coming 
long  before  you  see  them.  They  are  then  suspicious  and  ill  at  ease, 
but  secrete  yourself  near  some  spot  loved  by  birds,  and  it  may  be  your 
privilege  to  learn  the  secrets  of  the  forest.  In  this  connection  I  cannot 
too  highly  recommend  the  observation  blind  described  beyond.  Ade- 
quate natural  cover  cannot  always  be  found  and  at  best,  rarely  permits 
of  much  freedom  of  movement.  In  it,  one  therefore  becomes  so  cramped 
and  tired  that  what  should  be  a  pleasure  becomes  hard  labor.  Where- 
as, I  have  passed  as  much  as  eight  consecutive  hours  in  a  blind  without 
undue  fatigue;  and,  it  may  be  added  that,  although  I  was  in  an  open 
field  only  twenty  feet  from  a  Meadowlark's  nest,  the  birds  had  not 
the  slightest  suspicion  of  my  proximity.* 

How  to  Identify  Birds. — Whether  your  object  be  to  study  birds  as  a 
scientist  or  simply  as  a  lover  of  Nature,  the  first  step  is  the  same — you 
must  learn  to  know  them.  This  problem  of  identification  has  been 
given  up  in  despair  by  many  would-be  ornithologists.  We  can  neither 
pick,  press,  net,  nor  impale  birds;  and  here  the  botanist  and  the  ento- 
mologist have  a  distinct  advantage.  Even  if  we  have  the  desire  to 
resort  to  a  gun,  its  use  is  not  always  possible.  But  with  patience  and 
practice  the  identification  of  birds  is  comparatively  an  easy  matter, 
and  in  the  end  you  will  name  them  with  surprising  ease  and  certainty. 
There  is  generally  more  character  in  the  flight  of  a  bird  than  there  is 
in  the  gait  of  a  man.  Both  are  frequently  indescribable  but  perfectly 
diagnostic,  and  you  learn  to  recognize  bird  friends  as  you  do  human 
ones — by  experience. 

If  you  confine  your  studies  to  one  locality,  probably  not  more  than 
one-third  of  the  species  described  in  this  volume  will  come  within  the 
field  of  your  observation.  To  aid  you  in  learning  which  species  should 
be  included  in  this  third,  the  paragraphs  on  Range  are  followed  by  a 
statement  of  the  bird's  standing  at  several  localities  distributed  through- 
out the  Eastern  United  States.  Take  the  list  of  birds  from  the  point 
nearest  your  home  as  an  index  of  those  you  may  expect  to  find.  This 
may  be  abridged  for  a  given  season  by  considering  the  times  of  the 
year  at  which  a  bird  is  present.  Often  you  can  secure  a  published  list 
of  the  birds  of  your  state,  county,  or  immediate  vicinity,  and  publica- 
tions of  this  nature  are  of  such  exceptional  value  and  interest  to  the 
local  student  that  a  list  of  the  more  important  ones  has  been  prepared 
as  an  appendix  to  this  edition  of  the  "Handbook." 

After  this  slight  preparation,  you  may  take  to  the  field  with  a  much 
clearer  understanding  of  the  situation.  Two  quite  different  ways  of 
identifying  birds  are  open  to  you.  Either  you  may  shoot  them,  or  study 
them  through  a  field-  or  opera-glass.  (See  beyond,  under  Collecting.) 
A  bird  in  the  hand  is  a  definite  object  whose  structure  and  color  can  be 
studied  to  such  advantage  that  in  most  cases  you  will  afterward  recog- 

*See  "Camps  and  Cruises,"  pp.  15-19. 


HOW  BIRDS  ARE  NAMED  5 

nize  it  at  sight.  After  learning  the  names  of  its  parts,  its  identity  is 
simply  a  question  of  keys  and  descriptions. 

If  you  would  "name  the  birds  without  a  gun,"  by  all  means  first 
visit  a  museum,  and,  with  text-book  in  hand,  study  those  species 
which  you  have  previously  found  are  to  be  looked  for  near  your  home. 
This  preliminary  introduction  will  serve  to  ripen  your  acquaintance  in 
the  field.  A  good  field-  or  opera-glass  is  absolutely  indispensable.  (See 
beyond,  under  Equipment.)  Study  your  bird  as  closely  as  circumstances 
will  permit,  and  write,  on  the  spot,  a  comparative  description  of  its  size, 
the  shape  of  its  bill,  tail,  etc.,  and  a  detailed  description  of  its  colors. 
In  describing  form,  take  a  Robin,  Chipping  Sparrow,  or  any  bird  you 
know,  which  best  serves  the  purpose,  as  a  basis  for  comparison.  A 
bird's  bill  is  generally  its  most  diagnostic  external  character.  A  sketch 
of  it  in  your  note-book  will  frequently  give  you  a  good  clue  to  its  owner's 
family.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  descriptions  and  sketches 
should  be  made  in  the  field.  Not  only  do  our  memories  sometimes 
deceive  us,  but  we  really  see  nothing  with  exactness  until  we  attempt 
to  describe  it.  Haunts,  actions,  and  notes  should  also  be  carefully 
recorded. 

Even  better  than  a  description  is  a  figure  colored  with  crayons  or 
water-colors.  It  may  be  the  crudest  outline  and  in  ridiculous  pose,  but  at 
least  it  is  definite.  There  is  no  possibility  of  error  through  the  wrong 
use  of  terms;  the  observer  draws  or  charts  what  he  sees.  Neither  art 
nor  skill  is  required.  Anyone  can  learn  to  make  the  outline  of  the 
normal  bird  figure  as  readily  as  he  can  learn  to  make  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  a  little  practice  will  enable  one  to  give  the  shape  of  bill, 
wings  and  tail,  and  even  a  hint  of  characteristic  form  and  position. 
Typical,  passerine  outline  figures  may  be  made  in  advance  in  one's 
field  note-book,  and  the  shape  of  the  bill  and  color  may  be  added  while 
the  bird  is  under  observation.  A  collection  of  diagrams  or  sketches  of 
this  kind  will  be  found  to  possess  far  greater  individuality  and  value 
than  mere  written  descriptions.  If  the  sketch  cannot  be  completed,  if 
essential  details  are  lacking,  it  is  obvious  that  the  subject  has  not  been 
seen  with  that  definiteness  upon  which  satisfactory  field  identification 
should  rest.  With  this  description  or  sketch  you  may  now  proceed  to 
use  the  'Keys'  as  explained  on  an  earlier  page. 

How  Birds  Are  Named. — Nine  years  have  passed  since  an  actually 
new  species  of  bird  was  discovered  in  North  America,  while  no  new 
eastern  North  American  bird  has  been  found  for  twenty-five  years.  It 
is  extremely  doubtful,  therefore,  if  from  our  Mexican  boundary  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean  there  remains  a  single  unknown  species  of  bird.  Of  geo- 
graphical races,  or  climatic  varieties  or  subspecies,  a  gradually  decreas- 
ing number  will  be  described  from  at  least  western  North  America 
for  years  to  come,  but  in  eastern  North  America  we  have  practically 
reached,  if  indeed  we  have  not  passed,  the  point  where  such  forms  may 
be  profitably  named. 

The  bird  student  in  this  area  may  be  reasonably  certain,  therefore, 


6  HOW  BIRDS  ARE  NAMED 

that  every  bird  he  sees  has  a  name,  and  in  the  preceding  section  having 
suggested  ways  in  which  this  name  may  be  learned,  the  somewhat 
obscure  details  of  nomenclature  may  be  made  clearer  by  explaining 
how  the  bird  got  it.  In  doing  so  I  draw  freely  from  a  similar  effort  in 
the  "Color  Key  to  North  American  Birds." 

Birds  have  two  kinds  of  names.  One  is  a  common,  vernacular  or 
popular  name;  the  other  is  a  technical  or  scientific  name.  The  first 
is  usually  given  to  the  living  bird  by  the  people  of  the  country  it  in- 
habits. The  second  is  applied  to  specimens  of  birds  by  ornithologists 
who  classify  them.  Common  names  in  their  origin  and  use  know  no 
law.  Technical  names  are  bestowed  under  the  system  of  binomial 
nomenclature  established  by  Linnaeus  in  1758,  and  their  formation 
and  adoption  are  governed  by  certain  definite,  generally  accepted  rules. 
The  Linngean  system,  as  it  is  now  employed  by  most  ornithologists, 
provides  that  a  bird,  in  addition  to  being  grouped  in  a  certain  Order, 
Family,  etc.,  shall  have  a  generic,  a  specific,  and,  often,  a  subspecific 
name  which,  together,  shall  not  be  applied  to  any  other  animal. 

Generally  speaking,  Orders  and  Families  are  based  on  skeletal, 
muscular,  and  visceral,  "or  what  may  be  termed  internal  characters; 
while  genera  are  based  on  the  form  of  bill,  wings,  feet  and  tail,  and 
sometimes  on  pattern  of  markings,  and  species  and  subspecies  on  color 
and  size,  or  external  characters.  Thus,  all  the  members  of  an  Order 
agree  in  major  internal  characters;  those  of  a  Family  further  agree  in 
minor  internal  characters;  those  of  a  Genus,  in  addition,  resemble  one 
another  in  external  characters,  while  species  and  subspecies  differ  only 
in  color  and  in  size. 

Frequently  it  happens  that  a  bird  may  possess  some  of  the  char- 
acters of  one  group  in  connection  with  some  of  the  characters  of  another 
group,  and  such  birds,  collectively,  create  intergrading  groups  known 
as  Suborders,  Subfamilies,  Subgenera,  or  Subspecies.  With  the  last, 
the  student  is  especially  concerned  since  they  figure  in  the  name  by 
which  a  bird  is  known. 

In  pre-Darwinian  days  it  was  generally  believed  that  a  species  was 
a  distinct  creation  whose  characters  did  not  vary  from  a  certain  type. 
But  in  later  years  comparison  of  many  specimens  of  a  species  from 
throughout  the  region  it  inhabits,  shows  that  specimens  from  one  part 
of  a  bird's  range  may  differ  in  size  and  color,  or  both,  from  those  taken 
in  another  part  of  its  range.  At  intervening  localities,  however,  inter- 
mediate specimens  will  be  found  connecting  the  extremes.  (See  beyond, 
under  Color  and  Climate.). 

Variations  of  this  kind  are  termed  geographic,  racial  or  subspecific 
and  the  birds  exhibiting  them  are  known  as  subspecies.  In  naming 
them,  a  third  name,  or  trinomial  is  employed,  and  the  possession  of 
such  a  name  indicates,  at  once,  that  the  bird  is  a  geographic  or  racial 
representative  of  a  species  with  one  or  more  representatives  of  which 
it  intergrades. 

In  illustration  let  us  now  trace  the  history  of  a  trinominal  designa- 


HOW  BIRDS  ARE  NAMED  7 

tion;  for  example,  that  of  our  Robin,  Planesticus  migratorius  migra- 
torius (Linn.).  The  first  account  of  this  bird  appears  in  Catesby  (1731) 
and  it  was  later  classified  by  Linnaeus  in  the  twelfth  edition  (1766)  of  his 
epoch-making  "Systema  Naturae"  as  Turdus  migratorius.  By  this  name 
the  Robin  or  'Migratory  Thrush'  was  known  for  over  one  hundred 
years,  when  that  finer  discrimination,  which  has  increasingly  character- 
ized systematic  ornithology,  showed  that  the  genus  Turdus  of  Lin- 
naeus contained  species  which,  in  the  light  of  this  more  modern  view, 
were  generically  separable.  The  type  of  the  genus  having  been  deter- 
mined to  be  Turdus  viscivorus  Linn.,  the  Mistle  Thrush  of  Europe, 
the  name  Turdus  was  restricted  to  that  bird  and  its  congeneric  allies, 
and  the  genus  Merula  of  Leach  was  accepted  for  our  Robin  and  the 
species  with  which  it  is  generically  related.  The  bird's  name  then  became 
Merula  migratoria  (Linn.),  the  termination  of  the  specific  name  being 
changed  from  us  to  a  in  order  that  it  might  conform  to  the  gender  of 
the  generic  name  with  which  it  was  associated;  and  the  parentheses 
enclosing  the  abbreviation  for  the  name  of  Linnaeus,  indicating  that 
while  Linnaeus  described  the  species  migratoria,  he  did  not  place  it  in 
the  genus  Merula. 

Now,  by  one  of  those  unfortunate  coincidences  which  have  done  so 
much  to  create  confusion  in  zoological  nomenclature,  it  was  discovered, 
in  1907,  that  the  generic  name  Merula  of  Leach  was  'preoccupied'  by 
the  Merula  of  Koch,  proposed  by  the  latter  for  a  genus  of  Starlings,  and, 
under  the  ruling  of  the  'Law  of  Priority,'  the  name  Merula  could  there- 
fore no  longer  be  applied  to  the  Robin  and  its  congeners,  and  the  next 
available  name  proved  to  be  Planesticus  of  Bonaparte.  There  the  case 
stands,  though  it  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  in  some  obscure  pub- 
lication Planesticus  itself  may  be  found  to  be  preoccupied  or  perhaps 
antedated  by  some  other  name  proposed  before  that  of  Bonaparte. 
Such  cases,  however,  are  the  inevitable  result  of  the  rigid  enforcement 
of  now  universally  accepted  laws  of  zoological  nomenclature,  which, 
if  they  had  been  in  existence  and  observed  from  the  time  of  Linnaeus, 
would  have  prevented  these  seemingly  unnecessary  changes  in  the 
technical  names  of  animals.  Each  change,  however,  means  the  discovery 
of  an  error,  and  brings  us  nearer  to  that  stability  in  names  which  some 
day  we-  shall  unquestionably  reach. 

So  much  for  the  Robin's  generic  designation.  Passing  now  to  its 
specific  name,  migratorius,  which  being  again  associated  with  a  masculine 
generic  name  resumes  its  original  termination  of  us,  this  name  was 
applied  to  the  bird  throughout  its  entire  North  American  range  until 
1877,  when  Ridgway  proposed  the  name  propinquus  for  the  Robin  of 
western  North  America  on  the  ground  that  in  this  race  the  outer  tail- 
feather  had  little  or  no  white,  and  on  other  characters,  and  this  western 
bird,  after  sharing  the  various  generic  experiences  of  our  eastern  form, 
is  now  known  as  Planesticus  migratorius  propinquus  (Ridgw.). 

After  the  recognition  of  a  western  race  of  the  Robin  under  a  trino- 
mial name,  it  would  be  obviously  inconsistent  to  apply  a  binomial  to 


8  HOW  BIRDS  ARE  NAMED 

our  eastern  bird,  the  former  being  no  more  a  subspecies,  of  the  latter, 
than  the  latter  is  of  the  former.  In  other  words,  to  continue  to  apply 
only  generic  and  specific  names  to  the  Eastern  Robin  would  imply  that 
it  was  a  species,  while  the  use  of  a  trinomial  for  the  Western  Robin 
would  imply  that  it  was  a  subspecies.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  know  that 
there  is  but  one  species  of  true  Robin  in  North  America,  consequently, 
in  accordance  with  the  logical  and  now  generally  accepted  method, 
we  apply  to  that  species  the  name  Planesticus  migratorius,  and  this  is 
equally  applicable  to  Robins  from  the  West  and  from  the  East.  The 
eastern  subspecies  is,  therefore,  known  by  the  trinomial  Planesticus 
migratorius  migratorius,  the  western  subspecies  by  the  exact  nomencla- 
tural  equivalent,  Planesticus  migratorius  propinquus,  and  the  more 
recently  described  small,  pale  Southern  Robin,  as  Planesticus  migra- 
torius achrusterus.  Thus  we  have  one  Robin  which  is  represented  by 
three  subspecies.  It  may  be  asked,  why  give  names  to  these  geograph- 
ical races?  Why  not  call  Eastern,  Western  and  Southern  Robins  by 
one  name  without  regard  to  their  climatic  variations?  To  which  it 
may  be  replied,  that  subspecies  often  differ  more  from  each  other  than 
do  species.  For  example,  it  would  clearly  be  inadvisable  to  apply  the 
same  name  to  the  small,  pale  Song  Sparrow  of  Arizona,  and  the  large 
dark  Song  Sparrow  of  Alaska.  (See  figures  beyond.)  Seen  without 
the  connecting  forms  from  the  intervening  regions  and  they  apparently 
are  specifically  distinct,  but  the  application  to  each  of  a  subspecific 
name,  or  trinomial,  not  only  indicates  that  they  are  different,  but  it 
shows  also  that  they  are  representative  forms  which  are  joined  by  a 
series  of  intergrades;  a  contribution  of  the  first  importance  to  the  study 
of  evolution. 

For  much  the  same  reason,  we  should  recognize  by  name  those 
birds,  which,  like  the  Robin,  show  less  pronounced  climatic  variations. 
Here  we  have  species  in  the  earliest  stages  of  development  from  a 
common  ancestor,  and  in  naming  them  we  are,  in  effect,  giving  'a  handle 
to  the  fact'  of  their  evolution  by  environment.  The  study  of  the  distri- 
bution and  migration  of  birds  and  the  mapping  of  natural  life-areas  are 
also  intimately  connected  with  this  recognition  by  name  of  geographical 
variations. 

Since  it  is  evident  that  a  species  may  vary  much  or  little  according 
to  the  extent  of  its  range,  the  governing  conditions,  and  its  tendency 
to  respond  to  them,  no  fixed  rule  can  be  drawn  which  shall  state  just 
what  degrees  of  difference  are  deserving  a  name.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  in  some  cases  ornithologists  do  not  agree  upon  the  validity  of  a 
bird's  claims  to  subspecific  rank.* 

In  North  America,  however,  questions  of  this  kind  are  referred  to 
a  Committee  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union,  and  its  decisions 
establish  a  nomenclature  which  is  accepted  as  the  standard  by  other 
American  ornithologists  and  which  is  adopted  in  this  volume. 

Finally,  the  student  should  be  warned  not  to  permit  this  matter  of 

*See  Allen.  Auk,  1890,  pp.  1-9. 


EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  FIELD  STUDENT         9 

names  to  have  an  undue  significance.  A  species  is  not  an  entity  or 
distinct  creation,  but  merely  one  link  in  the  chain  of  bird-life,  which, 
because  of  the  loss  of  the  adjoining  link  or  links,  appears  to  stand  by 
itself.  Nor  should  he  allow  himself  to  think  of  a  subspecies  as  materially 
different  from  the  species  which  it  represents,  simply  because  it  has 
received  a  distinctive  name.  Nomenclature  gives  undue  emphasis 
to  differences,  whereas,  it  is  equally  important  to  emphasize  resem- 
blances. 

THE  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  FIELD  STUDENT 

The  Glass 

Note-books  and  Journals 
The  Observation  Blind 
Photographic  Outfit 
Collector's  Outfit 

Glass. — A  good  field-glass  is  necessary,  not  alone  as  an  aid  in  identify- 
ing birds,  but  in  observing  their  actions.  When  one  is  working  in  fields 
and  woods  where  the  birds  are  comparatively  near,  a  low-power  glass 
with  good  illumination  can  be  used  more  quickly  and  to  better  advantage 
than  the  higher-power  glasses  which  require  more  frequent  adjustment 
of  focus,  with  consequent  loss  of  time.  But  on  the  shore,  or  over  the 
water,  where  birds  are  seen  at  great  distances  and  where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  light,  the  high-power  glasses  are  much  more  serviceable. 
There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  the  magnification  which  can  be  used 
effectively;  the  8-power  prism  binocular  of  any  one  of  half-a-dozen 
makes  proving,  in  practice,  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  bird  student's 
needs.  Beyond  this  power,  the  increased  precision  required  in  focussing, 
and  the  need  for  greater  steadiness  when  in  use,  do  not  compensate 
one  for  the  larger  size  of  the  image  it  is  possible  to  obtain.  For  a  low- 
power  glass  I  know  of  none  better  than  the  Lemaire  pocket  field-glass, 
which  has  a  magnification  of  about  four  diameters. 

Note-Books  and  Journals. — The  necessity  for  a  well-kept  journal 
and  full  field-notes  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged.  Specimens  may  be 
duplicated,  but  no  one  can  ever  see  with  your  eyes.  Do  not  trust  your 
memory — a  willing  servant  too  frequently  imposed  on.  It  may  receive 
and  retain  one  impression  clearly,  but  as  others  are  added  the  earlier 
ones  lose  their  distinctness  or  become  entirely  effaced. 

The  system  adopted  for  recording  notes  should  be  simple  to  keep 
and  easy  of  reference.  In  the  field,  I  use  a  pocket  note-book  arranged 
to  hold  perforated  leaves.  In  such  a  book  one  enters  descriptions  of 
birds'  appearance  and  of  their  calls  and  song,  and  other  memoranda 
which  it  is  desired  to  commit  at  once  to  writing.  No  leaf  should  contain 
notes  relating  to  more  than  one  species,  and  the  leaves,  properly  headed, 
may  then  be  filed  for  reference,  either  alphabetically,  or  according  to 
the  classification  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union. 


10 


NOTE-BOOKS  AND  JOURNALS 


For  a  journal  I  use  a  college  lecture  note-book,  also  arranged  to 
hold  perforated  loose  leaves,  which  measure  6J  by  8J  inches.  The  first 
half-dozen  leaves  (others  can  be  inserted  when  needed)  should  be 
ruled  in  small  squares,  leaving  a  space  wide  enough  to  enter  birds' 
names  at  the  left-hand  page,  with  only  horizontal  lines.  A  portion  of 
such  a  page  is  appended: 


Date    

Locality  

Weather  

Temperature  

Wind  

Start   

Return    

Remarks    

Bluebird  

After  returning  from  the  field,  I  enter  on  these  roll-call  sheets  a 
record  of  weather,  temperature,  direction  and  force  of  the  wind,  route, 
time  of  starting  and  returning  and  incidental  observations  on  the 
blooming  of  flowers,  appearance  of  certain  insects,  calling  of  frogs,  etc. 

After  filling  in  these  preliminary  data,  I  write  after  the  name  of 
each  bird  either  the  exact  or  approximate  number  of  individuals  seen, 
or  else  the  letters  "A.,"  "C.,"-or  "T.C.,"  meaning  abundant,  common, 
or  tolerably  common.  This  is  accompanied  by  an  "s"  if  the  bird  is  in 
song,  or  "calls"  if  it  is  simply  heard  calling.  The  possibilities  of  abbre- 
viation are  unlimited,  but  use  no  abbreviation  which  is  not  fully 


THE   OBSERVATION   BLIND 


11 


explained.  If  you  wish  to  make  a  record  of  some  length  concerning  a 
certain  species,  place  a  cross  or  asterisk  in  its  square.  This  refers  to 
your  journal  of  the  same  date  which  is  entered  on  the  horizontally 
ruled  sheets  following  those  used  for  the  roll-call. 

Read  from  left  to  right,  such  a  roll-call  gives  in  a  graphic,  condensed 
form  the  standing  of  a  species  during  the  period  of  observation.  Read 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  page,  it  gives,  in  an  easily  comparable 
way,  the  complete  record  of  each  day,  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  becomes 
an  index  to  the  bird-notes  in  the  journal,  which  follows. 

To  prevent  needlessly  multiplying  these  roll-call  sheets,  the  series 
of  birds'  names  should  be  made  to  last  at  least  during  an  entire  season. 
To  this  end  do  not  completely  fill  the  right-hand  page,  but  when  you 
have  used  all  of  it  but  a  space  equal  in  width  to  the  space  occupied  by 
the  column  of  birds'  names  on  the  left  side  of  the  left  page,  cut  this 
part  of  the  page — the  extreme  right — off;  the  part  remaining  will, 
when  turned  over  to  the  left,  just  meet  the  column  of  names,  and  the 
lines  of  this  column  and  of  the  new  page  will  thus  run  continuously.  As 
before  remarked,  the  roll-book  should  be  attended  to  immediately  on 
returning  from  the  field,  while  your  impressions  are  fresh.  The  journal 
may  if  necessary  wait,  when  a  reference  to  the  roll-call  will  aid  in 
recalling  the  day's  experiences.  Only 
one  cover,  with  clasps  for  the  reten- 
tion of  the  perforated  sheets,  will  be 
needed,  and  at  the  end  of  a  trip  or 
season  the  sheets  may  be  removed  and 
bound.  This  is  essentially  the  method 
of  note-keeping  described  in  the  first 
edition  of  the  "Handbook"  and  which, 
after  seventeen  years'  additional  use, 
I  still  unreservedly  recommend. 

The  Observation  Blind. — The  ob- 
servation blind  which,  during  the  past 
ten  years,  has  met  the  demands  of 
many  and  varied  situations,  is  in  brief 
an  umbrella  opened  within  a  bag 
long  enough  to  conceal  one.  It  is 
described  in  my  "Camps  and  Cruises 
of  an  Ornithologist"  (p.  xiii)  as 
follows : 

"The  umbrella  employed  in  mak- 
ing an  observation  blind  is  known  to 
the  trade  as  a  'sign'  umbrella.  It 
agrees  with  the  normal  variety  in  size 
but  differs  from  it  in  having  a  large 
hole  in  the  center.  This  permits  a 
current  of  air  to  pass  through  the 

ur    j  f    ,1       r-     L    •  FIG.  3.  The  umbrella  and  supporting 

blind — a  matter  of  the  first  import-  rods  of  the  umbrella  blind. 


12  THE   OBSERVATION  BLIND 

ance  when  one  spends  hours  in  the  little  structure  on  beach  or  marsh, 
where  it  is  fully  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  'stick'  of  this  umbrella  is  a 
metal  tube  without  the  usual  wooden  handle. 

"The  umbrella  is  supported  by  two  brass  tubes  each  of  the  same 
length  as  the  umbrella,  or  thirty-two  inches.  The  larger  is  shod  with 
a  steel  point,  by  the  insertion  of  a  small  cold  chisel  or  nail-punch, 
which  is  brazed  in  position.  The  rod  can  then  be  readily  driven  into 
the  ground.  At  the  upper  end  a  thumb-screw  is  placed.  The  smaller 
tube  should  enter  the  larger  snugly,  and  should  in  turn  be  just  large 
enough  to  receive  the  umbrella-rod  which  will  enter  it  as  far  as  the 
spring  "catch."  The  height  of  the  umbrella  may,  therefore,  be  governed 
by  the  play  of  the  smaller  tube  in  the  larger,  while  the  thumb-screw 
will  permit  one  to  maintain  any  desired  adjustment;  as  one  would  fix 
the  height  of  a  music  rack. 

"If  the  blind  is  to  be  used  about  home,  a  light  denim  may  be  em- 
ployed; if  it  is  to  see  the  harder  service  of  travel  and  camp-life,  a  heavier 
grade  of  the  same  material  will  be  found  more  serviceable.  In  the  former 
case  the  denim  may  be  sewed  to  the  edge  of  the  umbrella,  which  then 
has  only  to  be  opened  and  placed  in  the  brass  tube,  the  latter  have  been 
thrust  into  the  ground,  when  the  blind  is  erected;  an  operation  requiring 
less  than  a  minute. 

"When  traveling,  it  seems  more  desirable  not  to  attach  the  walls 
of  the  blind  to  the  umbrella.  The  covering  then  consists  of  several 
strips  of  material  sewed  together  to  make  a  piece  measuring  ten  and 
a  half  feet  wide  by  six  and  a  half  feet  high.  The  two  ends  of  this  piece 
are  sewed  together  at  what  then  becomes  the  top  of  the  blind,  for  about 
two  feet.  The  unjoined  portion  below  becomes  the  door  of  the  blind. 
Openings  should  be  cut  in  the  opposite  side  for  the  lens  and  for  obser- 
vation. A  strong  draw  cord  is  then  run  about  the  top  edge  of  the  cloth, 
so  that,  before  inserting  and  opening  the  umbrella,  one  can  draw  it 
up  as  one  would  the  neck  of  a  bag,  until  the  opening  corresponds  in 
size  to  that  of  the  umbrella.  The  draw  cord  should  be  long  enough 
to  serve  as  a  guy  or  stay.  This  covering  places  less  strain  on  the  umbrella 
and  may  be  packed  in  smaller  space  than  one  which  is  sewed  to  the 
umbrella,  and,  when  in  camp,  it  may  be  used  to  sleep  on,  as  a  covering, 
as  a  shelter  tent  or  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

"The  color  of  the  umbrella  should  be  leaf-green.  The  covering  should 
be  sand-  or  earth-colored  and  should  be  dyed  leaf-green  on  its  upper 
third  whence  it  should  gradually  fade  to  the  original  cloth  color  at 
about  the  center.  Such  a  color  scheme  conforms  to  Abbott  Thayer's 
law  that  animals  are  darkest  where  they  receive  the  most  light,  and 
palest  where  they  are  most  in  shadow;  and  renders  the  blind  much 
less  conspicuous  than  if  it  were  uniformly  green  or  gray.  It  is  not  amiss 
to  run  belts  of  braid  about  the  covering,  sewing  them  to  it  at  intervals 
and  thus  forming  loops  in  which,  when  desired,  reeds  or  branches  may 
be  thrust. 

"In  erecting  the  blind,  if  circumstances  permit,  it  is  desirable  to 


PHOTOGRAPHIC   OUTFIT  13 

place  the  'door'  toward  the  wind  to  insure  better  ventilation.  When 
the  situation  is  exposed,  an  additional  stay  or  two  may  be  required. 
If  the  camera  box  is  not  strong  enough  to  sit  on,  a  collapsible,  artist's 
camp-stool  should  be  added  to  the  outfit.  One  cannot  spend  half  a 
day  in  such  close  quarters  and  observe  and  record  to  advantage  unless 
one  is  comfortably  seated." 

Photographic  Outfit. — The  camera  has  unquestionably  won  its 
place  as  the  most  important  item  in  the  field  student's  outfit;  not  merely 
because  it  enables  one  to  record  facts  in  a  graphic,  communicable  form, 
but  also  because  it  supplies  an  incentive  for  definitely  directed  study, 
by  satisfying  the  hunting  instinct  and  gratifying  the  desire  for  some 
tangible  return  for  effort  expended.  Photographs  can  be  made  not 
alone  of  birds,  their  nests  and  eggs,  but  of  haunts  and  of  vegetation, 
showing  its  condition  at  certain  dates  as  it  develops  in  the  spring  or 
dies  in  the  autumn. 

The  naturalist  photographer  should  seek  the  advice  and  instruc- 
tion of  some  one  with  experience;  or,  when  this  is  not  possible,  the 
books  on  the  subject  should  be  consulted.  Much  may  be  done  in  the 
study  of  nest-life  with  a  camera  and  lens  costing  between  thirty  and 
forty  dollars.  Select  a  strong,  not  too  light,  4x5  camera,  having  a 
bellows-length  of  not  less  than  16  inches  and  fitted  with  a  trade  shutter; 
and  a  lens  of  about  7-inch  focus,  convertible  in  type,  in  order  that 
either  the  front  or  rear  half  of  the  lens  can  be  used  alone,  giving  an 
image  about  double  the  size  of  that  produced  by  both  combined. 

Such  a  camera  should  be  used  from  a  tripod,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  of  light  and  time  it  will  do  excellent  work.  It  cannot  be 
employed  to  photograph  flying  birds  or  to  do  many  other  things  which 
require  the  most  rapid  lenses  and  special  apparatus;  but,  from  a  blind, 
with  the  nest,  food,  or  decoys  to  act  as  a  lure,  bringing  birds  within 
range,  one  may  secure  an  endless  number  of  valuable  and  interesting 
photographic  records  of  bird-life. 

By  using  one  of  the  modern,  very  rapid  multi-speed,  lens-shutters 
and  guessing  at  the  focus,  such  a  camera  may  be  used  in  photographing 
birds  in  flight;  but  the  best  results  are  attained  in  this  somewhat  diffi- 
cult field  with  a  reflecting  camera  of  the  'Graflex'  type,  equipped  with 
a  focal-plane  shutter.  Satisfactory  flight  photographs,  at  close  range, 
require  an  exposure  of  not  more  than  -&^o  part  of  a  second.  This 
necessitates  the  use  of  a  high-class,  rapid  lens  and  the  outfit  becomes 
too  costly  to  be  within  the  reach  of  many.  However,  except  under 
the  conditions  which  sometimes  prevail  in  large  bird  rookeries,  one 
can  do  far  more  and  better  work  from  a  blind  with  inexpensive 
apparatus,  than  with  a  high-priced  hand-camera  in  the  open,  while 
the  notes  on  birds'  habits  obtained  from  the  blind  are  incomparably 
more  valuable. 

Telephoto  lenses  require  too  great  care  in  focusing,  and  too  much 
time  when  exposing,  to  be  of  much  service  in  bird  photography.  Nor 
jndeed  is  it  desirable  to  have  a  lens  which  too  greatly  increases  the 


14  THE   COLLECTOR'S  OUTFIT 

distance  from  one's  subject.  We  are  not  out  merely  to  get  birds'  pic- 
tures, but  to  record  their  habits  with  a  camera,  and  the  nearer  we  can 
get  to  the  bird  without  disturbing  it,  the  better  we  can  accomplish 
our  object. 

The  Collector's  Outfit. — Individual  preference  will  always  play  a 
part  in  the  selection  of  a  gun.  My  own  choice  for  general  collecting 
is  a  16-bore  equipped  with  a  0.32  auxiliary  barrel.  In  general  collecting 
in  a  more  or  less  wooded  region,  fully  80  per  cent  of  your  shots  will  be 
fired  from  the  auxiliary — or  'aux'  as  it  is  commonly  termed — while 
there  will  be  but  few  occasions  in  the  remaining  20  per  cent  when  the 
16-bore,  if  properly  held  (!)  will  permit  a  specimen  to  escape. 

Crude  but  effective  auxiliary  barrels  may  be  made  with  a  16- 
gauge  brass  shell  and  a  brass  tube  about  ten  inches  long  and  having  an 
opening  the  diameter  of  a  0.32  Ideal  shell.  Enlarge  the  cap-opening  of 
the  16-gauge  shell  until  it  will  exactly  receive  the  brass  tube;  stand 
the  shell  on  a  level  surface  squarely  on  its  base,  place  the  tube  upright 
in  it  with  its  end  in  the  enlarged  cap-hole  and  flush  with  the  base  of 
the  shell;  now,  using  extreme  care  to  have  the  tube  exactly  in  the 
center  of  the  shell,  'fill  the  shell  about  the  sides  of  the  tube  with  molten 
lead.  When  it  has  cooled,  counter-sink  a  shoulder  in  the  base  of  the 
tube  of  sufficient  size  and  depth  to  receive  the  rim  of  the  0.32  shell, 
file  a  narrow  slot  to  enable  one  to  remove  with  an  awl  or  properly 
sharpened  nail  the  exploded  shell,  and  your  'aux'  is  made. 

A  gunsmith  could  do  a  better  job  and  give  you  a  barrel  with  an 
extractor  which  will  work  automatically  with  that  of  your  gun,  and 
such  barrels  may  sometimes  be  purchased  from  natural  history  dealers; 
but  the  one  I  have  described  can  be  made  by  any  one  and  will  answer 
every  purpose.  In  any  event,  test  your  'aux'  thoroughly  until  you 
have  learned  its  range  and  what  load  will  give  the  best  pattern  and 
penetration.  I  use  about  three-fifths  fine  smokeless  powder  with  a  card- 
board and  felt  or  leather  wad,  and  two-fifths  shot  with  a  cardboard 
wad.  In  loading  a  large  number  of  shells  for  a  prolonged  collecting 
trip,  the  wad  over  the  shot  may  be  dipped  lightly  in  liquid  paraffine, 
which,  in  hardening,  will  tend  to  keep  the  wad  from  slipping. 

Since  the  'aux'  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  birds  no  larger  than  a 
Blue  Jay,  the  shells  for  it  should  be  loaded  with  No.  12  shot.  For  the 
16-bore,  one  should  carry  variously  loaded  shells,  as  the  nature  of  the 
collecting  directs. 

A  hunting-coat  with  large  pockets,  a  fisherman's  creel,  or  a  game- 
bag,  for  carrying  specimens,  a  bottle  of  corn-meal  for  cleaning  them, 
non-absorbent  cotton  for  'plugging'  them,  stiff  paper  for  wrapping  them, 
and  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  powdered  alum  and  arsenic  for  preserving 
them,  are  all  part  of  the  collector's  outfit. 

The  bird  skinner's  outfit,  in  its  simplest  form,  consists  of  one  or 
more  scalpels  having  blades  with  well-rounded  ends,  and  one,  at  least, 
with  a  handle  small  enough  to  be  used  as  a  spoon  in  removing  brains; 
three  pairs  of  scissors,  one  with  short,  heavy  blades  for  bone-crushing. 


COLLECTING  BIRDS  15 

one  with  sharp  points  and  long  handles,  and  one  of  medium  size  with 
blunt  ends;  one  medium  size,  flat-end  'eye-f creeps' ;  thread,  pins  and 
needles.  This  outfit,  which  can  be  purchased  of  a  dealer  in  naturalists' 
supplies  or  surgical  instruments,  can  be  enlarged  as  circumstances 
require  or  taste  directs. 

Any  cotton  will  do  for  filling  skins,  but  for  use  in  wrapping  them, 
procure  the  best  cotton  batting  that  money  will  buy.  Usually  it  will  be 
found  that  absorbent  cotton,  such  as  may  be  purchased  at  drug  stores, 
will  be  as  good  as  if  not  better  than  any  which  is  available. 

Large  birds  may  be  filled  with  excelsior  or  a  body  made  of  crumpled 
newspaper,  possibly  covered  with  a  thin  sheet  of  cotton. 

REFERENCES 

1900.  PYNCHON,  W.  H.  C.,  A  Method  of  Recording  Observations, 
Bird-Lore,  II,  19-22.— 1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera, 
12mo.,  218  pp.,  Jllus.  (Appleton). — 1901.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  The  Home  Life 
of  Wild  Birds,  rev.  ed.,  1905,  8vo.,  255  pp.  (Putnam's). — 1902.  BAILEY,  F.  M. 
Handbook  of  Birds  of  Western  United  States,  introduction  (Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.). — 1902.  DUGMORE,  A.  R.,  Nature  and  the  Camera,  8vo., 
126  pp.  (Doubleday). — 1902.  FELGER,  A.  H.,  A  Plan  for  Recording  in  a 
Condensed  Form  the  Life  History  Notes  of  Birds,  Auk,  XIX,  189-195.— 
1904.  BROWNELL,  Photography  for  the  Sportsman  Naturalist  (Macmillan). 
—1910.  JOB,  H.  K.,  How  to  Study  Birds,  (Outing  Co.). — 1911.  BEETHAM, 
B.,  Photography  for  Bird  Lovers,  12mo.,  126pp.,  illus.  (Witherby,  London.) 

COLLECTING  BIRDS,  THEIR  NESTS  AND  EGGS 

Collecting  Birds 

Care  of  the  Bird  in  Me  Field 

Making  Birdskins 

Sexing 

Cataloguing  and  Labeling 

Care  of  a  Collection 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Nests  and  Eggs 

Collecting  Birds. — When  one  goes  to  a  country  whose  birds  are 
unknown  or  but  little  known,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  collect  and 
preserve  them  in  order  that  they  may  be  properly  named  and  classified, 
and  that  our  records  of  their  distribution  may  rest  on  the  tangible 
ground  of  specimens. 

This  is  the  essential  procedure  in  beginning  the  study  of  bird-life 
the  world  over,  but  once  thoroughly  done,  it  is  neither  necessary  nor 
desirable  to  repeat  it  indefinitely, 

To  say  that  one  cannot  become  an  ornithologist  without  first  having 
been  a  collector  of  bird's  skins,  is  to  confess  ignorance  of  the  advance 
which  has  been  made  in  the  methods  and  possibilities  of  bird  study. 

The  non-collector  will  possibly  never  have  that  intimate,  personal, 
first-hand  knowledge  of  specific  differences  which  has  been  gained  by 
the  man  who  has  handled  many  birds  of  his  own  killing,  nor  will  he 


16         CARE  OF  THE  BIRD  IN  THE  FIELD 

have  added  as  many  'records'  of  the  occurrence  of  species  beyond 
the  normal  limits  of  their  range;  but  in  regions  whose  birds  have  been 
adequately  collected,  he  will  unquestionably  render  ornithology  a  far 
higher  service  by  devoting  himself  to  a  study  of  biographic  problems 
than  by  collecting  specimens  which,  however  much  they  may  gratify 
his  desire  for  acquisition  and  increase  his  personal  acquaintance  with 
birds,  will  add  but  little  or  nothing  to  the  fund  of  ornithological 
knowledge. 

The  student  with  some  definite  problem  in  view  is  always  justified 
in  taking  the  specimens  which  are  required  to  aid  in  prosecuting  his 
researches,  nor  can  there  be  any  reasonable  objection  to  collecting 
for  purposes  of  identification;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  eastern  North  America  there  is  no  longer  need  for 
general,  indiscriminate  collecting.  No  better  proof  of  the  truth  of  this 
statement  can  be  required  than  the  fact  that,  as  our  introductory 
'Historical  Review'  shows,  some  of  the  most  important  additions  to 
our  knowledge  of  birds  in  this  area,  during  the  past  fifteen  years,  have 
been  made  by  men  who  are  not  collectors. 

There  is  no  question  of  the  destruction  of  life  involved  here.  In 
only  two  or  three  instances  has  the  collecting  of  birds  for  specimens 
appreciably  affected  the  numbers  of  a  species;  and,  as  every  one  familiar 
with  the  facts  involved  knows,  the  results  of  general  amateur  collect- 
ing are  absolutely  inappreciable.  Therefore,  it  is  the  student,  rather 
than  the  bird,  I  have  in  mind,  when  I  discourage  further  collecting 
in  regions  whose  bird-life  is  already  well-known.  In  most  cases  the 
time  which  he  can  give  to  bird  study  is  limited,  and  the  question  is, 
shall  he  devote  it  to  doing  exactly  what  ornithologists  for  generations 
before  him  have  done,  or  shall  he,  by  concentrating  on  a  definite  prob- 
blem,  do  what  no  one  has  done?  Can  he  not  well  afford  to  forego  a 
general  superficial  knowledge  of  a  large  number  of  birds,  such  as  many 
have  had,  for  a  special  knowledge  of  some  few  birds  such  as  no  one 
has  had?  For  the  real  student,  imbued  with  the  true  spirit  of  research, 
there  can  be  only  one  answer  to  this  question. 

After  this  protest  against  unnecessary  collecting,  and  the  waste 
of  opportunity  it  occasions,  I  add  a  description  of  the  technique  of 
birdskin  making,  for  the  use  of  those  who  may  properly  employ  it. 

Care  of  the  Bird  in  the  Field. — On  killing  a  bird,  pick  it  up  by  the 
bill  or  feet,  and  at  once  sprinkle  meal  or  dry  earth  on  any  blood  which 
may  be  visible.  When  this  is  saturated,  scrape  it  off  with  a  knife-blade 
and  repeat  the  operation  until  all  the  blood  is  absorbed.  Sprinkle 
some  meal  at  the  base  of  the  feathers  about  the  shot-holes  from  which 
the  blood  appears,  or,  if  necessary,  plug  these  holes  with  bits  of  cotton. 
Place  a  large  plug  of  cotton  in  the  mouth  and  force  it  well  down  the 
throat  to  prevent  bleeding  at  the  mouth  from  an  internal  wound.  In 
some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  also  plug  the  nostrils.  Now  make  a  cornu- 
copia of  stiff  paper,  drop  the  bird  in  it  head  foremost,  taking  care 
that  the  bill  is  not  turned  forward  on  to  the  throat,  and,  if  the  bird  is 


MAKING  BIRDSKINS  17 

not  too  large,  fold  in  the  edges  of  the  cornucopia  and  place  the  specimen 
in  your  bag  or  basket.  In  the  case  of  very  large  specimens — Hawks, 
Owls,  etc. — it  is  advisable  to  skin  out  the  body  in  the  field,  when  they 
can  be  packed  in  much  smaller  space. 

Making  Birdskins.- — With  proper  instruction  it  is  not  difficult  to 
learn  to  skin  birds.  I  have  known  beginners,  who  had  closely  watched 
experts  at  work,  make  fair  skins  at  their  first  attempt — better  skins, 
indeed,  than  the  person  who  learns  only  from  written  directions  may 
ever  make.  I  am  speaking  from  experience.  Only  too  clearly  do  I 
remember  my  own  first  attempts  at  skinning  birds  and  their  hopelessly 
wretched  results.  In  despair  I  at  last  sought  the  assistance  of  a  distant 
ornithological  friend.  In  one  lesson  he  made  the  process  so  clear  to  me 
that  I  was  at  once  enabled  to  make  skins  twice  as  quickly  and  twice  as 
well.  However,  we  unfortunately  are  not  all  blessed  with  ornithological 
friends  to  whom  we  can  turn  for  advice,  and  I  therefore  append  the 
following  directions  for  making  birdskins: 

Let  us  begin  with  a  bird,  say,  the  size  of  a  Robin:  1.  Plug  the  bird's 
throat  and  nostrils  tightly  with  fresh  cotton.  If  the  eyeball  is  ruptured, 
pull  it  out  with  the  forceps  and  fill  the  cavity  with  meal.  2.  Lay  the 
bird  before  you  on  its  back,  its  bill  pointing  to  the  left;  place  your  open 
left  hand  lengthwise  on  it,  so  that  the  base  of  your  first  and  second  fingers 
rests  on  the  middle  of  the  breastbone;  use  these  fingers  and  the  handle 
of  the  scalpel  to  separate  the  feathers  from  near  the  end  of  the  breast- 
bone to  the  vent,  and  when  the  parting  is  made  use  the  same  fingers 
to  hold  the  feathers  aside.  3.  With  the  scalpel  make  an  incision  in 
the  skin  from  just  in  front  of  the  end  of  the  breastbone,  or  at  the  base 
of  the  V  formed  by  the  spread  fingers,  to  the  vent,  being  careful  not  to 
cut  through  into  the  abdomen.  4.  Sprinkle  a  pinch  of  meal  along  the 
cut.  5.  Lift  the  skin  at  the  front  end  of  the  cut  and  insert  the  end  of 
the  scalpel  handle  between  it  and  the  breastbone.  If  you  try  to  do  this 
lower  down  on  the  cut,  over  the  belly,  you  will  find  it  difficult  to  separate 
the  skin  on  which  the  feathers  grow  from  the  immediately  underlying 
skin  which  covers  the  abdomen.  Separate  the  skin  from  the  body  the 
whole  length  of  the  cut  and  as  far  down  toward  the  backbone  as  possible, 
thus  exposing  the  bare  knee.  6.  Take  hold  of  the  foot  and  push  the 
knee  farther  up  into  view,  then  take  the  blunt-ended  scissors  and,  on 
the  inside  of  the  skin,  clip  the  leg  entirely  in  two.  7.  Repeat  opera- 
tions 5  and  6  on  the  other  side  of  the  body.  8.  Press  away  the  skin  as 
much  as  possible  on  either  side  of  the  rump,  and  place  the  thumb 
at  the  left  side  (left,  seen  from  above)  of  the  base  of  the  tail  or  'pope's 
nose,'  with  the  first  finger  on  the  other  side  (both  inside  the  skin)  and 
the  second  finger  behind  (above)  on  the  rump;  now  with  the  blunt 
scissors  cut  through  the  flesh  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  toward 
the  second  finger,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  guard  to  prevent  you 
from  cutting  through  the  skin.  9.  Stand  the  bird  on  its  breastbone, 
the  belly  toward  you,  and  with  both  thumbs  press  the  tail  and  skin 
of  the  rump  over  and  down  off  the  stump  from  which  you  have  just 


18  MAKING  BIRDSKINS 

cut  it.  10.  When  the  stump  is  free  from  the  skin,  take  hold  of  it  with 
the  right  hand  and  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  gently  press  the  skin  from 
the  body,  keeping  it  constantly  turned  inside  out  and  using  an  abun- 
dance of  meal.  11.  Soon  the  wing-bones  (humeri)  will  appear.  Clip 
them  off  at  either  side  close  to  the  body,  and  resume  skinning  as  before. 
12.  The  skin  will  slip  easily  over  the  neck,  and  you  will  then  meet 
with  an  obstruction  in  the  head.  13.  Work  the  skin  carefully  over  the 
head,  using  the  tips  of  the  first  two  fingers  of  either  hand,  placing  the 
thumbs  as  a  brace  farther  forward  over  the  eyes.*  14.  Pull  the  ears 
carefully  from  their  sockets.  15.  The  eyes  will  now  appear;  carefully 
cut  the  membrane  joining  the  skin  and  eyeball,  making  the  incision 
as  far  back  as  possible,  in  order  to  avoid  cutting  the  skin,  which  should 
be  pulled  forward  until  it  is  entirely  free  of  the  eyeball.  16.  Remove 
the  eyes  with  the  forceps.  17.  With  the  sharp-pointed  scissors  make 
an  incision  directly  across  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  inside  the  branches  of 
the  lower  mandible,  just  back  of  the  skin,  and  below  the  eye-sockets. 
18.  With  the  sharp-pointed  scissors  make  incisions  from  either  end  of 
this  cut  back  along  the  branches  of  the  lower  mandible  through  the 
base  of  the  skull  on  either  gide  of  the  neck  at  its  junction  with  the 
skull.  19.  Connect  these  cuts  by  a  fourth,  which  passes  through  the 
base  of  the  skull  just  above  the  neck,  and  pull  the  body  and  neck  from 
the  skull.  20.  Scoop  out  what  brains  remain  with  the  handle  of  the 
scalpel.  21.  Pull  the  end  of  the  wingbone  (humerus)  inward,  skinning 
the  feathers  off  the  bones  of  the  forearm  (radius  and  ulna),  and  remove 
the  flesh.  22.  Do  the  same  thing  for  the  legs,  but,  after  cleaning,  do 
not  in  either  case  pull  the  bones  back.  23.  Remove  as  much  flesh  as 
possible  from  the  base  of  the  tail,  including  the  oil-gland  at  the  base 
of  the  tail  above.  24.  Hold  the  skin  over  the  arsenic  and  alum  box, 
and  with  a  bit  of  fluffy  cotton  at  the  end  of  a  stick,  or  held  in  the  forceps, 
dust  it  thoroughty  with  the  poison,  giving  an  extra  allowance  to  the 
base  of  the  tail  and  bones  of  the  skull,  wings,  and  legs.  25.  Pull  the 
legs  back  into  place.  26.  Place  a  fluff  of  cotton  on  the  end  of  a  wire 
and  roll  it  into  a  firm,  smooth  ball,  placing  one  in  each  eye-socket. 
27.  Coax  the  skin  back  over  the  head,  using  the  first  two  fingers  of 
each  hand  and  placing  the  thumbs  at  the  base  of  the  skull.  When  the 
tip  of  the  bill  appears  through  the  feathers,  use  the  fingers  outside,  on 
the  feathers,  pressing  the  skin  back  over  the  head,  and  keeping  the 
thumbs  in  the  same  position.  When  the  bill  is  free,  take  it  with  the 
right  hand,  and  use  the  fingers  of  the  left  to  urge  the  skin  over  the  skull, 
being  careful  to  get  it  in  its  former  place  so  that  the  feathers  of  the 
head  will  lie  smoothly.  28.  Dress  the  feathers  of  the  head,  particularly 
those  about  the  eye.  29.  Take  hold  of  the  tip  of  the  bill  and  shake 
the  skin  gently  but  vigorously  to  aid  in  settling  the  plumage.  30.  Lay 
the  skin  on  its  back,  the  bill  pointing  from  you,  and  turn  back  the 

*In  large-headed  birds,  like  Ducks  and  Woodpeckers,  this  is  impossible,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  slit  the  skin  down  the  back  of  the  neck  and  push  the  skull  through 
the  opening. 


MAKING  BIRDSKINS  19 

feathers  about  the  opening  on  the  belly.  31.  See  that  the  wing-bones 
lie  flat  on  the  back  of  the  skin,  with  their  ends  touching  each  other.* 
32.  Take  a  bit  of  fluffy  cotton,  press  it  lightly  together,  and  draw  out 
one  end  to  form  a  neck.  When  released  from  your  grasp  this  cotton 
body  should  be  but  little  larger  than  the  body  you  have  removed  from 
the  skin.  33.  Take  the  end  of  the  neck  with  the  forceps  and  insert  it 
gently  into  the  neck  of  the  skin,  working  the  skin  down  onto  it  in  order 
to  avoid  stretching  the  neck,  until  the  points  of  the  forceps  appear 
in  the  mouth,  then  hold  the  cotton  there  and  withdraw  the  forceps. 
34.  Carefully  fit  the  cotton  body  into  the  skin.  35.  Put  one  or  two 
stitches  in  the  incision  on  the  belly.  36.  Ascertain  the  sex  of  the  bird 
(see  beyond).  37.  Cross  the  legs,  and  at  the  point  of  intersection 
attach  a  label  (see  beyond).  38.  Squeeze  the  wing-bones  together 
until  you  feel  the  tips  of  your  fingers  meet  over  the  bird's  back.  39  Pre- 
pare a  sheet  of  cotton  about  five  inches  square  and  as  thin  as  you  can 
make  it;  lay  the  bird  on  this  on  its  right  side,  the  bill  pointing  to  your 
right  hand.  40.  Put  the  left  wing  in  place  and  dress  the  feathers  about 
it.  41.  Take  hold  of  the  sheet  of  cotton,  and  turn  the  bird  over  in  it  in 
order  that  you  may  dress  the  right  wing.  42.  Roll  the  bird  on  to  its 
belly,  holding  the  wings  in  position  with  the  thumb  and  first  finger 


FIG.  4.    A  completed  birdskin  (reduced). 

of  the  left  hand,  and  with  the  right  hand  bring  the  tips  of  the  wing- 
feathers  into  their  proper  place  over  the  back.  43.  Roll  the  bird  back 
on  to  its  back,  the  bill  pointing  to  your  right  hand;  take  the  end  of 
the  sheet  of  cotton  farthest  from  you  and  draw  it  lightly  over  the  bird 
to  the  side  nearest  you.  44.  Draw  the  end  nearest  you  in  the  opposite 
direction.  45.  See  that  the  feet,  tail,  and  tips  of  the  wings  are  in  their 
proper  position,  and  place  your  specimen  out  of  harm's  way  to  dry. 

It  will  doubtless  take  you  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour  to  make 
your  first  birdskin.  It  will  probably  be  a  sorry-looking  object,  per- 
haps minus  a  head  or  tail  or  half  its  feathers;  but  do  not  let  this  dis- 

*The  most  difficult  part  in  making  a  birdskin  is  to  induce  the  wings  to  assume 
anything  like  their  natural  position  when  closed.  This  is  because  the  artificial  cotton 
body  is  apt  to  force  them  outward  on  to  the  sides  rather  than  on  the  back,  where  they 
belong. 

In  the  bird  in  the  flesh  the  wings  are  held  in  place  by  being  attached  to  the  body; 
in  the  skin  they  are  loose  and  hanging.  To  remedy  this,  after  drawing  the  wing-bones 
in  to  remove  the  flesh  from  them,  they  should  be  pushed  back  only  far  enough  to 
enable  one  to  see  plainly  the  elbow  or  bend  of  the  wing  outside  of  the  skin.  This  pre- 
vents the  wings  from  hanging,  and,  to  further  keep  them  in  place,  it  will  be  well  at 
first  to  tie  the  ends  of  the  bones  (humeri)  together. 
4. 


20  CATALOGUING  AND   LABELING 

courage  you.  An  expert  can  make  ten  birdskins  an  hour,  and  you  need 
only  practice  to  approach  this. 

Sexing. — A  specimen  without  a  sex  mark  on  its  label  is  of  com- 
paratively little  value.  The  sexes  in  many  birds  can  of  course  be  dis- 
tinguished by  their  color,  but  the  young  male  frequently  resembles 
the  female,  while  in  some  instances  the  female  has  been  known  to  as- 
sume the  plumage  of  the  male.  Dissection,  therefore,  is  the  only  safe 
way  to  determine  sex.  Upon  reaching  stage  36,  in  the  operation  of 
making  a  birdskin,  cut  through  the  left  side  of  the  body  from  the  vent 
to  the  neck,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  internal  organs.  Force  the 
edges  of  the  opening  apart,  and,  pressing  the  intestines  gently  to  one 
side,  look  for  the  sexual  organs,  which  will  be  found  on  the  walls  of 
the  small  of  the  back  very  near  to  the  backbone.  The  male  organs 
(testes),  two  in  number,  are  usually  dull- white,  elongate  bodies  lying 
side  by  side.  The  female  organs  (ovary)  are  composed  of  numerous 
round  bodies  lying  in  a  mass  or  cluster.  In  the  breeding  season  the 
sexual  organs  of  birds  become  much  enlarged,  and  at  this  season  the 
testes  of  a  male  Chipping  Sparrow  are  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  while 
the  ovary  of  the  female  has  been  likened  to  a  bunch  of  grapes,  the 
largest  being  the  size  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg  of  this  species.  After  the 
breeding  season  the  sexual  organs  decrease  in  size,  and  in  adults  in  the 
winter  and  young  birds  are  sometimes  difficult  to  find.  The  testes  of 
a  male  Chipping  Sparrow  at  that  season  are  about  as  large  as  a  small 
pinhead,  while  a  hand-lens  is  required  to  plainly  distinguish  the  ovary 
of  the  female.  The  arrow  of  Mars  (rf)  is  used  to  indicate  the  male  sex; 
the  mirror  of  Venus  (?)  the  female  sex. 

Cataloguing  and  Labeling. — Before  skinning  your  birds  you  should 
catalogue  them.  The  catalogue  should  have  columns  giving  (1)  the 
date,  (2)  your  serial  collection  number,  (3)  name  of  the  bird,  (4)  sex 
and  condition  of  the  sexual  organs,  (5)  place  of  capture,  (6)  name  of 
collector,  and  (7)  remarks.  In  the  last  column  enter  any  notes  on  the 
color  of  the  eyes,  or  parts  which  will  change  color  when  drying,  con- 
tents of  the  stomach,  and  other  notes.  In  addition  to  this  'day-book'  or 
'blotter'  some  ornithologists  open  a  ledger  account  with  their  collection 
and  devote  a  folio  to  each  species,  on  which  are  posted  the  entries 
made  in  the  collection  register. 

Labels  should  be  of  strong  bond  paper,  two  inches  and  a  half  long 
and  half  an  inch  wide.  They  are  attached  to  the  crossed  legs  of  the 
bird  by  linen  thread  strung  through  their  left  end.  The  face  of  the 
label  bears  the  name  and  sex  of  the  bird,  place  and  date  of  capture, 
name  of  collector,  and  serial  collection  number.  The  label  shown  in 
Fig.  4  is  small,  but  will  illustrate  the  appearance  and  manner  of 
attachment.  The  name  of  the  owner  of  the  collection  is  printed  on  the 
back  of  the  label,  preceded  by  the  words  "Collection  of." 

Many  collectors  prefer  to  use  as  a  field  label  a  small  jeweler's  tag 
upon  which  the  collection  number,  sex  and  date  are  written.  The 
large  label  is  added  after  the  specimen  is  dry. 


CARE  OF  A  COLLECTION  21 

Care  of  a  Collection. — The  best  cases  in  which  to  keep  a  collection 
of  birdskins  are  known  as  "Cambridge  cans."  They  are  made  of  tin, 
with  covers  which  fit  into  grooves  lined  with  rubber  tubing,  and  are 
practically  air-tight.  The  smaller  sizes  cost  from  five  dollars  to  seven 
dollars  and  a  half  each,  and  can  be  obtained  of  Muller  and  Wood,  of 
New  York  City. 

A  wooden  cabinet  with  tight-fitting  drawers  and  door  is  less  ex- 
pensive, and  with  ordinary  care  will  preserve  specimens  for  a  prac- 
tically indefinite  period.  The  drawers  should  be  thirty  inches  long  by 
sixteen  inches  in  width.  For  birds  the  size  of  a  Robin  a  depth  of  one 
inch  and  three-quarters  is  sufficient,  while  drawers  four  inches  deep 
will  take  the  largest  Hawks  or  Owls.  These  drawers  will  hold  about 
thirty  birds  the  size  of  a  Robin,  eighty  the  size  of  a  Chickadee,  and 
eight  to  ten  Hawks  and  Owls. 

Well  cleaned  and  thoroughly  poisoned  specimens  of  small  birds  are 
not  likely  to  be  attacked  by  the  moth  (Tinea)  or  beetles  (Dermestcs 
and  Anthrenus)  which  so  often  infest  poorly  prepared  or  nonpoisoned 
skins.  Naphthaline  crystals  or  camphor  gum  should  be  placed  in  each 
drawer  of  the  cabinet,  the  door  of  which  should  not  be  left  open  need- 
lessly. If  a  specimen  falls  a  victim  to  insects,  the  better  plan  is  to 
discard  it  at  once.  If,  however,  it  is  rare,  it  may  be  taken  out-of-doors 
and  placed  in  an  air-tight  box  with  a  few  tablespoonfuls  of  bisulphuret 
of  carbon. 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Nests  and  Eggs. — The  following  quotation, 
from  the  late  Major  Bendire's  Instructions  for  Collecting,  Preparing, 
and  Preserving  Birds'  Eggs  and  Nests*  may  be  taken  as  authoritative: 
"Unless  the  would-be  collector  intends  to  make  an  especial  study  of 
oology  and  has  a  higher  aim  than  the  mere  desire  to  take  and  accu- 
mulate as  large  a  number  of  eggs  as  possible  regardless  of  their  proper 
identification,  he  had  better  not  begin  at  all,  but  leave  the  nests  and 
eggs  of  our  birds  alone  and  undisturbed.  They  have  too  many  enemies 
to  contend  with,  without  adding  the  average  egg  collector  to  the  num- 
.ber.  The  mere  accumulation  of  specimens  is  the  least  important 
object  of  the  true  oologist.  His  principal  aim  should  be  to  make  care- 
ful observations  on  the  habits,  call  notes,  song,  the  character  of  the 
food,  mode  and  length  of  incubation,  and  the  actions  of  the  species 
generally,  from  the  beginning  of  the  mating  season  to  the  time  the 
young  are  able  to  leave  the  nest.  This  period  comprises  the  most  in- 
teresting and  instructive  part  of  the  life-history  of  our  birds."  Very 
heartily  do  I  endorse  every  word  of  this,  and  to  the  concluding  sen- 
tence I  would  add:  and  there  can  be  no  better  way  to  avoid  increasing 
our  knowledge  of  a  bird's  domestic  life  than  to  rob  it  of  its  eggs,  and 
destroy  its  home  and  our  own  opportunities  at  the  same  time.  Studied 
from  a  local  standpoint,  I  confess  I  can  see  only  two  points  of  interest 
in  a  bird's  egg — one  is  what  the  egg  is  in,  the  other  is  what  is  in  the  egg. 

Nevertheless,  I  can  understand  the  pleasure  attending  the  legiti- 
*Part  D.  Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  No.  39,  1891,  pp.  3-10. 


22  COLLECTING  NESTS  AND   EGGS 

mate  formation  of  what  Major  Bendire  has  called  "a  small,  thoroughly 
identified,  well-prepared,  and  neatly  cared  for  collection,"  which,  as 
the  same  author  adds,  "is  worth  far  more  scientifically  and  in  every 
other  way  than  a  more  extensive  one  gained  by  exchange  or  purchase." 

An  egg  collector's  outfit  consists  of  several  drills,  an  embryo-hook, 
a  blowpipe,  forceps,  and  scissors.  A  fresh  egg  should  be  blown  through 
a  hole  slightly  larger  than  the  tip  of  the  blowpipe.  Drill  the  hole  in 
the  side  of  the  egg,  and,  after  inserting  the  blowpipe  about  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch,  blow  gently  and  steadily  until  the  contents  have  been 
removed.  Then  rinse  the  egg  thoroughly  with  water  and  lay  it  hole 
downward  on  corn-meal  to  drain. 

In  eggs  containing  embryos  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  hole  large 
enough  to  permit  of  the  use  of  the  embryo-hook,  scissors,  or  forceps, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

Each  egg  should  be  marked  with  the  number  of  the  species  in  the 
'Check-List'  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union,  the  number  of  the 
set  in  your  collection,  and  the  number  of  eggs  in  the  set.  Thus,  if  I 
were  about  to  label  my  second  set  of  four  eggs  of  the  Bluebird,  I  should 
write  with  a  lead  pencil  on  each  egg,  near  the  hole,  766i. 

There  are  many  ways  of  displaying  collections  of  eggs.  Some  col- 
lectors place  their  eggs  in  little  boxes  or  partitions  filled  with  sawdust 
or  cotton;  Major  Bendire  used  small  pasteboard  trays  lined,  bottom 
and  sides,  with  cotton  wadding,  and  divided  into  partitions  for  each 
egg  by  strips  of  cotton  wadding  set  on  edge.  It  is,  however,  very  largely 
a  matter  of  taste,  and  collectors  generally  have  their  own  ideas  on 
these  matters. 

A  collection  of  birds'  nests  is  a  telling  object  lesson  in  the  study 
of  ornithology.  Familiar  as  I  am  with  them,  I  never  see  the  nests  of 
some  birds  without  feeling  the  most  intense  admiration  for  the  mar- 
velous skill  which  has  aided  them  in  forming  a  structure  man  would 
find  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  duplicate.  A  bird's  nest  in  its 
original  site  is  a  concrete  expression  of  the  intelligence  of  its  maker; 
for  the  foresight  displayed  in  the  choice  of  a  situation,  and  the  inge- 
nuity shown  in  the  construction  of  the  nest,  even  if  largely  instinctive 
now,  originated  in  the  intelligence  of  a  line  of  ancestors. 

Nests  may  be  collected  before  they  have  been  used,  when  the  birds 
will  generally  build  again;  or  you  may  wait  and  take  them  after  the 
birds  have  left  them,  labeling  each  nest  with  what  you  have  learned 
of  the  history  of  its  owners.  For  example:  Time  required  for  its  con- 
struction; whether  made  by  one  or  both  sexes;  notes  on  the  laying  of 
the  eggs;  period  of  incubation;  whether  both  sexes  assisted  in  incu- 
bation; care  of  the  young;  number  of  days  they  were  in  the  nest,  etc. 

Some  nests,  for  example  the  pendent  "baskets"  of  Vireos  or  such 
as  are  placed  in  crotches,  should  be  taken  with  the  crotch  or  branch 
to  which  they  are  attached. 

With  others  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  do  this.  They  should  there- 
fore be  placed  in  a  frame  of  wire  and  wrapped  about  with  fine  wire 


ORNITHOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES  23 

thread.  To  make  this  fjame,  twist  two  pieces  of  annealed  wire,  painted 
brown,  into  the  shape  t>f  a  letter  X.  About  midway  from  the  point 
of  intersection  and  the  end  of  the  arm,  bend  the  wires  upward  at  right 
angles.  Now  take  the  fine  hair  or  thread  wire  and  wind  it  about  the 
four  horizontal  arms  of  the  frame  until  its  bottom  looks  like  a  spider's 
web;  place  the  nest  in  this  half -formed  basket,  bend  the  upright  wires 
inward  or  outward  as  the  case  requires,  and  continue  winding  until 
the  nest  is  bound  firmly.  The  size  of  the  frame  and  the  wire  used  in 
its  construction  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  nest. 

REFERENCES 

1891.  HORNADAY,  W.  T.,  Taxidermy  and  Zoological  Collecting, 
8vo.,  362  pp.,  ills.  (Scribners). — 1898.  ROWLEY,  J.,  The  Art  of  Taxidermy, 
12mo.,  244  pp.,  ills.  (Apple ton.) 

AMEKICAN  ORNITHOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES 

The  bird  student,  particularly  if,  as  so  often  happens,  he  be  isolated 
from  others  of  kindred  tastes,  should,  if  possible,  affiliate  himself  with 
one  or  more  of  the  ornithological  societies  in  this  country.  In  any  event, 
he  should  aim  to  secure  election  to  Associate  Membership  in  the  Amer- 
ican Ornithologists'  Union,  not  alone  because  this  is  the  first  step 
toward  becoming  a  Fellow  in  this  organization,  "the  highest  honor  to 
which  an  American  ornithologist  can  attain,"  but  also  because  he  will 
be  brought  into  communication  with  the  leading  bird  students  of  this 
country,  who,  he  may  be  assured,  will  never  fail  to  respond  to  his 
requests  for  information  or  advice.  A  list  of  the  principal  ornithological 
societies  together  with  one  of  their  official  organs  is  therefore  appended. 

American  Ornithologists'  Union. — Founded  1884.  This  is  the  lead- 
ing as  well  as  the  largest  ornithological  organization  in  the  country. 
Membership  is  divided  into  the  following  classes:  Fellows  (limited  to 
50,  contains*  49),  Honorary  Fellows  (limited  to  25,  contains  12), 
Corresponding  Fellows  (limited  to  100,  contains  61),  Members  (limited 
to  100,  contains  79),  Associates  (unlimited  in  number,  contains  738). 
All  bird  students  are  eligible  as  candidates  for  election  to  associate 
membership.  Annual  Congresses  are  held,  usually  in  November,  in 
Washington,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  or  Cambridge. 

Official  organ,  The  Auk;  free  to  all  members.  Address,  American 
Ornithologists'  Union,  care  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.  (For  a  history  of  the  Union,  see  J.  A. 
Allen  in  Bird-Lore,  1899,  pp.  143-148.) 

Delaware  Valley  Ornithological  Club. — Founded,  1890.  Organ, 
Cassinia,  published  annually.  Address,  care  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences,  Philadelphia,  Penna.  (For  a  history  of  the  Club,  see  S.  N. 
Jlhoads  in  Bird-Lore,  1902,  pp.  57-61.) 

*January,  1911, 


24  ORNITHOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES 

Cooper  Ornithological  Club. — Founded,  1893.  Organ,  The  Condor. 
Address,  care  of  the  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

Linnoean  Society  of  New  York. — Founded,  1878.  While  devoted  to 
Natural  History  in  general,  the  active  membership  of  the  Linnsean 
Society  is  composed  chiefly  of  bird  students.  Organ,  Abstract  of  Pro- 
ceedings, issued  annually.  Address,  care  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 

The  Maine  Ornithological  Society. — Founded,  1893.  Organ,  Journal 
of  the  Maine  Ornithological  Society.  Address,  Portland,  Maine.  (For 
a  history  of  the  Society,  see  J.  Merton  Swain,  Bird-Lore,  1907,  pp. 
65-68.) 

National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies. — Founded,  1902.  Organ, 
Bird-Lore.  Issues  educational  leaflets  for  teachers  and  literature  re- 
lating to  bird  conservation.  Address,  1974  Broadway,  New  York  City, 
N.  Y.  (A  list  of  the  some  forty  State  Audubon  Societies  may  be 
obtained  from  the  National  Association.) 

Nebraska  Ornithologists'  Union. — Founded,  1899.  Organ,  Pro- 
ceedings, issued  at  irregular  intervals.  Address  care  of  the  University 
of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

Nuttall  Ornithological  Club. — Founded,  1873.  The  oldest  ornithologi- 
cal organization  in  America.  From  it  sprung  the  American  Ornitholo- 
gists' Union.  Official  organ,  occasional  Memoirs.  Address,  Cambridge, 
Mass.  (For  a  history  of  the  Nuttall  Club,  see  F.  H.  Allen,  in  Bird-Lore, 
1902,  pp.  12-17.) 

Wilson  Ornithological  Club. — Founded,  1888.  Organ,  Wilson 
Bulletin.  Address,  Oberlin,  Ohio. 

CURRENT  ORNITHOLOGICAL  MAGAZINES 

The  Auk. — Organ  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union.  Quarterly. 
Established  as  the  Bulletin  of  the  Nuttall  Ornithological  Club  in  1876, 
taking  its  present  name  with  the  organization  of  the  A.  O.  U.  in  1884. 
Each  volume  contains  about  500  pages,  a  number  of  half-tones  and, 
occasionally,  colored  plates.  Subscription,  $3  per  annum  (free  to 
members  of  the  A.  O.  U.).  Address,  care  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences,  Philadelphia,  Penna. 

Bird-Lore. — Organ  of  the  National  Association  of  Audubon  So- 
cieties. Bi-monthly.  Established  in  1899.  Each  volume  contains 
about  400  pages,  many  half-tones,  and  12  colored  plates.  Annual 
subscription  $1  (free  to  members  of  the  N.  A.  A.  S.).  Address,  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 

The  Condor. — Organ  of  the  Cooper  Ornithological  Club.  Bi-monthly. 
Established  in  1899.  Each  volume  contains  about  250  pages  and 
numerous  half-tones.  Annual  subscription  $1.50  (free  to  members 
of  the  C.  O.  C.).  Address,  Pasadena,  Cal. 

Journal  of  the  Maine  Ornithological  Society. — Quarterly.  Established 
in  1899.  Each  volume  contains  about  150  pages  and  occasional  half- 


ORNITHOLOGICAL  MAGAZINES  25 

tones.  Annual  subscription  $1  (free  to  members  of  the  M.  O.  S.). 
Address,  Portland,  Maine. 

The  Oologist. — Monthly.  Established  in  1884.  Each  volume  con- 
tains about  160  pages  and  a  number  of  half-tones.  Annual  subscrip- 
tion 50  cents.  Address,  Lacon,  111. 

Wilson  Bulletin. — Quarterly.  Organ  of  the  Wilson  Ornithological 
Club.  Established  in  1889.  Each  volume  contains  about  225  pages 
and  a  number  of  half-tones.  Annual  subscription,  $1  (free  to  members 
of  the  W.  O.  C.).  Address,  Oberlin,  Ohio. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  STUDY  OF  BIRDS  IN  NATURE 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BIRDS 

THE  MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS 

THE  VOICE  OF  BIRDS 

THE  NESTING  SEASON 

THE  PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS 

THE  FOOD  OF  BIRDS 

GENERAL  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  ADULT  BIRD 

For  one  person  with  the  time  and  equipment  essential  to  research 
in  systematic  ornithology,  there  are  hundreds,  equally  ambitious,  but 
handicapped  by  limited  opportunity  and  inadequate  material.  To 
what  problems  can  these  amateur  students  turn  their  attention? 
How  can  they  gratify  their  ambition  to  make  some  noteworthy  contri- 
bution to  the  science  of  birds? 

Large  collections  and  museum  facilities  are  within  reach  of  com- 
paratively few,  but  living  birds  are  everywhere;  even  the  Sparrow 
of  our  streets  is  worthy  of  our  attention,  and  anyone  who  can  get 
out-of-doors  has  the  opportunity  to  add  to  our  knowledge  of  birds. 
Indeed,  observations  of  real  value  have  been  made  from  a  window 
or  from  an  invalid's  chair. 

It  is  proposed,  therefore,  to  present  here  at  least  an  outline  of  those 
branches  of  ornithology  which  relate  to  the  habits  of  birds,  with  the 
object  of  suggesting  some  field  to  which  the  student  may  devote  his 
attention.  To  do  this  at  great  length,  however,  would  require  a  volume 
alone,  and  I  have  therefore  dwelt  fully  on  only  those  two  branches  of 
bird  study  which  especially  interest  the  field  student — migration  and 
nesting — treating  other  phases  of  the  subject  in  less  detail. 

The  importance  of  specialization,  with  a  definite  end  in  view, 
cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  Select  a  subject  for  investigation, 
or  a  species,  preferably  the  most  common  one  in  your  vicinity,  for 
continued  observation,  and  your  studies  will  acquire  a  character, 
importance,  and  interest  which  they  lacked  before.  Not  only  will  you 
pursue  your  field  work  with  renewed  pleasure  and  enthusiasm,  but 
your  researches  will  lead  to  the  reading  of  publications  which  before 
seemed  unattractive,  and  your  search  for  information  will  develop  a 
correspondence  with  fellow  students  throughout  the  country,  widen- 
ing your  horizon  and  leading  to  those  delightful  associations  born  of 
kindred  tastes. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  one  cannot  enjoy  an 

(26) 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  BIRDS  27 

acquaintance  with  birds  without  a  formal  attempt  to  add  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  them.  Bird  study  may  not  necessarily  be  anything  so  serious 
as  a  study;  it  may  be  merely  a  recreation,  a  pastime,  even  a  'fad,' 
if  you  like;  but  so  long  as  our  interest  in  birds  is  sufficient  to  take  us 
to  their  haunts,  or  so  long  as  the  voice  of  a  bird  expresses  for  us  that 
joy  in  nature  which  is  the  rightful  heritage  of  every  human  being, 
just  so  long  will  it  repay  us  to  add  to  our  sources  of  pleasure  that  knowl- 
edge of  birds  which  will  permit  us  to  "come  at  these  enchantments." 


THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BIRDS 

Factors  Influencing  Distribution 
,  Faunal  Areas 

Zones  of  the  Boreal  Region 
Zones  of  the  Austral  Region 
Floridian  Fauna 

Factors  Influencing  Distribution. —  Possessed  of  a  space-defying 
means  of  locomotion,  birds  are  more  widely  distributed  than  any  other 
vertebrates;  but  in  spite  of  their  unexcelled  mobility  their  sensitive 
organizations  respond  quickly  to  those  influences  which  determine  the 
distribution  of  life.  Consequently  we  find  that  while  some  species 
have  an  atoiost  world-wide  range,  others  are  confined  to  surprisingly 
restricted  areas.  The  factors  determining  the  boundaries  of  the  region 
inhabited  by  any  given  bird  may  be  classed  primarily  under  the  heads 
of  Past  and  Present.  Past  factors  include  those  great  earth-forming 
forces  which,  through  a  series  of  profoundly  important  changes,  have 
brought  about  the  now  long-standing  inter-relation  of  land  areas — in 
other  words,  the  world  as  we  know  it.  The  land  bridges  which  connected 
Great  Britain  with  the  Continent,  or  Alaska  with  Siberia,  and  the 
strait  which  separated  the  American  continents  at  Panama  are  factors 
of  this  kind.  In  their  time  they  obviously  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  distribution  of  life.  Were  we  equally  sure  of  all  the  land  con- 
nections and  water  separations  which  have  existed  since  life  appeared 
on  the  earth,  we  might  hope  to  solve  many  at  present  inexplicable 
problems  in  distribution. 

Of  far-reaching  importance  also  has  been  the  evolution  of  climates 
which  this  globe  has  witnessed,  and  which,  through  the  last  Glacial 
Period,  has  introduced  the  climate  under  which  we  now  live.  Reference 
to  page  57  will  explain  how  the  distribution  of  White  Pelicans, 
for  example,  is  believed  to  have  been  affected  by  such  past  climatic 
changes. 

Climate,  of  course,  has  never  ceased  to  exert  its  influence  on  the 
distribution  of  life  and  we  find  it  the  most  active  present-day  factor. 
It  is  expressed  mainly  through  temperature,  and,  to  a  lesser  extent, 
through  rainfall.  Thus  the  boundaries  of  the  three  transcontinental 
zones  forming  the  Austral  Regipn  (see  cover  map)  conform  more  or 


28  FAUNAL  AREAS 

less  closely  to  certain  isotherms,  or  lines  of  equal  temperature,  but  their 
eastern  and  western  faunal  subdivisions  are  determined  by  the  annual 
precipitation  of  rain.  Any  factors  such  as  altitude,  exposure  in  relation 
to  the  sun,  or  proximity  to  water,  which  affect  temperature  exert  a 
marked  influence  on  the  boundaries  of  faunas  and  must  of  course  be 
considered  in  mapping  faunal  areas. 

Outside  of  purely  tropical  regions,  as  Merriam  ('94)  has  shown, 
temperature  is  not  active  throughout  the  year,  but  only  at  certain 
seasons.  Merriam  has  therefore  formulated  the  following  Laws  of 
Temperature  Control:  First,  " Animals  and  plants  are  restricted  in 
northward  distribution  by  the  total  quantity  of  heat  during  the  season 
of  growth  and  reproduction."  Second,  " Animals  and  plants  are  re- 
stricted in  southward  distribution  by  the  mean  temperature  of  a  brief 
period  covering  the  hottest  part  of  the  year."  With  birds,  of  course, 
it  should  be  understood  that  the  southern  as  well  as  northern  limits 
of  the  breeding  range  are  here  referred  to. 

Faunal  Areas. — It  is  not  possible  for  us  to  treat,  even  in  outline, 
this  absorbing  and  important  subject,  but  for  practical  purposes,  if 
for  no  other  reasons,  the  student  should  become  familiar  with  the 
boundaries  of  the  faunal  areas  of  North  America,  as  well  as  the  names 
of  the  birds  which  characterize  them.  This  is  the  study  of  faunal 
geography,  or  zoogeography,  as  compared  with  that  of  political 
geography. 

Examination  of  maps  showing  (1)  the  ranges  of  the  families,  (2)  the 
genera,  and  (3)  the  species  of  birds,  reveals  the  fact  that  many  families, 
genera  and  species  are  distributed,  respectively,  over  essentially  the 
same  parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  It  will  also  be  found  that  these  areas 
are  occupied  by  other  families,  genera  and  species  of  animals  as  well 
as  of  plants.  Such  areas  are  therefore  called  natural  life  areas,  and  their 
rank  conforms  more  or  less  closely  to  the  systematic  standing  of  the 
groups  of  animals  inhabiting  them.  While  the  faunal  terms  employed 
are  not  always  used  in  the  same  sense  (see  Merriam  '92,  and  Allen  '93), 
it  may  be  said  that  families  are  distributed  through  regions,  genera 
through  zones,  and  species  in  faunas. 

North  America,  it  will  be  observed  on  the  cover  map,  here  repro- 
duced by  courtesy  of  the  Biological  Survey,  is  divided  primarily  into 
three  Regions,*  the  Boreal,  the  Austral  and  the  Tropical.  The  last, 
occupying  only  the  southern  extremities  of  Florida  and  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, has  in  these  limits  no  zonal  subdivisions. 

Zones  of  the  Boreal  Region. — The  Boreal  Region  includes  three 
transcontinental  zones,  the  Arctic,  the  Hudsonian,  and  the  Canadian. 
The  first-named  extends  southward  to  the  northern  limit  of  forests, 
and  not  only  crosses  this  continent  but  is  circumpolar;  the  uniform 
climatic  conditions  of  the  Arctic  portions  of  both  hemispheres,  in  con- 
nection with  their  comparative  proximity,  being  responsible  for  essen- 

*For  detailed  consideration  of  the  characteristics  of  these  Regions  consult 
Merriam  '98. 


ZONES  OF  THE  BOREAL  REGION  29 

tially  similar  faunas.  Consequently,  Ptarmigan,  Gyrfalcons,  Snowy 
Owls,  Snow  Buntings,  and  numerous  species  of  water  birds  are  found 
in  northern  Eurasia  as  well  as  in  northern  North  America.  In  fact, 
as  Allen  ('93)  has  shown,  60  of  the  65  genera  of  birds  occurring  in  the 
American  Arctic  are  circumpolar.  The  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  Sierras  reaching  above  timberline,  where,  at  the  border  of  perpetual 
snow,  Leucostictes,  the  Pipit  and  White-tailed  Ptarmigan  nest, 
should,  it  seems,  also  be  included  in  the  Arctic  zone,  altitude  rather  than 
latitude  here  giving  the  required  low  temperature. 

The  Hudsonian  zone  marks  the  northern  limit  of  forest  growth  of 
firs  and  spruces.  It  will  be  observed  that  on  both  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts,  as  well  as  along  the  Mackenzie  River,  its  northern 
limits  are  considerably  extended;  while  southward  it  pushes  a  spur 
down  the  crest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  with  outlying  'islands'  as  far 
south  as  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  The  Rough-legged  Hawk,  Great 
Gray  Owl,  Pine  Grosbeak,  Northern  Shrike  and  Alice's  Thrush  are 
characteristic  birds  of  this  zone. 

The  Canadian  zone  is  distinguished  by  the  high  development  of 
its  coniferous  forests.  Its  extension  southward  along  the  Alleghanies 
will  be  noted,  its  altitude  increasing  as  the  latitude  decreases.  Thus, 
where  primeval  coniferous  forests  have  not  been  destroyed,  the  Cana- 
dian zone  appears  in  Massachusetts  at  an  elevation  of  1,800  feet  (Howe 
and  Allen),  in  Pennsylvania  at  2,000  feet  (Dwight),  and  in  North 
Carolina  at  4,500  feet  (Brewster). 

Reference  to  the  Biological  Survey  map  will  show  how  numerous 
are  the  Canadian  zone  'islands'  on  the  higher  portions  of  our  western 
mountain  systems.  Evidences  of  this  zone  should  also  be  shown  at 
least  as  far  south  as  the  southern  end  of  the  Mexican  tableland, 
where,  at  an  elevation  of  from  8,000  to  13,000  feet  in  heavy  forests 
of  pine  and  spruce,  such  characteristic  Canadian  species  as  the 
Red  Crossbill,  Evening  Grosbeak,  Junco,  Siskin,  and  Brown  Creeper 
are  represented  by  closely  allied  forms  which  breed  there  in 
abundance. 

In  addition  to  the  species  just  named,  the  Canadian  zone  is  char- 
acterized by  the  presence  in  the  nesting  season  of  the  Spruce  Partridge, 
Hawk  Owl,  Goshawk,  Three-toed  Woodpeckers,  Yellow-bellied  Fly- 
catcher, Canada  Jay,  White-throated  Sparrow,  Tennessee,  Myrtle, 
Blackpoll,  Bay-breasted,  Blackburnian,  Magnolia,  and  Canadian  War- 
blers, Winter  Wren,  Red-breasted  Nuthatch,  Ruby-  and  Golden-crowned 
Kinglets,  Bicknell's,  Olive-backed,  and  Hermit  Thrushes. 

The  Zones  of  the  Austral  Region. — The  Transition,  Upper  Austral, 
and  Lower  Austral  zones,  as  has  been  before  remarked,  are  transconti- 
nental, but  differences  in  rainfall  separate  them  into  eastern  humid, 
western  arid,  and  Pacific  coast  humid  divisions. 

The  eastern  humid  and  western  arid  divisions  merge  into  one 
another  at  about  the  one-hundredth  meridian,  or,  approximately, 
where,  in  going  westward,  the  prairies  pass  into  the  plains.  To  the. 


30          ZONES  OF  THE  AUSTRAL  REGION 

eastward  of  this  meridian  the  annual  rainfall  exceeds  25  inches;  to  the 
westward,  except  on  the  Pacific  coast,  it  is  below  this  amount. 

In  the  present  connection  we  may  restrict  our  statements  concerning 
the  three  zones  of  the  Austral  Region  to  their  eastern  or  humid  por- 
tions, which  have  long  been  known  as  the  Alleghanian,  Carolinian, 
and  Austroriparian  or  Louisianiaii  faunas  (see  Allen  71). 

The  Alleghanian,  as  will  be  observed  on  the  map,  extends  at  sea- 
level  only  as  far  south  as  Long  Island,  where,  in  response  to  conditions 
which  produce  scrub  oak  and  pitch  pines,  it  occupies  the  southern 
portion  of  the  island,  while  the  Carolinian  element  is  restricted  to  the 
more  fertile  northern  shore. 

Crossing  northern  New  Jersey  and  northeastern  Pennsylvania, 
the  Alleghanian  fauna  extends  southwestward  along  'the  Alleghanies 
to  northern  Georgia,  appearing  at  an  ever  increasing  altitude.  Thus 
in  western  Maryland  its  lower  limit  is  1,200-1,300  feet  (Preble),  in 
North  Carolina  2,500  feet  (Brewster),  and  in  Georgia  3,500  feet 
(Howell). 

The  following  species  are  characteristic  of  the  Alleghanian  fauna: 
Virginia  Rail,  Sora,  Bob-white,  Mourning  Dove,  Black-billed  and 
Yellow-billed  Cuckoos,  Kingbird,  Crested  Flycatcher,  Bobolink,  Cow- 
bird,  Meadowlark,  Baltimore  and  Orchard  Orioles,  Chipping  and 
Field  Sparrows,  Towhee,  Indigo  Bunting,  Yellow-throated  and  Blue- 
headed  Vireos,  Golden-winged  and  Pine  Warblers,  Catbird,  Brown 
Thrasher,  House  Wren,  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren,  White-breasted 
Nuthatch,  Wood  Thrush  and  Wilson's  Thrush. 

The  Carolinian  fauna,  or  humid  division  of  the  Upper  Austral 
zone,  reaches  the  Atlantic  seaboard  only  between  Virginia  and  south- 
eastern New  York.  Westward  it  ascends  the  Alleghanies  to  an  alti- 
tude of  1,200  feet  in  Maryland  (Preble),  2,500  feet  in  North  Carolina 
(Brewster),  and  3,500  feet  in  extreme  northeastern  Georgia  (Howell). 
At  this  point  it  sweeps  around  the  extreme  southern  extension  of  the 
Alleghanian  fauna  and  expands  toward  the  north  and  west  as  indi- 
cated by  the  map.  In  the  Atlantic  States  a  tinge  of  the  Carolinian  fauna 
is  present  at  least  as  far  east  as  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  and  as  far 
north  as  Portland  in  the  Connecticut  Valley,  and  Fishkill  in  the  Hudson 
Valley. 

Characteristic  Carolinian  birds  are  Acadian  Flycatcher,  Fish  Crow, 
Cardinal,  Prothonotary,  Worm-eating  and  Blue-winged  Warblers, 
Louisiana  Water-Thrush,  Kentucky  and  Hooded  Warblers,  Chat, 
Carolina  Wren,  and  Tufted  Titmouse. 

The  Austroriparian  fauna,  or  humid  division  of  the  Lower  Austral 
zone,  as  its  name  implies,  occupies  the  South  Atlantic  States  from 
the  vicinity  of  Cape  Charles,  Virginia,  to  the  tropical  portions  of  south- 
ern Florida,  thence  westward  through  the  Gulf  States  and  nofth- 
ward  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  southern  Illinois  and  southern  Kansas. 
Among  its  characteristic  birds  are  the  Water-Turkey,  Louisiana  Heron, 
Black  Vulture,  Ground  Dove,  Carolina  Paroquet  (now  extinct  in  this 


THE  FLORIDIAN  FAUNA  31 

fauna),  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker,  Chuck -will's -widow,  Nonpareil, 
Bachman's  Sparrow,  Boat-tailed  Grackle,  Yellow-throated  Warbler, 
and  Brown-headed  Nuthatch. 

The  Floridian  Fauna. — To  the  three  faunas  above  named  may  be 
added  the  Floridian  fauna,  a  name  applied  to  that  part  of  the  Tropical 
Region  which  occupies  southern  Florida  as  far  north  as  Lake  Worth 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  and  the  mouth  of  the  Caloosahatchie  River  on 
the  Gulf  Coast,  which  is  approximately  the  northern  limit  of  cocoanut 
palms.  The  species  which  characterize  this  fauna  are  mainly  West 
Indian  and  a  number  of  them  are  confined  to  the  Florida  Keys.  They 
are  the  Noddy  and  Sooty  Terns,  Great  White  Heron  (Ardea  occidentalis) , 
Reddish  Egret,  Caracara,  Everglade  Kite,  White-crowned  Pigeon, 
Mangrove  Cuckoo,  and  Black- whiskered  Vireo. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

What  group  of  animals  is  most  widely  distributed?  Mention  several 
wide-ranging  species  of  birds  and  outline  their  distribution.  Mention 
several  having  a  restricted  range  on  continental  areas.  Mention  several 
which  are  confined  to  islands.  What  factors  have  exerted  an  influence  on 
the  distribution  of  birds?  Illustrate  with  definite  instances.  Mention 
several  islands  which  were  formerly  connected  with  continents.  Compare 
their  bird-life  with  that  of  the  adjoining  part  of  the  continent  from  which 
they  have  been  separated.  Describe  the  probable  influence  of  the  Glacial 
Period  on  the  distribution  of  the  White  Pelicans  (see  beyond,  under  Migra- 
tion). Mention  other  groups  of  birds  which  have  probably  been  similarly 
affected.  What  are  the  factors  now  controlling  the  distribution  of  birds? 
Compare  the  effect  of  temperature  with  that  produced  by  humidity.  What 
is  Merriam's  Law  of  Temperature  Control?  How  may  altitude  and  slope 
exposure  influence  distribution?  Compare  political  with  zoological  geog- 
raphy. How  are  the  boundaries  of  natural  life  areas  determined?  What 
are  the  primary  life  areas  of  North  America?  Name  and  outline  the  three 
zones  of  the  Boreal  Region  and  mention  several  species  characteristic  of 
each.  Describe  the  general  characters  of  each  zone;  topography,  climate, 
forest-growth,  etc.  Treat  in  a  similar  manner  the  humid  portions  of  the 
Austral  Region,  and  the  Floridian  fauna  of  the  Tropical  Region,  tracing 
their  extent  in  the  map,  mentioning  some  characteristic  trees,  plants  and 
crops  as  well  as  birds,  and  discussing  their  general  topographic  and  climatic 
features  in  relation  to  their  effect  on  the  distribution  of  life. 

REFERENCES 

1871.  ALLEN,  J.  A.,  A  Sketch  of  the  Bird  Faunae  of  Eastern  North 
America,  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  ZooL,  II,  pp.  375-425. — 1892.  ALLEN,  J.  A., 
The  Geographical  Distribution  of  North  American  Mammals,  Bull.  Am. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  IV,  pp.  199-244;  maps. — 1892.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.,  The 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in  North  America  with  Special  Reference 
to  the  Mammalia,  Proc.  Biql.  Soc.  Wash.,  VII,  pp.  1-64,  one  map. — 1893. 
ALLEN,  J.  A.,  The  Geographical  Origin  and  Distribution  of  North  American 
Birds  Considered  in  Relation  to  the  Faunal  Areas  of  North  America,  The 
Auk,  X,  pp.  97-150,  2  maps. — 1894.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.,  Laws  of  Temperature 
Control  of  the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Terrestrial  Animals  and  Plants, 
Nat.  Geog.  Mag.,  VI,  pp.  229-238,  3  maps. — 1895.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.,  The 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Animals  and  Plants  in  North  America,  Year- 
book U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agriculture,  for  1894,  pp.  203-214. — 1898.  MERRIAM, 
C.  H.,  Life  Zones  and  Crop  Zones  of  the  United  States,  Bull.  No.  10,  Biolog- 


32  MIGRATION   OF  BIRDS 

ical  Survey,  pp.  1-79,  one  map. — 1904.    RUSSELL,  I.  C.,  North  America, 
Chap.  Ill,  Climate,  pp.  184-203  (Appleton). 

NOTE. — Discussion  of  the  faunal  affinities  of  the  region  in  question 
will  frequently  be  found  as  introductory  matter  in  'local'  or  state  bird 
lists;  see  especially  (in  the  Bibliographical  Appendix)  under  Georgia,  1909, 
Howell;  Illinois,  1890,  Ridgway;  Iowa,  1907,  Anderson;  Kentucky,  1910, 
Howell;  Maine,  1908,  Knight;  Maryland,  1900,  Merriam  and  Preble; 
Massachusetts,  1901,  Howe  and  Allen;  Nebraska,  1909,  Wolcott;  New 
Hampshire,  1904,  Allen;  New  Jersey,  1894,  1909,  Stone;  New  York,  1910, 
Eaton;  North  Carolina,  1886,  Brewster;  Ohio,  1903,  Jones;  Pennsylvania, 
Stone,  1891,  1894;  Dwight,  1892;  Todd,  1893,  1904.  South  Carolina, 
1890,  1891,  Loomis;  Tennessee,  1910,  Howell;  Virginia,  1890,  Rives;  West 
Virginia,  1890,  1898,  Rives. 

THE  MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS 

Times  of  Migration 
Extent  of  Migration 
Routes  of  Migration 
How  Birds  Migrate 
Why  Do  Birds  Migrate? 

Migration  is  the  most  distinctive  phase  of  bird-life.  Certain  mam- 
mals, fishes,  and  even  insects  migrate,  but  no  animals  approach  birds 
in  the  extent  of  their  migrations.  Wholly  aside  from  the  interest  which 
is  attached  to  a  study  of  bird  migration  in  the  broader  aspects,  as  we 
attempt  to  determine  its  origin  and  extent  and  the  various  factors 
which  govern  the  times  and  manner  of  a  bird's  journeys,  there  is  a 
fascination  and  excitement  for  the  student  in  observing  the  arrival  and 
passage  of  the  great  army  of  feathered  travelers  which  ever  renews 
itself  when  birds 

"Part  loosely  wing  the  region;  part  more  wise, 
In  common,  ranged  in  figure,  wedge  their  way 
Intelligent  of  seasons,  and  set  forth 
Their  aery  caravan,  high  over  seas." 

To  the  nature  lover  birds  are  a  living  calendar.  "What  was  that 
sound  that  came  on  the  softened  air?  It  was  the  warble  of  the  Blue- 
bird from  the  scraggy  orchard  yonder.  When  this  is  heard,  then  has 
spring  arrived." 

Times  of  Migration. — According  to  the  nature  of  their  occurrence 
the  birds  of  temperate  regions  may  be  grouped  seasonally  as  follows: 

1.  Permanent    Residents. — Includes    species    that    are    represented 
in  the  same  locality  throughout  the  year.    In  temperate  and  boreal 
Eastern  North  America  few  species  are  permanently  resident  as  indi- 
viduals.   Possibly  Ruffed  Grouse  and  Bob-whites  pass  their  lives  in  a 
comparatively  restricted  area.    But  the  winter  Crows,  Jays,  and  Nut- 
hatches of  a  certain  locality  are  probably  not  the  ones  that  nested  there. 

2.  Summer   Residents. — Includes    species   that    come    to    us    from 
farther  south  in  the  spring,  rear  their  young,  and  return  to  the  south 
in  the  fall.   As  a  rule,  the  first  species  to  come  in  the  spring  are  the  last 


TIMES  OF  MIGRATION  33 

to  leave  in  the  fall,  while  the  later  arrivals  are  among  the  first  depart- 
ures. With  this  group  should  also  be  placed  a  small  number  of  what 
may  be  called  Summer  Visitants,  composed  of  birds  which,  like  the 
Little  Blue  Heron  and  White  Egrets,  after  breeding  in  more  southern 
latitudes  may  wander  as  far  as  several  hundred  miles  northward.  The 
term  Summer  Visitant  may  also  be  applied  to  Shearwaters  and  Petrels, 
which,  having  bred  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  during  our  winter, 
pass  the  summer  off  our  coasts. 

3.  Transient   Visitants. — Includes  species  which,  nesting  north  of 
a  given  locality  and  wintering  south  of  it,  consequently  pass  through 
it  when  migrating.    Most  transient  visitants  may  be  found  at  a  certain 
locality  on  both  their  spring  and  fall  migrations,  but  a  small  number 
occur  at  only  one  season.    In  the  Mississippi  Valley,  for  example,  the 
Golden  Plover  is  found  in  the  spring  but  much  less  frequently  in  the 
fall;  while  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  the  Black  Tern  appears  during  the 
fall  migration  but  is  unknown  in  the  spring.    The  earlier  Transient 
Visitants,  for  example  the  Fox  Sparrow  and  Hermit  Thrush,   may 
remain  in  the  latitude  of  New  York  City  for  a  month  or  more,  but  the 
later  arrivals  pass  by  in  a  week  or  ten  days. 

4.  Winter  Residents. — Includes  species  which  come  to  us  in  the  fall 
and  remain  until  the  spring.  Some,  like  the  Junco,  are  of  regular  occur- 
rence. Others,  like  the  Pine  Grosbeak,  may  be  abundant  some  winters 
and  rare  or  wanting  other  winters.  To  these  four  groups  may  be  added 
a  fifth  of  birds  of  accidental  occurrence. 

Let  us  now  review  the  bird-life  of  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City  for 
the  year  as  it  is  affected  by  migration.  I  here  abridge  from  "Bird-Life." 

January. — Probably  during  no  other  month  is  there  less  movement 
among  our  birds  than  in  January.  The  regular  winter  residents  have 
come;  the  fall  migrants,  which  may  have  lingered  until  December, 
have  gone,  and  the  earliest  spring  migrants  will  not  arrive  before  the 
latter  part  of  February  or  early  March.  January,  in  fact,  is  the  only 
month  in  the  year  in  which  as  a  rule  some  birds  do  not  arrive  or  depart. 
This  rule,  however,  may  be  broken  by  such  irregular  birds  as  the  Snowy 
Owl,  Pine  Grosbeak,  or  Redpoll,  which  wander  southward  in  search 
of  food.  Food,  indeed,  is  now  the  one  concern  of  birds  and  their  move- 
ments are  largely  governed  by  its  supply.  Snow  may  fall  and  blizzards 
rage,  but  so  long  as  birds  find  sufficient  to  eat  they  apparently  are  not 
affected  by  the  weather.  Where  seed-bearing  weeds  are  accessible  there 
we  may  look  for  Juncos  and  Tree  Sparrows ;  cedar  trees  bearing  berries 
often  tempt  Waxwings,  Robins  and  Bluebirds  to  winter  near  them. 
When  bayberries  are  abundant  we  may  expect  Myrtle  Warblers  to 
remain  through  the  winter.  I  recall  a  sheltered  pile  of  buckwheat 
chaff  at  Englewood,  N.  J.,  which  furnished  food  for  a  small  flock  of 
Mourning  Doves  all  one  winter.  In  Central  Park,  New  York  City,  a 
Mockingbird,  which  had  evidently  escaped  from  a  cage,  was  under 
daily  observation  from  October  to  January,  and  thrived  during  the 
exceptionally  severe  winter  while  nourished  by  the  berries  of  a  privet 


34  TIMES  OF  MIGRATION 

tree.  Food,  therefore,  rather  than  temperature  is  the  all  important 
factor  in  a  bird's  life  at  this  season. 

February/ — The  conditions  prevailing  during  January  will  be 
practically  unchanged  until  the  latter  half  of  February.  Then,  should 
there  be  a  period  of  mild  weather,  we  may  expect  to  hear  the  Meadow- 
lark,  Song  Sparrow,  and  Bluebird,  inaugurate  the  season  of  song,  and 
note  the  appearance  of  Robins,  Purple  Crackles,  and  Red-winged 
Blackbirds,  which  pass  the  winter  such  a  short  distance  south  that 
they  appear  at  the  first  sign  of  returning  spring.  It  is  pFQ^able  that 
in  most  cases  the  first  individuals  of  our  summer  resident  species  to 
arrive  remain  to  nest.  (See  beyond,  under  Nesting.) 

March. — While  March  is  certain  to  witness  a  general  northward 
movement  among  the  birds,  the  date  of  their  arrival  is  as  uncertain 
as  the  weather  of  the  month  itself.  Continued  severe  weather  prevents 
the  advance,  which  a  higher  temperature  as  surely  occasions.  When 
ice  leaves  the  bays,  ponds  and  rivers  we  may  look  for  Ducks  and  Geese. 
When  successive  thaws  have  made  the  ground  soft  enough  to  probe, 
we  may  expect  the  Woodcock.  With  the  advent  of  insects  their  enemy 
the  Phoebe  will  appear. 

The  weather  which  hastens  the  arrival  of  birds  from  the  south, 
also  prompts  certain  of  our  winter  residents  to  begin  their  northward 
journey. 

April. — The  developments  in  the  plant  world,  in  early  April,  which 
are  apparent  to  the  least  observant,  are  accompanied  by  corresponding 
but  less  noticed  activities  in  the  world  of  birds.  The  migratory  move-^ 
ment  now  gains  strength  rapidly  and  during  the  latter  part  of  the  month 
one  may  expect  new  arrivals  daily. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  earlier  migrants  of  the  month  are  largely 
seed-eaters,  while  those  which  come  later  are  insectivorous,  particularly 
those  insect-eaters,  which  like  the  Swallows,  Swift  and  Nighthawk 
feed  upon  the  wing. 

May. — As  the  season  advances,  marked  changes  in  temperature 
are  less  likely  to  occur,  and  the  migration  becomes  more  regular  and 
continuous.  In  February  and  March  there  may  be  two  weeks  or  more 
variation  in  the  times  of  arrival  of  the  same  species  in  different  years; 
in  May  birds  usually  arrive  within  a  day  or  two  of  a  certain  date. 
Nevertheless  the  force  of  the  migratory  current  is  still  closely  dependent 
on  meteorologic  conditions,  and  under  the  encouragement  of  high 
temperature  may  reach  the  proportions  of  a  'wave/  which  when  dammed 
by  a  sudden  return  of  cold  weather,  floods  the  woods  with  migrants. 
Birds  are  then  doubtless  more  abundant  than  at  any  other  season.  The 
arrival  of  ten  or  a  dozen  species  may  be  noted  on  the  same  date,  and  a 
total  of  as  many  as  144  species  has  been  recorded  by  a  single  observer 
during  one  day.  (Lynds  Jones  at  Oberlin,  O.,  May  13,  1907.) 

After  the  middle  of  the  month  birds  begin  to  decrease  in  numbers 
as  the  transient  visitants  pass  northward,  and  by  the  first  week  in  June , 
our  bird-life  is  composed  of  permanent  residents  and  summer  residents. 


TIMES  OF  MIGRATION  35 

It  will  be  noticed  that  with  but  few  exceptions  the  birds  arriving  in 
May  are  insectivorous;  particularly  those  insect-eating  birds  which 
obtain  their  food  from  vegetation.  Thus,  no  sooner  are  the  unfolding 
leaves  and  opening  blossoms  exposed  to  the  attack  of  insects  than  the 
Vireos  and  Warblers  appear  to  protect  them,  and  the  abundance  of 
these  small  birds  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  bird-life  of  the  month. 

June. — June  is  the  home  month  of  the  year.  Nest-building,  egg- 
laying,  incubating,  and  the  care  of  the  young  now  make  constant 
and  exceptional  demands  on  the  birds,  which,  in  response,  exhibit  traits 
shown  only  during  the  nesting  season. 

A  feature  of  the  month  is  the  formation  of  roosts  which  are  nightly 
frequented  by  the  now  fully  grown  young  of  such  early-breeding  birds 
as  the  Purple  Grackle  and  Robin.  When  a  second  brood  is  reared,  as 
with  the  Robin,  the  young  may  be  accompanied  to  the  roost  by  only 
the  male  parent,  but  in  the  one-brooded  Grackle  the  roost  is  used  by 
both  adults  and  young. 

July. — The  full  development  of  the  bird's  year  is  reached  in  June, 
and  as  early  as  the  first  week  in  July  there  are  evidences  of  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  journey  southward.  The  young  of  certain  species  which 
rear  but  one  brood,  accompanied  by  their  parents,  now  wander  about 
the  country,  and  may  be  found  in  new  localities.  In  some  cases  these 
families  join  others  of  their  kind,  forming  small  flocks,  the  nucleus 
of  the  great  gatherings  seen  later.  Examples  are  Crackles,  Red-winged 
Blackbirds,  Bobolinks,  and  Tree  Swallows.  The  latter  increase  rapidly 
in  number,  and  by  July  10  we  may  see  them,  late  each  afternoon, 
flying  to  their  roosts  in  the  marshes. 

It  is  during  this  and  the  following  month  that  the  postbreeding 
northward  wanderings  of  certain  more  southern  birds,  notably  Herons, 
occur. 

August. — August  is  the  month  of  molt,  and  when  molting,  birds  are 
less  in  evidence  than  at  any  other  time.  What  becomes  of  many  of 
our  birds  in  August  it  is  difficult  to  say.  Baltimore  Orioles,  for  instance, 
are  rare  from  the  1st  to  the  20th,  but  after  that  date  are  seen  commonly. 
Possibly  their  apparent  increase  in  numbers  may  in  part  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  have  now  in  a  measure  regained  their  voices  and  often 
utter  nearly  their  full  song.  However  this  may  be,  whether  the  seem- 
ing scarcity  of  birds  in  August  is  due  to  their  silence  and  inactivity  or 
to  their  actual  departure,  certain  it  is  that  before  the  fall  migration 
brings  arrivals  daily  from  the  north,  one  may  spend  hours  in  the  woods 
and  see  little  besides  Wood  Pewees  and  Red-eyed  Vireos,  whose  abun- 
dance may  also  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  they  are  still  in  song. 

After  the  middle  of  the  month  migrants  from  the  north  will  be 
found  in  increasing  numbers,  but  the  characteristic  bird-life  of  August 
will  be  found  in  the  marshes.  There  the  Swallows,  Red-winged  Black- 
birds and  Bobolinks,  known  now  as  Reed-birds,  come  in  increasing 
numbers  to  roost  in  the  reeds,  the  last  two  with  the  Sora  Rail  attracted 
also  by  the  ripening  wild  rice. 
5 


36  TIMES  OF  MIGRATION 

September. — The  first  marked  fall  in  the  temperature  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  flight  of  migrants  which,  because  of  the  denser  vegetation 
and  absence  of  song,  are  much  more  difficult  of  observation  than  in 
May.  Birds  of  the  year,  that  is  those  born  the  preceding  season,  will 
outnumber  the  adults,  and  in  most  cases  their  plumage  will  be  quite 
unlike  that  worn  by  their  parents  in  May,  while,  in  many  instances, 
even  the  adults  themselves  will  appear  in  a  changed  costume.  Often 
this  new  dress  will  resemble  that  of  the  immature  bird,  a  fact  which 
in  part  accounts  for  the  apparent  scarcity  of  old  birds  in  the  fall 
migration. 

In  September  more  migrating  birds  are  killed  by  striking  light- 
houses or  illuminated  towers  than  in  any  other  month  of  the  year.  This 
is  doubtless  owing  to  the  fact  that  stormy  or  foggy  weather  is  more 
apt  to  prevail  in  September  than  during  any  other  period  of  active 
migration;  that  the  majority  of  migrants  are  young  and  inexperienced, 
and  that  probably  more  migrants  pass  in  September  than  in  any  other 
month.  It  does  not  follow  from  this  statement,  however,  that  birds 
may  be  so  abundant  on  any  one  day  as  they  are  under  certain  conditions 
in  May,  when,  as  before  described,  low  temperature  checks  the  north- 
ward movement  and  causes  an  overflow. 

About  September  25  the  first  winter  residents  arrive,  and  after  that 
date  birds  rapidly  decrease  in  numbers. 

October. — Early  October  generally  brings  the  first  killing  frost, 
causing  the  leaves  to  fall  in  fluttering  showers  and  depriving  many 
insectivorous  birds  of  their  food  and  shelter.  Flycatchers,  Warblers, 
Vireos,  as  well  as  Swallows,  now  take  their  departure,  arid  after  the 
fifteenth  of  the  month  few  insect-eating  birds  remain,  except  those 
which,  like  Woodpeckers,  feed  on  insects'  eggs  or  larvae. 

This  is  the  season  of  Sparrows.  In  countless  numbers  they  throng 
old  stubble,  potato  and  corn  fields,  doing  untold  good  by  destroying 
the  seeds  of  noxious  weeds.  Song,  Field,  Chipping  and  Vesper  Spar- 
rows may  be  found  in  flocks,  and  with  them  will  be  the  lately  arrived 
Juncos,  Tree  and  Fox  Sparrows. 

The  diurnal  migration  of  Crows  and  of  Hawks,  which  in  scattered 
companies  string  across  the  sky,  the  foraging  flocks  of  Grackles,  and, 
in  recent  years,  the  gatherings  of  European  Starlings,  are  features  of 
the  bird-life  of  the  month. 

November. — It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  first  migrants  to  come 
in  the  spring  are  the  last  to  leave  in  the  fall.  The  bird-life  of  November, 
therefore,  closely  resembles  that  of  March.  Doubtless  this  is  because 
both  months  furnish  essentially  the  same  kind  of  food.  Thus  Loons, 
Grebes,  Ducks,  Geese  and  Kingfishers  remain  until  November  or 
early  December,  when  the  forming  of  ice  deprives  them  of  food  and 
forces  them  to  seek  open  water.  Woodcock  and  Snipe  linger  until 
they  can  no  longer  probe  the  frost-hardened  earth;  but  the  thaws  of 
March  will  bring  all  these  birds  back  to  us  by  restoring  their  food. 

December. — The  character  of  the  bird-life  of  December  depends 


PERMANENT  RESIDENTS  37 

largely  upon  the  mildness  or  severity  of  the  season.  Should  the  ponds 
and  streams  remain  open,  the  ground  be  unfrozen,  and  little  or  no 
snow  fall,  many  of  the  migrant  species  of  November  will  linger  into 
December.  They  rarely  are  found,  however,  after  the  middle  of  the 
month,  when  our  bird-life  is  again  reduced  to  its  simplest  terms  of 
permanent  residents  and  winter  visitants. 

Similarity  of  feeding  habits  now  brings  certain  species  into  loose 
bands  whose  movements  are  governed  largely  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  food.  Their  wanderings  may  lead  them  over  large  areas, 
and  our  orchards  and  dooryards  may  now  be  visited  by  species  which 
will  eagerly  partake  of  our  bounty.  Crumbs  and  seeds  will  bring 
Juncos,  Tree  Sparrows  and  Purple  Finches;  an  old  seed-filled  sun- 
flower head  may  prove  a  feast  for  Goldfinches,  while  bits  of  meat, 
suet,  or  ham  bone  will  be  welcomed  by  Chickadees,  Nuthatches  and 
Downy  Woodpeckers.  (On  this  subject  of  winter  feeding  consult  the 
publications  of  the  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies.) 

The  flight  of  Crows  to  and  from  their  roosts  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristic sights  of  the  bird-life  of  this  season. 

This  outline  of  changes  in  the  bird-life  of  the  year  occasioned  by 
migration,  may  be  summarized  by  presenting  a  list  of  the  commoner 
permanent  residents  of  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City  and  adding 
chronological  tables  of  migration. 

PERMANENT    RESIDENTS 

Bob-white,  Ruffed  Grouse,  Red-shouldered  Hawk,  Red-tailed 
Hawk,  Broad-winged  Hawk,*  Marsh  Hawk,*  Sparrow  Hawk,  Duck 
Hawk,*  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  Cooper's  Hawk,  Bald  Eagle,*  Screech 
Owl,  Long-eared  Owl,  Short-eared  Owl,  Barred  Owl,  Great  Horned 
Owl,  Downy  Woodpecker,  Hairy  Woodpecker,  Red-headed  Wood- 
pecker,* Flicker,  American  Crow,  Fish  Crow,  Blue  Jay,  Starling, 
Meadowlark,  Song  Sparrow,  House  Sparrow,  American  Goldfinch, 
European  Goldfinch,  Purple  Finch,  Cardinal,  Cedar  Waxwing,*  Caro- 
lina Wren,  Chickadee,  Tufted  Titmouse,  White-breasted  Nuthatch, 
Robin,*  Bluebird. 

To  complete  the  possible  winter  avifauna,  a  list  of  winter  resident 
land  birds  and  of  the  commoner  winter  water  birds  is  added. 

WINTER    RESIDENTS 

Black-backed  Gull,  Herring  Gull,  Kittiwake,  Bonaparte's  Gull, 
Old  Squaw,  Surf  Scoter,  White- winged  Scoter,  Saw- whet  Owl,*  Horned 
Lark,  Prairie  Horned  Lark,  Junco,  Tree  Sparrow,  Pine  Siskin,* 
Red-poll,*  Snowflake,  Lapland  Longspur,*  Red  Crossbill,*  White- 
winged  Crossbill,*  Pine  Grosbeak,*  Northern  Shrike,*  Winter  Wren, 
Brown  Creeper,  Red-breasted  Nuthatch,*  Golden-crowned  Kinglet. 

*Rare  or  irregular  in  winter. 


38  SPRING  MIGRATION 


SPRING    MIGRATION 

Arrival  of  Summer  Residents  and  Transients*  from  the  south. 

February  15-March  10.— Canada  Goose  (April  20-30),  Pintail 
(April),  Scaup  Duck  (April  20-30),  Purple  Crackle,  Rusty  Blackbird 
(May  1-10),  Red-winged  Blackbird,  Robin,  Bluebird. 

March  10-20. — Woodcock,  Phcebe,  Meadowlark,  Cowbird,  Fox 
Sparrow  (April  1-15). 

March  20-31.— Red-breasted  Merganser  (May  1-10),  Wilson's 
Snipe  (May  1-10),  Kingfisher,  Mourning  Dove,  Swamp  Sparrow,  White- 
throated  Sparrow  (May  15-30),  Field  Sparrow. 

April  1-10. — Great  Blue  Heron,  Black-crowned  Night  Heron, 
Fish  Hawk,  Purple  Finch,  Vesper  Sparrow,  Savanna  Sparrow  (May 
1-15),  Chipping  Sparrow,  Tree  Swallow  (May  15-31),  Myrtle  Warbler 
(May  10-20),  Pipit  (April  15-25),  Hermit  Thrush  (April  25-May  5). 

April  10-20.— Bittern,  Green  Heron,  Clapper  Rail,  Yellow-bellied 
Sapsucker  (April  20-30),  Barn  Swallow,  Yellow  Palm  Warbler  (April 
25-May  10),  Pine  Warbler,  Louisiana  Water-Thrush,  Ruby-crowned 
Kinglet  (May  1-15). 

April  20-30. — Virginia  Rail,  Sora,  Spotted  Sandpiper,  Whip-poor- 
will,  Chimney  Swift,  Least  Flycatcher,  Seaside  Sparrow,  Sharp-tailed 
Sparrow,  Towhee,  Blue-headed  Vireo  (May  10-15),  Purple  Martin, 
Cliff  Swallow,  Bank  Swallow,  Rough-winged  Swallow,  Black  and 
White  Warbler,  Black-throated  Green  Warbler  (May  15-25),  Oven- 
bird,  House  Wren,  Brown  Thrasher,  Catbird,  Wood  Thrush. 

May  1-10. — Least  Bittern,  Solitary  Sandpiper  (May  15-25),  Semi- 
palmated  Sandpiper  (June  1-10),  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  Black-billed 
Cuckoo,  Nighthawk,  Ruby-throated  Hummingbird,  Crested  Fly- 
catcher, Kingbird,  Baltimore  Oriole,  Orchard  Oriole,  Bobolink,  Grass- 
hopper Sparrow,  Lincoln's  Sparrow,  (May  15-25),  Indigo  Bunting, 
Rose-breasted  Grosbeak,  Scarlet  Tanager,  Red-eyed  Vireo,  Warbling 
Vireo,  Yellow-throated  Vireo,  White-eyed  Vireo,  Nashville  Warbler 
(May  15-25),  Blue-winged  Warbler,  Parula  Warbler,  Yellow  Warbler, 
Black-throated  Blue  Warbler  (May  15-30),  Magnolia  Warbler  (May 
15-30),  Chestnut-sided  Warbler,  Prairie  Warbler,  Maryland  Yellow- 
throat,  Worm-eating  Warbler,  Northern  Water-Thrush  (May  10-30), 
Hooded  Warbler,  Chat,  Redstart,  Veery. 

May  10-20. — Wood  Pewee,  Acadian  Flycatcher,  Alder  Flycatcher, 
Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher  (May  20-30),  White-crowned  Sparrow 
(May  20-30),  Golden- winged  Warbler  (May  15-30),  Tennessee  Warbler 
(May  15-30),  Cape  May  Warbler  (May  15-30),  Blackburnian  Warbler 
(May  15-30),  Bay-breasted  Warbler  (May  15-30),  Black-poll  Warbler 
(May  25- June  5),  Mourning  Warbler  (May  20-30),  Wilson's  Warbler 
(May  20-30),  Canadian  Warbler  (May  25- June  5),  Long-billed  Marsh 
Wren,  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren,  Olive-backed  Thrush  (May  20-30), 

*The  date  of  departure  for  the  north  is  given  for  transient  visitants;  the  omission 
of  this  date  indicates  a  summer  resident. 


FALL  MIGRATION  39 

Gray-cheeked  Thrush  (May  25-June  5),  Bicknell's  Thrush  (May  25- 
June  5). 

FALL    MIGRATION 

I.  Departure  of  Summer  Residents  for  the  south. 

September  1-10. — Acadian  Flycatcher,  Orchard  Oriole,  Rough- 
winged  Swallow,  Worm-eating  Warbler,  Blue-winged  Warbler. 

September  10-20. — Baltimore  Oriole,  Purple  Martin,  Yellow  Warbler, 
Chat. 

September  20-30. — Hummingbird,  Kingbird,  Crested  Flycatcher, 
Wood  Pewee,  Seaside  Sparrow,  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak,  Yellow- 
throated  Vireo,  Warbling  Vireo,  Hooded  Warbler,  Louisiana  Water- 
Thrush,  Veery. 

October  1-10.— Clapper  Rail,  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  Black-billed 
Cuckoo,  Chimney  Swift,  Least  Flycatcher,  Bobolink,  Grasshopper 
Sparrow,  Indigo  Bunting,  Scarlet  Tanager,  Barn  Swallow,  Cliff  Swallow, 
White-eyed  Vireo,  Chestnut-sided  Warbler,  Redstart,  Ovenbird, 
Wood  Thrush. 

October  10—20. — Whip-poor-will,  Nighthawk,  Sharp-tailed  Sparrow, 
Red-eyed  Vireo,  Black  and  White  Warbler,  Maryland  Yellow-throat, 
Long-billed  Marsh  Wren,  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren,  House  Wren, 
Brown  Thrasher,  Catbird. 

October  20-31.— Phoebe,   Towhee,   Tree  Swallow. 

November  1-30*. — Woodcock,  Mourning  Dove,  Kingfisher,  Red- 
winged  Blackbird,  Purple  Grackle,  Cowbird,  Vesper  Sparrow,  Field 
Sparrow,  Chipping  Sparrow,  Swamp  Sparrow. 

II.  Arrival  of  Transients  and  Winter  Visitants  from  the  north. 
August  1-15. — Black  Tern  (September  25-October  10),  Sora  (October 

15-31),  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher  (September  20-30),  Golden-winged 
Warbler  (September  1-10),  Canadian  Warbler  (September  20-30), 
Northern  Water-Thrush  (September  25-October  5). 

August  15-31. — Olive-sided  Flycatcher  (September  10-20),  Migrant 
Shrike  (September),  Tennessee  Warbler  (September  25-October  5), 
Nashville  Warbler  (September  25-October  5),  Cape  May  Warbler 
(September  25-October  5),  Black-throated  Blue  Warbler  (October  15- 
25),  Black-throated  Green  Warbler  (October  15-31),  Magnolia  Warbler 
(October  10-20),  Blackburnian  Warbler  (September  20-30),  Wilson's 
Warbler  (September  20-30),  Red-breasted  Nuthatch  (November  1-30). 

September  1-10. — Scaup  Duck  (April),  Lincoln's  Sparrow  (Novem- 
ber 15-30),  Blackpoll  Warbler  (October  15-25),  Connecticut  Warbler 
(September  20-30). 

September  10-20.— Wilson's  Snipe  (October  15-30),  Blue-headed 
Vireo  (October  15-25),  Philadelphia  Vireo  (September  20-30),  Olive- 
backed  Thrush  (October  20-30),  Bicknell's  Thrush  (October  20-30). 

*Should  the  season  be  exceptionally  mild,  some  of  these  birds  may  remain  until 
late  December. 


40  EXTENT  OF  MIGRATION 

September  20-30.— Herring  Gull  (May),  Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker 
(October  20-30),  Junco  (May  1-10), White-throated  Sparrow  (May  1-20). 
White-crowned  Sparrow  (October  15-30),  Myrtle  Warbler  (May  5-20), 
Yellow  Palm  Warbler  (October  15-30),  Brown  Creeper  (April),  Golden- 
crowned  Kinglet  (April),  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet  (October  20-30), 
Winter  Wren  (April),  Gray-cheeked  Thrush  (October  15-25). 

October  1-10. — Bronzed  Grackle  (December),  Rusty  Blackbird 
(December),  Pipit  (October  25-November  5),  Hermit  Thrush  (Novem- 
ber). 

October  10-31.— Horned  Lark  (April),  Pine  Finch  (April),  Snow 
Bunting  (March),  Redpoll  '(April),  Tree  Sparrow  (April),  Fox  Sparrow 
(November  25-December  10),  Northern  Shrike  (April). 

November. — Pine  Grosbeak,  White-winged  Crossbill,  Red  Cross- 
bill. 

The  Extent  of  Migration. — After  this  glimpse  of  the  swing  of  the 
pendulum  of  migration,  from  a  local  point  of  view,  we  may  extend  our 
inquiry  by  following  the  birds  to  their  winter  quarters,  with  the  object 
of  learning  where  they  go  and  the  routes  they  travel. 

Generally  speaking,  the  extent  of  a  bird's  migration  is  related  to 
the  character  of  its  food;  insect-eating  birds  journey  much  farther 
than  seed-eaters,  many  of  which  travel  but  a  short  distance  south 
of  their  birthplace.  There  are,  however,  some  marked  exceptions  to 
this  statement.  The  Bobolink,  for  instance,  is  in  part  granivorous, 
but  it  winters  south  of  the  Amazon,  while  the  Golden-crowned  Kinglet 
is  insectivorous  and  winters  as  far  north  as  New  England.  Again,  of 
two  insectivorous  birds,  one,  the  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren,  does  not 
winter  north  of  the  Gulf  or  South  Atlantic  States,  while  the  other,  the 
Winter  Wren,  is  found  northward  to  New  England  in  winter.  Numer- 
ous similar  instances  might  be  cited,  all  indicating  that  some  cause 
other  than  food  has  determined  the  extent  of  the  journeys  made  by 
many  migratory  birds.  It  will  be  observed  that  of  the  species  just 
mentioned,  the  Bobolink  and  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren  are  American 
types  of  austral  origin,  while  the  Golden-crowned  Kinglet  and  Winter 
Wren  are  European  types  and  of  boreal  origin.  Further  inquiry  will 
show  that  among  land-birds  the  migrants  which  go  farthest  south 
belong  in  the  first  class,  while  those  which  winter  farthest  north  belong 
in  the  second  class.  It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  the  extent 
of  a  bird's  migrations  may  give  some  indication  of  its  place  of  origin 
as  a  migrant. 

In  the  western  states  the  migration  of  birds  is  not  so  pronounced 
as  it  is  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  latitudinal  movement 
is  complicated  by  an  altitudinal  one.  The  migrants  of  this  region, 
which  winter  south  of  the  United  States,  pass  this  season  largely  in 
Mexico.  Comparatively  few  land-birds  go  beyond  Guatemala  and 
practically  none  cross  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

In  eastern  North  America,  not  only  are  migrants  proportionally 
more  abundant,  but  their  movements  are  more  clearly  defined,  and 


EXTENT  OF  MIGRATION  41 

the  journeys  of  those  birds  that  leave  the  United  States  are  far  more 
extended  than  those  performed  by  the  birds  of  the  western  portion  of 
the  continent. 

Of  our  thirty-nine  species  of  Warblers,  twenty-seven  winter  en- 
tirely south  of  the  United  States,  twenty  of  them  reaching  South  Amer- 
ica, the  Yellow  Warbler  and  Blackpoll  having  been  recorded  from  as 
far  south  as  Peru.  The  shortest  journey  of  any  Blackpoll,  as  Cooke 
points  out,  is  3,500  miles,  " while  those  that  nest  in  Alaska  have  7,000 
miles  to  travel  to  their  probable  winter  home  in  Brazil."  (" Warblers 
of  North  America,"  p.  15;  see  also  his  admirable  " Distribution  and 
Migration  of  Warblers,"  Bull.  No.  18,  Biological  Survey.) 

Of  our  ten  species  of  Flycatchers,  nine  leave  the  United  States  for 
the  winter  (the  Crested  Flycatcher  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  southern 
Florida  at  this  season),  and  all  of  them  reach  South  America,  the 
Kingbird  (Tyrannus  tyrannus)  going  as  far  south  as  Bolivia. 

Two  of  our  eight  Vireos  remain  in  Florida  during  the  winter,  five 
winter  in  Central  America,  and  one,  the  Red-eye,  extends  its  winter 
journey  to  Bolivia  and  southwestern  Brazil. 

Even  more  extended  migrations  are  performed  by  certain  Sand- 
pipers and  Plovers  which  nest  within  the  Arctic  Circle  and  winter 
as  far  south  as  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America. 

Routes  of  Migration. — Lying  within  those  regions  climatically  most 
favorable  for  the  human  race,  the  boundaries  of  the  summer  ranges 
of  most  of  our  migrating  birds  are  known  with  more  or  less  definiteness; 
but  when  they  leave  the  temperate  zone  to  enter  tropical  wilds,  our 
knowledge  of  their  distribution  is  far  less  satisfactory.  The  data  now 
available  show,  however,  that  a  field  of  exceptional  interest  awaits 
the  investigator  who,  with  adequate  information,  traces  the  routes 
of  migration  followed  by  birds  in  journeying  between  their  summer  and 
winter  homes. 

In  Eastern  North  America  some  migrant  land  birds  leave  the 
United  States  by  passing  through  Texas  into  Mexico  and  are  unknown 
in  the  southeastern  Atlantic  States  .(e.  g.  the  Mourning  Warbler) ; 
others  leave  through  Florida  and  are  unknown  in  Texas  and  Mexico 
(e.g.  the  Bobolink  and  Blackpoll  Warbler).  Others  still  (e.g.  the 
Redstart),  travel  through  both  Texas  and  Florida  into  Mexico  as  well 
as  to  the  West  Indies.  There  is  also  a  route  which  appears  to  cross  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  from  the  region  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  though 
no  species  is  confined  to  it. 

It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  the  birds  which  left  the  United 
States  by  way  of  Florida  all  crossed  directly  to  Cuba,  but,  according 
to  Cooke  ('03),  "The  main  traveled  highway  is  that  which  stretches 
from  northwestern  Florida  across  the  Gulf,  continuing  the  southwest 
direction  which  most  of  the  birds  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  follow  in  passing 
to  Florida.  A  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  nearly  all  the  species 
bound  for  South  America  take  this  roundabout  course,  quite  regardless 
of  the  700-mile  flight  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico." 


42 


ROUTES  OF  MIGRATION 


The  observations  of  Scott*  and  Bennettf  in  the  Tortugas  show 
that  these  islets  evidently  lie  in  a  migratory  highway,  and  we  know  as 
yet  too  little  about  the  birds  of  western  Cuba  to  be  sure  that  many 
of  the  birds  which  pass  over  them  do  not  pause  on  that  island.  But, 


FIG.  5.  Migration  of  the  Blackpoll  Warbler.  A  species  which  breeds  as  far  north- 
west as  Alaska,  but  leaves  North  America  through  Florida,  and  reaches  South 
America  through  the  West  Indies,  avoiding  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

Dotted  area — Breeding  range.  Black  area — Winter  range.  Arrows — Migration 
route. 

in  any  event,  it  is  evident  that,  whether  to  or  from  western  Cuba  and 
Yucatan,  there  is  a  direct  flight  across  the  Gulf  to  or  from  western 
Florida,  and,  as  Cooke  ('05)  remarks,  it  is  this  route  which  is  followed 
by  most  of  our  migrant  land-birds  which  winter  in  South  America. 
He  sums  the  matter  up  as  follows: 

*The  Auk,  VII,  1890,  pp.  301-314.         t Bird-Lore,  XI,  1909,  pp.  110-113. 


ROUTES  OF  MIGRATION 


43 


Species  that  reach  South  America  or  Panama: 

By  way  of  the  West  Indies 10 

By  an  unknown  route 7 

By  way  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 49 

There  is  apparently,  also,  a  small  off-shore  or  southeastward"  flight 
to  the  eastward  of  Florida  leading  into  and  through  the  Bahamas, 
and  possibly  even  farther  east. 


West  Indies. 

Dotted  area — Breeding  range.  Black  area — Winter  range.  Arrows — Migration 
route. 

According  to  Reid,  the  migrant  land-birds  which  visit  the  Bermudas 
with  more  or  less  regularity  are  the  Belted  Kingfisher,  Yellow-billed 
Cuckoo,  Bobolink,  and  Northern  Water-Thrush.  The  last  two  were 
recorded  by  Julien*  during  a  short  stay  on  Sombrero,  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Lesser  Antilles;  and  in  Granada,  the  most  southern 
island  of  this  chain,  Wellsf  has  found  the  Kingfisher,  Bobolink,  and 
Water-Thrush. 

Possibly  these  birds  may  have  reached  the  Lesser  Antilles  through 

*Ann.  Lye.  Nat.  Hist.,  New  York,  VIII,  1864,  p.  92. 
>c.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  IX,  1886,  p.  609. 


44 


ROUTES   OF  MIGRATION 


Porto  Rico  from  the  westward.  This  route,  however,  is  followed  by 
only  a  small  portion  of  the  birds  which  migrate  southward,  through 
Florida  and  the  Bahamas,  into  the  Greater  Antilles.  If  they  continue 
their  journey  to  South  America,  most  of  them  do  so.  through  Jamaica, 
the  400  miles  of  water  separating  this  island  from  northern  South 


FIG.  7.  Migration  of  the  Bobolink.  A  species  which  breeds  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  but  migrates  through  the  southeastern  United  States,  reaching  South 
America  through  the  Greater  Antilles  and  Central  America. 

Dotted  area — Breeding  range.  Black  area — Winter  range.  Arrows — Migration 
route. 

America  being  evidently  no  barrier  to  such  great  travelers  as  the  Bobo- 
link and  Blackpoll  Warbler. 

Within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  coast-lines,  mountain 
chains,  and  the  larger  river  valleys,  appear  to  be  followed  by  birds 
in  their  migrations;  nevertheless,  there  is  a  more  or  less  pronounced 


ROUTES  OF  MIGRATION 


45 


highway  of  migration  which  crosses  the  southern  Alleghanies  from 
northwest  to  southeast.  This  is  evidently  followed  by  Kirtland's 
Warbler,  which  nests  in  northern  Michigan  and  winters  in  the  Bahamas, 
and  it  brings  to  our  southeast  Atlantic  Coast,  with  more  or  less  regular- 
ity, birds  which  are  practically  unknown  in  our  North  Atlantic  States. 


FIG.  8.  Migration  of  the  Redstart.  A  species  which  breeds  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  temperate  North  America,  and  migrates  through  the  West  Indies, 
Mexico  and  Central  America. 

Dotted  area — Breeding  range.  Black  area — Winter  range.  Arrows — Migration 
route. 

There  are  also  minor  routes  or  paths  of  migration  formed,  generally, 
by  favorable  local  conditions,  but  in  some  instances  difficult  to  explain. 
I  have  seen  Tree  Swallows,  in  the  spring,  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida, 
migrating  northward  low  over  the  great  expanse  of  unbroken  marshes, 
but  evidently  following  a  definite  track.  The  scattered  flocks  were 
often  separated  by  several  miles,  but  each  one  followed  in  the  wake  of 
its  invisible  predecessor  as  though  guided  by  the  marks  of  wing- 
beats  in  the  air. 


46  ROUTES  OF  MIGRATION 

Most  birds  appear  to  return  to  their  summer  homes  over  much  the 
same  route  by  which  they  left  them.  There  are,  however,  a  few  marked 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  Among  our  land-birds,  the  Connecticut  War- 
bler enters  the  United  States  through  Florida  and  journeys  thence 
northwestward  along  the  Alleghanies,  and  west  to  Missouri,  to  the 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley  and  Manitoba.  At  this  season  it  is  unknown 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  north  of  Florida;  but  during  its  return  migration, 
in  September  and  October,  it  is  often  not  uncommon  from  Massachu- 
setts southward  and,  at  this  season,  is  rare  or  unknown  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  south  of  Chicago.  (See  Cooke,  '04.) 

Among  our  water-birds,  cases  of  this  kind  are  more  frequent.  The 
fall  migration  often  brings  to  the  Atlantic  Coast  species  which  are 
rarely  if  ever  seen  there  in  the  spring.  The  Black  Tern,  for  example, 
occurs  near  New  York  City  in  numbers,  from  August  to  October,  but 
is  not  found  there  in  the  spring. 

The  Golden  Plover,  as  has  been  shown  by  Cooke  ('93),  after  breed- 
ing in  June  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  in  August  migrates 
southeastward  to  Labrador,  where  it  feeds  on  the  crowberry  (Em- 
petrum),  laying  on  a  supply  of  fat  as  fuel  for  the  remarkable  voyage 
which  follows.  From  Labrador  the  birds  fly  south  to  Nova  Scotia 
and  thence  lay  their  course  for  northern  South  America  in  a  direct 
line  across  the  Atlantic. 

Under  favorable  conditions  they  may  pass  the  Bermudas  without 
stopping,  but  should  they  encounter  storms  they  rest  in  these  islands 
and  are  also  driven  to  our  coast.  Their  first  stop  may  be  made  in 
the  Lesser  Antilles,  through  or  over  which  they  proceed  to  South 
America,  en  route  to  their  winter  quarters  in  southwestern  Brazil  and 
the  La  Plata  region. 

In  returning  to  their  Arctic  home  these  Plover  pass  northward 
through  Central  America  and  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  main  line 
of  their  fall  and  spring  routes,  therefore,  being  separated  by  as  much  as 
1,500  miles. 

The  explanations  advanced  to  account  for  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  migration  routes,  over  which  birds  in  the  fall  retrace  the  path 
followed  in  the  spring,  are  inadequate  to  account  for  the  origin  of 
these  phenomenal  journeys,  on  which  the  pioneer  voyagers  must 
apparantly  have  embarked  unguided  by  either  inherited  or  acquired 
experience.  Nor  do  we  understand  how  birds  have  learned  to  cross 
regularly  over  bodies  of  water,  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  miles 
in  width. 

European  birds  cross  the  Mediterranean,  to  and  from  Africa,  at 
a  point  where  soundings  indicate  that  a  much  closer  land  relation 
formerly  existed;  but  the  400-mile  flight  from  Jamaica  to  northern 
South  America,  the  600-mile  flight  from  the  nearest  land  to  the  Ber- 
mudas, or  the  journey  regularly  made  by  the  Turnstone  and  Golden 
Plover  to  Hawaii,  2,000  miles  from  the  nearest  land,  are  evidently 
not  to  be  explained  in  this  way. 


ROUTES  OF  MIGRATION 


47 


FIG.  9.  Migration  of  the  Golden  Plover  (after  Cooke).  A  species  which  has 
seasonal  migration  routes,  going  south  from  Labrador  and  Nova  Scotia,  over  the 
ocean,  to  the  Lesser  Antilles  and  South  America,  and  north  up  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
Dotted  area — Breeding  range.  Black  area — Winter  range.  Arrows — Migration  routes. 


48  HOW  BIRDS  MIGRATE 

How  Birds  Migrate.— The  more  we  learn  of  the  marvelous  semi- 
annual journeys  made  with  such  surprising  regularity  by  many  birds, 
the  greater  becomes  our  interest  in  the  manner  by  which  they  are 
performed.  It  is  well  enough  to  point  out  on  the  map  the  routes  of 
-nigration  followed  by  Bobolink  or  Blackpoll,  but  how  do  the  feathered 
mites  traverse  the  thousands  of  miles  which  separate  their  summer  and 
winter  homes? 

It  is  evidently  essential  that  the  bird  be  prepared  for  the  journey. 
Fall  migration  usually  follows  the  annual  post-breeding  molt,  and  the 
birds,  in  fresh  plumage,  proceed  slowly,  often  lingering  in  favorable 
feeding-grounds,  as  does  the  Golden  Plover  among  the  crowberries  of 
Labrador,  or  the  Bobolink  in  the  rice-fields  of  our  south  Atlantic  Coast, 
until  they  are  in  physical  condition  to  endure  the  strain  of  prolonged 
flight. 

In  the  spring,  they  have  had  months'  exemption  from  family  cares, 
with  no  other  duty  than  to  wander  where  food  was  most  abundant; 
excellent  preparation  for  the  return  journey  to  the  nesting-ground. 
We  know  less,  however,  about  birds'  movements  at  this  season  than 
•when,  after  breeding,  they  prepare  to  leave  us.  ,*AjCt 

Some  species  begin  to  flock  immediately  after  the  nesting  season 
and,  as  a  preliminary  to  actual  migration,  develop  regular  and  definitely 
directed  movements  in  their  daily  returns  to  and  departure  from  a 
certain  roosting-place.  Such  roosting- places  form  stations  on  the 
migratory  journey  and  are  focal  points  for  small  bodies  of  birds  which, 
later,  take  flight  in  one  great  company.  Red-winged  Blackbirds, 
Crackles,  and  the  various  species  of  Swallows  inaugurate  their  south- 
ward migrations  in  this  way. 

Less  gregarious  birds,  at  the  conclusion  of  their  post-breeding  molt 
or  even  before  it  is  completed,  simply  disappear  without  our  knowing 
when  they  go. 

The  adult  birds,  either  alone  or  accompanied  by  birds  of  the  year, 
migrate  first.  Later,  the  adults  decrease  in  number  and  the  last  flights 
may  be  composed  entirely  of  young  birds.  In  the  fall  the  sexes  appear 
to  travel  together,  but  in  the  spring  the  males  usually  precede  the 
females. 

Some  birds  migrate  only  by  day,  others  only  -during  the  night,  while 
a  smaller  number  travel  both  by  day  and  night.  In  his  now  classic 
Memoir  on  "Bird  Migration"  Brewster  ('86)  puts  the  matter  clearly 
as  follows: 

"1.  Species  which  migrate  exclusively  by  night  habitually  feed  in 
or  near  the  shelter  of  trees,  bushes,  rank  herbage  or  grass,  and  when 
not  migrating  are  birds  of  limited  powers  of  flight  and  sedentary  habits, 
restricting  their  daily  excursions  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their 
chosen  haunts.  As  a  rule  they  are  of  timid,  or  at  least  retiring  disposi- 
tion, and  when  alarmed  or  pursued  seek  safety  in  concealment  rather 
than  by  extended  flights. 

"2.  Species  which  migrate  chiefly  or  very  freejy  by  day,  habitually 


HOW  BIRDS  MIGRATE  49 

feed  in  open,  exposed  situations,  and  in  their  daily  excursions  for  food 
often  cover  considerable  distances.  As  a  rule  they  are  of  bold,  restless 
disposition,  and  when  alarmed  or  pursued  seek  safety  in  long  flights 
rather  than  by  concealment. 

"3.  Species  which  migrate  exclusively  by  day  habitually  feed 
either  on  the  wing  or  over  very  extensive  areas.  NIn  disposition  they 
are  either  trustful  and  unsuspecting,  or  wary  and  self-reliant.  Without 
exception  they  are  birds  of  strong,  easy  flight,  and  rely  solely  on  their 
wings  for  escape  from  danger." 

A  wedge  of  honking  Geese,  a  close-massed  flock  of  chattering 
Grackles  or  Red-wings,  a  straggling  train  of  Crows  or  Hawks,  are 
familiar  evidences  of  diurnal  migration;  while  the  passage,  by  day, 
of  the  Wild  Pigeon  was  one  of  the  most  pronounced  and  impressive 
of  daylight  travels  by  migrating  birds  of  which  we  have  any  record. 

Other  of  our  land-birds  " which  migrate  freely,  chiefly  or  exclusively 
by  day"  (Brewster,  I.  c.)  are  the  Hummingbird,  Chimney  Swift,  Horned 
Larks,  Blue  Jay,  Waxwing,  Shrikes,  Swallows,  Pipit,  Robin  and  Blue- 
bird. To  this  list  may  be  added  certain  gregarious  Finches,  like  Cross- 
bills, Siskins,  Redpolls,  Pine  and  Evening  Grosbeaks,  Purple  Finches 
and  Snow  Buntings.  I  have  also  seen  Dickcissels,  high  in  the  air, 
traveling  in  compact  bodies  by  day,  though  they  apparently  also 
migrate  by  night. 

Ducks,  Shore -birds  (Limicolse)  and  Sea-birds  (Alcidse,  Longi- 
pennes,  and  Tubinares)  migrate  both  by  day  and  by  night.  The  sports- 
man is  first  made  aware  of  the  passage  of  Plover  or  Yellow-legs  by  their 
mellow  calls,  as  they  journey  through  the  air  beyond  the  reach  of 
unaided  vision. 

An  interesting  note  on  the  diurnal  migration  of  birds  at  an  appar- 
ently high  altitude,  is  supplied  by  R.  A.  Bray  ('95)  who  records  a 
flight  of  birds  observed  through  a  telescope,  directed  toward  the  sun, 
at  3  P.  M.  on  September  30,  1894,  at  Shere,  England.  Every  few  seconds 
a  bird  was  seen  to  pass  slowly  across  the  sun,  and  there  was  no  decrease 
in  their  numbers  during  the  ten  minutes  of  observation.  The  birds 
were  flying  in  a  southerly  direction  and  were  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye. 

The  daily  flight  of  vast  numbers  of  Sea-birds  along  the  Pacific 
coast  is  recorded  in  detail  by  L.  M.  Loomis  ('06,  p.  280)  who  states 
that  on  one  occasion  (September  23,  1896)  "not  less  than  a  quarter  of 
a  million"  Dark-bodied  Shearwaters  "passed  in  review  during  two 
hours  and  a  half."  "There  were  several  divisions — each  a  solid  phalanx 
about  an  eighth  of  a  mile  deep — following  closely  one  upon  the  other," 
low,  over  the  water. 

Loons  may  be  seen  migrating  by  day,  but  the  weaker  winged  Grebes, 
relying  on  their  diving  powers  for  safety,  evidently  travel  by  night. 
Other  water-birds,  like  the  Bitterns,  Woodcock,  Wilson's  Snipe,  Rails, 
Coots,  and  Gallinules,  whose  habits  do  not  lead  them  over  the  sea  or 
its  shores,  migrate,  as  Brewster  has  said,  by  night. 


50  HOW  BIRDS   MIGRATE 

Our  knowledge  of  the  nocturnal  migration  of  birds  is  based  on 
evidence  supplied  by  the  call-notes  of  passing  birds,  on  data  from 
light-houses,  on  observations  through  telescopes  and  on  field-work 
on  days  succeeding  flights. 

It  is  a  common  experience,  during  the  season  of  migration,  to  hear 
the  notes  of  birds  which  are  passing  overhead.  From  an  elevation  in 
a  line  of  flight,  or  where  the  city  lights  may  attract  birds,  such  notes, 
when  birds  are  moving  in  numbers,  are  almost  continuous.  O.  G. 
Libby  ('99)  states  that  on  the  night  of  September  14,  1896,  on  "a  small 
elevation  west  of  the  city  of  Madison,  Wisconsin,"  a  total  of  3,800 
bird-calls  were  recorded.  The  average  was  twelve  per  minute,  but 
the  rate  "  varied  greatly,  sometimes  running  as  high  as  two  or  three 
per  second,  and  again  falling  to  about  the  same  number  per  minute. 
....  The  great  space  of  air  above  swarmed  with  life.  Singly,  or 
in  groups,  large  and  small,  or  more  seldom  in  a  great  throng,  the 
hurrying  myriads  passed  southward." 

Lighthouses,  because  of  their  location  on  the  coast,  on  promon- 
tories or  outlying  islets,  are  often  situated  in  the  path  of  migrating 
birds.  This  fact,  in  connection  with  the  fatal  attraction  which  the  rays 
of  the  light  possess  for  migrating  birds  during  stormy  weather,  has 
supplied  an  extended  and  definite  series  of  records,  which  also  emphasize 
the  high  mortality  often  prevailing  in  the  ranks  of  night-migrating 
birds.  Shortly  after  its  erection,  1,400  dead  birds  are  said  to  have  been 
picked  up  at  the  base  of  the  Bartholdi  statue,  in  New  York  harbor, 
which  had  been  killed  by  striking  the  statue  the  preceding  night. 

For  years  light-keepers  have  reported  to  the  Biological  Survey 
at  Washington  on  the  birds  seen  about  or  striking  the  lights  in  their 
care  and,  in  not  a  few  instances,  our  knowledge  of  the  migration  of  a 
species  rests  largely  on  this  class  of  data.  (Allen,  '80,  p.  131.) 

We  have  also  the  testimony  of  ornithologists  who  have  visited 
lighthouses  especially  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  nocturnal 
journeys  of  birds.  Brewster  (L'c.  p.  7),  who  visited  Point  LePreaux 
Lighthouse,  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  for  this  purpose,  gives  an  impressive 
picture  of  observations  made  there  on  the  night  of  September  4. 

Observations  through  telescopes,  though  limited  in  number,  when 
one  considers  how  easily  they  are  made  and  how  interesting  and  val- 
uable are  the  results  to  be  'obtained,  supply  probably  our  most  satis- 
factory data  on  nocturnal  migration.  They  can  be  made  only  on 
clear,  moonlight  nights,  when  the  current  of  migration,  flowing  smoothly 
through  the  air  above,  is  viewed  under  wholly  normal  conditions. 

A  low-power  telescope  is  focused  on  the  moon,  the  glowing  surface 
of  which  forms  a  background  against  which  the  birds,  in  passing,  are 
clearly  silhouetted.  On  September  3,  1886,  at  Tenafly,  N.  J.,  with  the 
aid  of  a  6J  inch  equatorial  glass,  262  birds  were  seen  to  cross  the  narrow 
angle  subtended  by  the  limits  of  the  moon  between  the  hours  of  eight 
and  eleven  (Chapman,  '88).  Subsequent  observations  from  the  obser- 
vatory of  Columbia  University  and  at  Englewood,  N.  J.,  have  revealed 


HOW  BIRDS  MIGRATE  51 

the  vast  numbers  of  birds  which  throng  the  upper  air  during  nights  of 
active  migration. 

At  Madison,  Wisconsin,  on  the  nights  of  September  11-13,  1897, 
Libby  (I.  c.)  saw  583  birds  through  a  6-inch  glass,  the  largest  number 
counted  during  a  fifteen  minute  period  being  forty-five.  Additional 
data  of  this  nature  are  included  in  a  paper  by  H.  A.  Winkenwerder 
('02),  while  Stone's  ('06)  observations  on  birds  seen  migrating  at  night 
by  the  light  of  a  great  conflagration  in  Philadelphia  have  exceptional 
interest. 

The  height  at  which  migrating  birds  fly  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated. Many  diurnal  migrants  may  be  seen  traveling  from  a  few 
yards  (e.  g.  Shearwaters)  to  several  hundred  yards  (e.  g.  Geese)  above 
the  earth,  but  Shore-birds  evidently  seek  a  greater  altitude,  and  the 
experience  of  Bray,  referred  to  above,  hints  at  a  diurnal  flight  of  which 
we  know  practically  nothing. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  height  at  which  nocturnal  migrants  journey 
is  based  on  the  telescopic  observations  already  mentioned.  As  intimated 
in  the  article  itself  (I.e.),  the  conclusions  presented  in  my  paper  on 
birds  seen  flying  over  Tenafly,  were  not  satisfactory.  More  recently, 
the  problem  has  been  attacked  by  F.  W.  Carpenter  ('06)  and  Stebbins* 
with  results  which  seem  far  more  worthy  of  acceptance.  Their  calcu- 
lations show  that  while  an  altitude  of  4,000  to  5,000  yards  may  occas- 
ionally be  reached,  the  greater  number  of  birds  observed  were  not 
over  1,600  yards  above  the  earth,  while  many  passed  considerably 
below  this  elevation.  The  ease  with  which  the  calls  of  night-flying 
birds  may  be  heard  also  argues  for  a  lower  altitude  than  has  been  com- 
monly accredited  to  them. 

The  speed  at  which  migrating  birds  fly  has  also  been  greatly  over- 
rated. Two  observations  with  theodolites  give  to  migrating  Ducks 
a  speed  of  47.8,  and  to  migrating  Geese  a  speed  of  44.3  miles  an  hourf. 
Homing  Pigeons  do  not  often  exceed  forty  to  forty-five  miles  an  hour. 
It  is  a  common  experience,  when  traveling  in  a  train  at  a  rate  of  thirty- 
five  to  forty-five  miles  an  hour,  to  pass  birds  which  are  flying  parallel 
to  the  track.  I  have  had  this  occur  repeatedly  with  such  compara- 
tively large  and  swift  birds  as  the  Mourning  Dove.  It  seems  probable, 
therefore,  that  our  smaller  birds  do  not  average  more  than  thirty  miles 
an  hour  when  migrating. 

Gatke's  estimate  of  212  miles  per  hour  as  the  speed  of  the  Golden 
Plover  when  migrating,  is  based  wholly  on  the  assumption  that  fifteen 
hours  is  "the  longest  spell  during  which  a  bird  is  able  to  remain  on 
the  wing  without  taking  sustenance  of  any  kind."  The  Plover,  how- 
ever, does  not  fly  from  " Labrador  to  northern  Brazil,"  as  he  stated,  but 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Lesser  Antilles;  as  we  have  seen,  it  makes 
special  preparation  for  the  journey,  is  extremely  fat  when  it  starts  and 
thin  when  it  arrives. 

""'Popular  Astronomy,"  XIV,  1906,  pp.  65-70. 
t  Clayton,  Science,  1897,  pp.  26,  585. 


52  HOW  BIRDS  MIGRATE 

The  rate  at  which  a  bird  migrates,  however,  is  of  course  not  to  be 
considered  its  limit  of  speed.  The  migrating  bird,  like  the  long-distance 
runner,  must  adopt  a  pace  which  will  enable  it  to  reach  the  goal  without 
danger  of  exhaustion  by  the  way.  Should  necessity  arise,  it  doubtless, 
for  a  time,  could  more  than  double  the  speed  at  which  it  normally 
travels. 

The  rate  of  progress  of  the  individual  must  not  be  confused  with 
that  at  which  the  species  advances.  Nocturnal  migrants  probably 
cover  200  to  400  miles  in  a  single  night's  journey;  but,  as  Cooke  ('03) 
has  shown,  "The  average  speed  of  migration  from  New  Orleans  to  south- 
ern Minnesota  for  all  species  is  close  to  23  miles  per  day."  From  this 
latitude  northward,  however,  in  response  to  the  more  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  season,  the  speed  is  constantly  accelerated  until  the  breed- 
ing-place is  reached.  Thus,  the  same  author  remarks,  "Sixteen  species 
maintain  a  daily  average  of  forty  miles  from  southern  Minnesota  to 
southern  Manitoba,  and  from  this  point  twelve  species  travel  to  Lake 
Athabasca  at  an  average  speed  of  seventy-two  miles  a  day,  five  others 
to  Great  Slave  Lake  at  116  miles  a  day,  and  five  more  to  Alaska  at 
150  miles  a  day." 

The  slow  rate  at  which  a  species  moves,  when  compared  with  that 
It  which  the  individuals  composing  it  travel,  is  evidence  that  its  mi- 
gration is  not  performed  continuously,  night  after  night,  until  the  haven 
is  reached,  but  that  after  a  flight  birds  pause  to  rest,  to  await  favorable 
weather  conditions,  and  the  further  seasonal  change  which  such  con- 
ditions hasten.  The  observations  of  Wright  ('09)  in  the  Boston  Public 
Garden,  where,  as  in  other  city  parks,  local  conditions  are  exceptionally 
favorable  for  the  correct  interpretation  of  migration  phenomena,  also 
confirm  this  view,  if  indeed  further  confirmation  be  required. 

The  impelling  motive  being  more  powerful,  the  object  more  definite, 
and  the  seasonal  influences  more  pronounced,  the  spring  migration 
of  birds  is  a  more  orderly  and  regular  movement  than  the  return  in 
the  fall.  Clear  nights  and  a  rising  thermometer  are  most  likely  to 
induce  birds  to  travel,  a  'wave'  of  migrants  coming  often  on  the  crest 
of  a  'wave'  of  warmer  temperature.  When  such  a  movement  is  checked 
by  cold  or  stormy  weather,  the  result  is  an  overflow  of  migrants  which 
flood  the  woods.  Ordinarily  rare  species  may  then  become  compara- 
tively common,  and  the  impression  is  produced  of  an  actual  increase  in 
bird-life.  In  the  fall,  when  physiological  factors  incident  to  reproduc- 
tion are  not  potent  and  seasonal  changes  are  less  marked,  birds  travel 
more  leisurely.  Clear  nights  and  a  falling  thermometer  are  then  most 
favorable  for  a  general  movement.  i 

The  high  mortality  in  the  ranks  of  migrating  birds  occasioned  by 
the  storms  they  encounter  is  evidence  of  their  inability  to  anticipate 
changes  in  the  weather.  On  the  coast  of  Texas  I  have  known  birds  to 
migrate  northward  in  great  numbers  directly  into  the  face  of  a  'norther/ 
with  evidently  no  warning  of  the  unfavorable  conditions  toward  which 
they  were  hastening.  Again,  under  the  influence  of  exceptionally 


HOW  BIRDS  MIGRATE  53 

warm  weather,  Tree  Swallows  have  been  induced  to  travel  northward 
and  appear  near  New  York  City  in  numbers  late  in  December. 

And  now  we  ask  the  question  to  which  any  consideration  of  the 
phenomena  of  migration  inevitably  leads,  "How  do  birds  find  their  way?" 
What  faculty  directs  them  over  thousands  of  miles  of  land  and  water 
through  the  darkness  of  the  night  with  a  regularity  and  accuracy  that 
brings  them  to  the  same  locality,  even  the  same  nest-site,  on  essentially 
the  same  date  year  after  year? 

Granted  that  in  birds,  sight,  hearing,  and  the  power  of  association 
are  exceptionally  developed;  that  the  chirping  and  calling  of  night 
migrants  is  an  effective  means  of  holding  them  to  the  main  traveled 
way;  that  diurnal  migrants  are  guided  by  prominent  topographical 
features;  still  something  far  more  potent  than  eye,  ear,  and  memory 
is  evidently  required  to  lead  birds  over  journeys  where  landmarks  are 
wanting. 

While  at  sea  on  May  24,  1905,  a  Curlew  (Numenius  sp.)  boarded 
the  steamer  when  we  were  140  miles  south  of  Fastnet  Light.  While 
photographing  the  bird,  I  alarmed  it,  when  it  took  wing  and  headed 
for  Ireland  with  as  much  confidence  as  though  land  had  been  visible, 
and  was  soon  far  beyond  us.  There  was  here  no  established  line  of 
flight  in  which  to  join,  no  evident  external  guiding  influence;  never- 
theless the  bird  set  its  course  without  hesitation. 

Terns,  Murres,  and  other  sea-birds  go  out  to  feed  and  return  to 
their  breeding-grounds  through  dense  fog  and  with  unfailing  precision. 
Tropic-birds  reach  Bermuda,  600  miles  from  the  nearest  land,  regularly 
each  spring;  Turnstones  and  Pacific  Golden  Plover  travel  twice  each 
year  over  at  least  2,000  miles  of  water  in  their  journey  to  and  from 
Hawaii.  The  Eastern  Golden  Plover  strikes  boldly  out  over  the  Atlantic 
bound  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Lesser  Antilles;  vast  numbers  of  birds 
of  many  species  cross  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  others  fly  from  Jamaica  to 
South  America. 

This  power  of  'distant  orientation7  is  apparently  only  to  be  explained 
through  the  bird's  possession  of  a  'homing  instinct'  or  'sense  of  direc- 
tion' which,  when  the  impulse  to  migrate  is  active,  automatically 
induces  them  to  follow  a  certain  route. 

The  experiments  of  Reynaud  ('00)  and  others  with  Homing  Pigeons 
appear  to  have  definitely  established  the  existence  of  the  sense  of 
direction  in  this  species,  and  more  recently  Watson  ('09)  has  demon- 
strated in  a  most  noteworthy  manner  its  evident  possession  by  Sooty 
and  Noddy  Terns.  Among  other  tests,  Reynaud  transported  five 
Pigeons,  under  the  influence  of  chloroform,  from  Orleans  to  Evreux, 
France,  a  locality  which  they  had  not  visited  before.  Two  days  later, 
having  evidently  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  drug,  they  were 
released  and  all  returned  to  Orleans.  While  the  senses  of  sight,  smell, 
taste,  touch,  and  hearing  were  not  functional  during  the  time  when 
the  birds  were  under  the  influence  of  chloroform,  Reynaud  expresses 
his  belief  that  "the  sense  of  direction,  on  the  contrary,  whose  action 


54  HOW  BIRDS  MIGRATE 

is  based  on  the  automatic  and  mechanical  registration  of  the  road 
followed,  continued  to  work,  in  spite  of  the  chloroform,  absolutely 
like  other  mechanical  functions — the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the 
digestive  organs,  and  respiration — in  some  way,  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  animal." 

Watson's  experiments  were  made  with  Sooty  and  Noddy  Terns, 
among  which  he  passed  the  breeding  season  of  1907  on  their  nesting- 
ground  on  Bird  Key,  Dry  Tortugas.  He  first  captured  and  marked  six 
Noddies,  and  had  them  released  at  distances  varying  from  19.5  to  65.8 
miles  from  the  Key.  All  returned  within  from  one  and  three-quarters 
to  about  three  and  a  half  hours  after  being  released. 

July  8,  two  Noddies  and  two  Booties  were  captured  and  marked 
and  sent  to  Havana  (108  miles)  where  they  were  released  early  on  the 
morning  of  the  llth;  all  returned  to  the  Key  on  the  12th. 

None  of  these  birds,  however,  were  sent  beyond  the  normal  range 
of  their  species  and  it  may  be  claimed  that  they  were  simply  traveling 
over  a  route  with  which  they  were  familiar.  In  any  event,  the  journey 
was  made  unassisted  by  any  trend  of  migration  or  established  migratory 
movement  which  they  had  simply  to  join.  When  breeding,  these  birds 
are  closely  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  their  homes.  Watson  found  that 
they  rarely  went  further  than  15  knots  from  Bird  Key.  Some  of  the 
birds  returned  alone,  evidently  dependent  only  on  themselves  for 
guidance. 

A  third  test,  in  which  the  surrounding  conditions  were  ideal,  was  made 
with  three  Noddies  and  two  Sooties  which  were  captured  and  marked 
on  June  13,  and  sent  from  Bird  Key  to  Key  West.  Here  they  were 
transferred  to  the  hold  of  the  steamship  ' Denver'  where  they  were 
both  watered  and  fed  while  en  route.  On  June  16,  the  birds  were 
released  about  12  miles  east  of  Cape  Hatteras,  approximately  1,081 
miles  by  water  from  Bird  Key.  Both  the  Sooties  were  found  on  their 
respective  nests  on  the  morning  of  June  21,  and  one  of  the  Noddies 
was  observed  several  days  later. 

Neither  the  Noddy  nor  Sooty  Tern  range,  as  a  rule,  north  of  the 
Florida  Keys.  There  is  small  probability,  therefore,  that  the  individuals 
released  off  Hatteras  had  ever  been  over  the  route  before  and,  for  the 
same  reason,  they  could  not  have  availed  themselves  of  the  experience 
or  example  of  migratory  individuals  of  their  own  species;  nor,  since  the 
birds  were  released  at  the  height  of  the  nesting  season,  was  there  any 
marked  southward  movement  of  birds  in  the  line  of  which  they  might 
follow. 

Even  had  there  been  such  a  movement,  it  is  not  probable  that  it 
would  have  taken  the  birds  southwest  to  the  Florida  Keys  and  thence 
west  to  the  Tortugas.  This  marked  change  in  direction,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  birds'  maritime  habits  would  force  tham  to  take  a  course 
over  the  water,  removes  the  direction  of  the  wind  as  a  possible  guiding 
agency,  while  the  birds'  unfamiliarity  with  the  coast-line  makes  it 
improbable  that  sight  was  of  service  to  them  in  finding  their  way.  In 


WHY  DO  BIRDS  MIGRATE?  55 

short,  we  cannot  but  feel  that  this  experiment  constitutes  the  strongest 
argument  for  the  existence  of  a  sense  of  direction  as  yet  derived  from 
the  study  of  wild  birds;  with  this  established,  the  so-called  'mystery 
of  migration'  becomes  no  more  a  mystery  than  any  other  instinctive, 
functional  activity. 

Why  Do  Birds  Migrate? — Any  attempt  to  reply  to  this  question 
should  be  prefaced  by  the  statement  that  birds  have  been  migrating 
for  an  incalculable  period.  The  existing  phenomena  are  not  therefore 
to  be  explained  solely  by  observable  causes,  but  they  may  often  have 
their  origin  in  influences  which  have  long  ceased  to  be  potent.  In 
other  words,  the  migration  of  birds,  as  well  as  the  birds  themselves, 
is  an  outcome  of  those  gradual  adjustments  between  an  organism  and 
its  environment  which  has  led,  on  the  one  hand,  to  activities  which 
existing  causes  only  in  part  explain,  and  on  the  other  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  certain  types  of  form  and  color  the  reason  for  which  we  cannot 
now  wholly  determine.  We  observe  that  bird  migration  is  most  highly 
developed  in  those  parts  of  the  world  which  are  subjected  to  marked 
seasonal  changes.  In  endeavoring,  therefore,  to  ascertain  the  factors 
governing  migration  either  north  or  south  of  subtropical  regions,  we 
find  our  problem  greatly  complicated  by  questions  of  temperature  and 
food  which  seem  to  exert  a  powerful  influence  on  the  movement  of 
birds. 

Fortunately  we  are  not  obliged  to  be*gin  our  examination  of  the 
subject  in  this,  its  most  complex  form,  but  in  the  tropics  may  find 
perfectly  well-defined  instances  of  bird  migration  in  which  the  matters 
of  food  and  temperature  seem  to  play  no  part. 

With  tropical  land-birds  there  is,  as  a  rule,  no  well-marked  migra- 
tion; while  their  numbers  may  fluctuate  in  response  to  an  increasing 
or  diminishing  supply  of  food,  they  make  no  journeys  to  a  nesting- 
ground. 

Tropical  sea-birds,  however,  are  often  great  wanderers  and,  dur- 
ing the  year,  many  cover  vast  distances,  within  the  tropic  zone,  in 
their  search  for  food.  They  cannot,  however,  nest  on  the  water,  and 
when  the  season  of  reproduction  approaches,  they  are,  of  necessity, 
forced  to  go  to  the  land.  Now  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  for  us 
to  know  that  their  visits  to  their  breeding  resorts  are  made  with  the 
same  regularity  which  attends  the  journey  of  Oriole,  Bobolink  or 
Warbler.  They  return  each  year  to  the  same  place  and  they  all  reach 
it,  almost  to  the  day,  at  the  same  time.  The  Brown  Pelicans  of  eastern 
Florida  come  in  thousands  to  Pelican  Island  the  first  week  in  November; 
Boobies  and  Man-o'-war-birds  return  to  certain  Bahama  keys  in 
January;  the  Noddy  and  Sooty  Terns  appear  on  Bird  Key  in  the  Tor- 
tugas,  the  last  week  in  April. 

Temperature,  obviously,  has  nothing  to  do  with  these  journeys, 
since  with  the  Pelicans  the  average  daily  temperature  is  decreasing, 
with  the  Terns  increasing,  while  the  Boobies  and  Man-o'-war  Birds 
have  probably  experienced  no  change  of  temperature.  Nor  are  the 


56  WHY  DO  BIRDS  MIGRATE? 

birds  induced  to  travel  by  a  more  abundant  supply  of  food.  Indeed, 
the  focusing  of  so  large  a  number  of  individuals  in  a  comparatively 
limited  area  doubtless  increases  the  severity  of  the  competition  for 
subsistence.  As  I  have  said  in  discussing  the  return  of  the  Brown 
Pelicans,*  "The  immediate  cause  of  the  journey  is  doubtless  physio- 
logical and  the  prompting  comes  from  within.  With  birds,  the  season 
of  reproduction  is  periodic,  and  with  migratory  species,  whether  the 
journey  be  to  a  nearby  islet  or  to  another  zone,  the  return  to  the  breed- 
ing ground  is  only  one  phenomenon  in  a  cycle  of  events  which 
includes,  in  regular  order,  migration,  courtship,  nest-building,  egg-laying, 
incubation,  the  care  of  the  young,  the  molt,  and  the  retreat  to  winter 
quarters" — or,  as  might  be  better  said  of  these  tropical  and  subtrop- 
ical birds,  the  desertion  of  the  nesting-ground. 

The  yearly  life-cycle  in  the  vegetable  world  parallels,  in  a  sense, 
that  which  exists  in  the  world  of  birds.  In  orderly  succession  the 
plant  develops  leaf,  blossom  and  fruit,  sheds  its  foliage,  and,  after  a 
period  of  rest,  the  phenomena  are  repeated.  With  birds  it  is  the  return 
of  the  season  of  physical  fruition  which  arouses  not  only  the  sexual 
but  also  the  homing  instinct  under  the  guidance  of  which  these  mobile 
creatures  repair  to  the  place  of  their  birth. 

/)  Migration,  then,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  merely  a  journey  to  the\ 
/  nesting-ground,  made  without  apparent  relation  to  either  food  or  J 
(V  temperature.  *  j 

When,  now,  we  turn  from  these  birds  which  migrate  only  a  few 
miles  to  others  which  travel  thousands,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  with  both  the  initial  impulse  to  migrate  is  in  the  annual  recurrence 
of  the  period  of  reproduction.  The  migration  of  fish  to  their  spawning- 
ground,  and  of  seals  to  their  'rookeries,'  are  further  examples  of  jour- 
neys made  solely  to  reach  certain  breeding-grounds. 

It  is  not  difficult  for  us  to  understand  why  the  Pelicans,  Boobies, 
Terns  and  other  birds  return  to  certain  isolated  islets  within  the  area 
of  their  winter  wanderings,  but  the  reasons  why  birds  travel  beyond 
subtropical  zones  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  or  Antarctic  seas  are  less 
evident.  Temperature,  as  it  affects  environment  and  particularly 
as  it  controls  the  food-supply,  is,  with  these,  a  powerful  factor.  Not 
only  must  we  consider  existing  climates,  but  we  must  take  into  account 
those  profound  climatic  changes  incident  to  the  development  and 
passing  of  the  Glacial  Period,  and  which  have  apparently  exerted  so 
great  an  influence  on  the  distribution  of  life  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  world  that  Allen  believes  we  have  here  the  origin  of  bird  migra- 
tion itself.  He  writes  ('80,  p.  151):  "Nothing  is  doubtless  more  thor- 
oughly established  than  that  a  warm  temperate  or  sub-tropical  climate 
prevailed  down  to  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  Epoch  nearly  to  the  North- 
ern Pole,  and  that  climate  was  previously  everywhere  so  far  equable 
that  the  necessity  for  migration  can  hardly  be  supposed  to  have  existed. 
With  the  later  refrigeration  of  the  nortkern  regions,  bird  life  must 
*MCamps  and  Cruises  of  an  Ornithologist,"  p.  88, 


WHY  DO  BIRDS  MIGRATE?  57 

have  been  crowded  thence  toward  the  tropics;  and  the  struggle  for 
life  thereby  greatly  intensified.  The  less  yielding  forms  may  have 
become  extinct;  those  less  sensitive  to  climatic  changes  would  seek  to 
extend  the  boundaries  of  their  range  by  slight  removal  northward 
during  the  milder  intervals  of  summer,  only,  however,  to  be  forced 
back  again  by  the  recurrence  of  winter.  Such  migration  must  have  been 
at  first  'incipient  and  gradual,7  extending  and  strengthening  as  the 
cold-wave  Ice  Age  receded  and  opened  up  a  wider  area  within  which 
existence  in  summer  became  possible.  What  was  at  first  a  forced  migra- 
tion would  become  habitual,  and  through  the  heredity  of  habit  give 
rise  to  the  wonderful  faculty  which  we  call  migration." 

While  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  "the  necessity  of  migration" 
did  not  exist  prior  to  the  Glacial  Period,  it  seems  probable  that,  whether 
or  not  this  period  actually  gave  rise  to  bird  migration,  it  affected  the 
movements  of  birds  much  as  Allen  has  suggested. 

It  is  to  the  influence  of  the  Glacial  Period  that  we  must  attribute 
the  presence,  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe,  today,  of  such  physi- 
cally closely  related,  but  geographically  widely  separated  birds  as 
Ibises,  Spoonbills,  PeMcans,  Frigate  Birds,  Anhingas  and  Flamingoes. 

It  is  out  of  the  question  to  believe  that  birds,  so  like  each  other  and 
so  unlike  other  birds,  can  have  originated  independently  in  the  old 
world  and  in  the  new;  whence  it  follows,  of  course,  that  they  have 
descended  from  a  common  ancestor,  or,  in  other  words,  that  their 
ranges  were  at  one  time  continuous.  This  time  we  may  well  believe 
to  have  been  that  portion  of  the  Tertiary  Period  preceding  the  Glacial 
Epoch,  when  the  warm  climate  of  the  polar  regions  was  adapted  to 
their  wants.  With  the  climatic  change  which  culminated  in  the  Ice 
Age,  their  boreal  representatives  either  became  extinct  or  were  forced 
southward,  some  in  the  Old  World,  some  in  the  New,  and  the  territory 
thus  deserted  has  never  been  reacquired.  The  White  Pelicans,  and 
many  other  species  closely  related  to  Old  World  forms,  and  now  breed- 
ing north  of  the  most  southern  limit  of  the  great  Ice  Field  (for  instance, 
the  Eared  Grebe,  Gannet,  Great  Blue  Heron,  Gallinule,  Oyster-catcher, 
Crossbill  and  Brown  Creeper),  have,  however,  evidently  extended  their 
summer  ranges  to  the  northward  of  the  area  which  they  occupied 
during  the  maximum  development  of  the  Ice  Age.  To  speak  of  only 
the  White  Pelican,  the  reasons  have  just  been  stated  for  believing 
this  species  to  have  formerly  inhabited  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
whence  it  was  forced  southward,  below  possibly  the  fortieth  degree 
of  latitude,  by  the  rigors  of  the  climate  of  the  Ice  Age.  Nevertheless 
it  now  breeds  regularly  as  far  north  as  latitude  61°,  and  has  therefore 
regained  at  least  a  thousand  miles  in  latitude,  of  the  region  from 
which  it  has  been  forced;  but  each  year  the  individual  repeats  the 
history  of  the  species,  by  retreating  before  what  may  be  termed  a 
seasonal  Ice  Age,  as  winter  seals  the  lakes  and  rivers  on  which  it  has 
passed  the  summer. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  migrations  of  each  of  our  birds  may  be 


58  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

studied  with  reference  to  its  distribution,  relationships  and  the  climatic 
influences  to  which  it  has  probably  been  subjected,  opening  a  most 
suggestive  and  instructive  fie.ld  for  speculation  on  the  origin  of  exist- 
ing conditions. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

Returning  now  to  the  more  practical  and  personal  side  of  bird  migra- 
tion, I  append  here  a  few  hints  to  the  local  student  for  observing  and 
recording  it. 

Too  much  time  cannot  be  spent  in  the  field  during  the  migration  sea- 
son. If  possible,  one  should  go  out  both  in  the  early  morning  and  late 
afternoon,  visiting  as  great  a  variety  of  ground  as  opportunity  permits. 
It  is  desirable  also  to  follow  the  same  route  daily,  in  order  that  changes  in 
bird-life,  other  than  the  first  arrival  of  certain  species  (for  example,  increase 
or  decrease,  flocking,  roosting,  pairing,  etc.,  of  species  which  have  already 
been  noted),  may  be  more  readily  and  definitely  ascertained. 

Weather  conditions  should  be  observed  as  closely  as  the  migration 
itself  and  the  charts  issued  by  the  Weather  Bureau  at  Washington  should 
be  studied.  Examine  also  published  tables  of  migration.  One's  chances  of 
finding  a  given  species  are  greatly  increased  if  one  knows  where  to  look 
for  it. 

The  blooming  of  plants,  shrubs  and  trees  and  the  advance  of  vegetation 
in  general,  together  with  the  appearance  of  various  forms  of  insect  life, 
calling  of  hylas,  etc.,  should  all  be  recorded. 

The  record  of  each  species  of  bird  should  show  its  date  of  arrival,  with 
the  number  and,  if  possible,  sex  of  the  individuals  observed,  if  migrating 
singly,  in  scattered  companies  or  in  flocks.  Succeeding  records  of  the  same 
species  should  be  entered  with  as  much  detail  as  the  first  one,  in  order  that 
the  whole  record  may  show  the  rise  and  fall  of  its  migration. 

Try  to  observe  closely  the  movements  of  the  same  birds — a  certain 
flock  of  Robins,  for  example,  which  is  found  day  after  day  near  the  same 
place,  or  an  isolated  Red-winged  Blackbird  or  two,  which  appear  to  remain 
in  some  small  marsh — with  the  object  of  learning  whether  the  first  individuals 
to  come,  among  summer  resident  species,  are  the  birds  which  nest  with  us, 
or  those  which  continue  their  journey  northward. 

Note  the  movements  of  winter  birds — Juncos,  Tree  Sparrows,  and 
others — indicating  that  their  migration  is  under  way.  Do  the  winter  resi- 
dent individuals  of  these  species  start  before  their  ranks  receive  additions 
from  the  South? 

Observe  the  connection  between  the  time  of  a  bird's  arrival  and  the 
character  of  its  food;  for  example,  water-fowl  appearing  when  the  ice  breaks; 
Woodcock  when  frost  leaves  the  ground  and  worms  can  be  secured;  Phcebes 
when  aerial  insects  appear. 

At  night  listen  for  the  calls  of  birds  passing  overhead  as  evidence  of  a 
general  movement,  or  use  a  low-power  telescope  in  the  manner  before 
described. 

By  day  note  the  extended  migratory  flights  of  such  birds  as  Hawks, 
Crows,  and  other  diurnal  migrants.  Are  they  dependent  on  the  direction 
of  the  wind?  Do  they  follow  certain  routes  regularly? 

Observe  also  the  more  restricted  movements  of  such  night-fliers  as 
Warblers  and  Vireos,  which  as  they  feed  still  move  toward  their  goal. 

During  the  summer  note  the  gathering  of  birds  in  flocks  and  the  forma- 
tion of  regularly  frequented  roosts,  as  a  first  step  in  their  southward  migra- 
tion. Be  on  the  lookout  also  for  certain  more  southern  species,which  may 
wander  northward  after  their  breeding  season  has  closed. 

Close  observation  is  required  to  detect  the  arrival  of  the  first  Warblers, 
Vireos  and  Flycatchers  from  the  North;  as  well  as  to  determine  when  our 
earlier  departing  summer  residents  leave  us. 


REFERENCES  59 

When  possible,  the  age  of  first  comers  from  the  North  should  be  recorded ; 
but  the  plumage  of  adult  and  young  are  now  often  alike,  and  a  bird's  age 
can  be  ascertained  with  exactness  only  by  dissection,  the  condition  of  the 
bones  of  the  cranium  furnishing  one  of  the  most  dependable  clues. 

REFERENCES 

1836.  BACHMAN,  J.,  On  the  Migration  of  the  Birds  of  North  America, 
Sillim.  Am.  Journ.  Sci.,  XXX,  pp.  81-100.  Reprinted  in  The  Warbler  II, 
1907,  24. — 1866.  BAIRD,  S.  F.,  The  Distribution  and  Migration  of  North 
American  Birds,  Am.  Journ.  Sci.,  XLI,  pp.  78-90;  184-192,  339-347. — 1880 
ALLEN,  J.  A.,  Destruction  of  Birds  by  Lighthouses,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  y, 
pp,  131-138. — 1880.  ALLEN,  J.  A.,  Origin  of  the  Instinct  of  Migration  in 
Birds,  Ibid,  151-154. — 1881.  ALLEN,  J.  A.,  The  Migration  of  Birds.  Scrib- 
ner's  Mag.,  XXII,  pp.  932-938.— 1881.  SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.,  Some  Observa- 
tions on  the  Nocturnal  Migration  of  Birds,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  VI,  pp. 
97-100. — 1884.  DUTCHER,  W.,  Migration  at  L.  I.  Lighthouses,  Auk,  I,  pp. 
174-179. — 1885.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.,  Preliminary  Rep.  of  the  A.  O.  U.  Comm. 
on  Bird  Migration,  Auk,  II,  pp.  53-64. — 1886.  BREWSTER,  W.,  Bird  Mi- 
gration, Mem.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  I,  22  pp. — 1888.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  The 
Nocturnal  Migration  of  Birds,  Auk,  V,  pp.  37-39. — 1888.  COOKE,  W.  W., 
Bird  Migration  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Bull.  2,  Biol.  Surv.,  313pp. — 1889 
STONE,  W.,  Graphic  Representation  of  Bird  Migration,  Auk,  VI,  pp.  139-144. 
VIII,  1891,  pp.  194-108. — 1892-1894.  LOOMIS,  L.  M.,  Observations  on  Mi- 
gration in  South  Carolina,  Auk,  IX,  pp.  28-39;  XI,  1894,  26-39,  94-117. — 

1893.  MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Fly  Lines,  Auk,  X,  pp.  245-249. — 1894.    CHAPMAN, 
F.  M.,  Remarks  on  the  Origin  of  Bird  Migration,  Auk,  XI,  pp.  12-17. — 

1894.  STONE,  W.,  Bird  Migration  in  the  Vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  Birds  E. 
Pa.  and  N.  J.,  pp.  15-28.— 1895.  BRAY,  R.  S.,  A  Remarkable  Flight  of  Birds, 
Nature,  LII,  p.  45. — 1895.    JONES,   L.,   Bird  Migration  at  Grinnell,   la., 
Auk,  XII,  pp.   117-134;  231-244. — 1895-1900.    LOOMIS,  L.  M.,  California 
Water  Birds,  Proc.  Acad.  Sci.,  2d  ser.,  V,  pp.   177-224;  VI,   1896,   1-30; 
353-366;  3d  ser.,  1900;  277-322;  349-363.— 1896.    ALLEN,  J.  A.,  The  Mi- 
gration of  Birds,  Papers  Presented  to  the  World's  Congress  of  Ornithology 
pp.  31-38. — 1898.     STONE,   W.,  Methods  of   Recording  and   Using   Bird 
Migration  Data,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,Phila.,  pp.  128-156.  — 1899.   LIBBY, 
O.  G.,  The  Nocturnal  Flight  of  Migratory  Birds,  Auk,  XVI,  pp.  140-146. — 
1900.    REYNAUD,  G.,  The  Orientation  of  Birds,  Bird-Lore,  II,  pp.  101-108; 
141-147. — 1901.    COLE,  L.  J.,  Suggestions  for  a  Method  of  Studying  the 
Migration  of  Birds,  3d.  Rep.  Mich.  Acad.  Sci.,  pp.  67-70. — 1902.  WINKEN- 
WERDER,  H.  A.,  The  Migration  of  Birds  with  Special  Reference  to  Nocturnal 
Flight,  Bull.  Wis.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  II,  pp.  177-263.— 1903.  BONHOTE,  J.  L., 
Bird  Migration  at  Some  of  the  Bahama  Lighthouses,  Auk,  XX,  pp.  169-179. 
— 1903.    COOKE,  W.  W.,  Some  New  Facts  about  the  Migration  of  Birds, 
Yearbook,  Dept.  of  Agric.,  pp.  371-386. — 1904.    COOKE,  W.  W.,  Distribu- 
tion and  Migration  of  N.  A.  Warblers,  Bull.  18,  Biol.  Surv.,  142  pp.   See  also 
pp.  14-20,  Warblers  of  N.  A.,  1904.    COOKE,  W.  W.,  The  Effect  of  Altitude 
on  Bird  Migration,  Auk,  XXI,  pp.  338-341. — 1904.    TAVERNER,  P.  A.,  A 
Discussion  of  the   Origin  of   Migration,   Auk,  XXI,  pp.   322-333. — 1905. 
ALLEN,  J.  A.  (Review),  Auk,  XXII,  pp.  325-328. — 1905.    BISHOP,  L.  B., 
The  Direction  of  Flight  in  the  Fall  Migration  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Auk, 
XXII,   pp.   372-377.— 1905.     COOKE,   W.  W.,  Routes  of  Bird   Migration, 
Auk,  XXII,  pp.  1-11. — 1906.  CARPENTER,  F.  W.,  An  Astronomical  Determi- 
nation of  the  Heights  of  Birds  During  Nocturnal  Migration,  Auk,  XXIII, 
pp.  210-217. — 1906.    COOKE,  W.  W.,  Distribution  and  Migration  of  N.  A. 
Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans,  Bull.  26,  Biol.  Surv.,  90  pp. — 1906.     STEBBINS, 
J.,  A  Method  of  Determining  the  Heights  of  Migrating  Birds,  Pop.  Astron- 
omy, XIV,  pp.  65-70.— 1906.    STONE,  W.,  Some  Light  on  Night  Migration, 
Auk,  XXIII,  pp.  249-252.  Exceptionally  interesting.— 1908.  COOKE,  W.  W., 
Bird  Migration  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  Proc.  Biol.  Soc.,  XXI,  pp.  107- 


60  THE  VOICE  OF  BIRDS 

118. — 1909.  WATSON,  J.  B.,  Some  Experiments  on  Distant  Orientation. 
Papers  from  the  Tortugas  Lab.  of  the  Carnegie  Inst.,  II,  pp.  227-230. — 
1909.  WEIGHT,  H.  W.,  Birds  of  the  Boston  Public  Garden.  A  Study  in 
Migration,  229  pp.  (Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.). — 1910,  HENSHAW,  H.  W., 
Migration  of  the  Pacific  Plover  to  and  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Auk, 
XXVII,  pp.  246-262.— 1911.  COOKE,  W.  W.,  Our  Greatest  Travelers,  Natl. 
Geog.  Mag.,  XXII,  pp.  346-365,  12  maps. 


THE  VOICE  OF  BIRDS 

Call-Notes 
Song 

The  gift  of  song  is  the  bird's  most  appealing  and '^harming  attribute; 
but,  wholly  aside  from  their  esthetic  importance,  the  notes  of  birds  have 
an  especial  interest  for  every  one  who  would  attempt  to  interpret  and 
ascertain  their  significance.  The  weird  cries  and  enraptured  warbles 
which  are  often  so  strangely  expressive  of  nature  itself  and  which  so 
strongly  appeal  to  the  wild  and  primitive  within  us  constitute,  in  truth, 
the  language  of  birds,  to  understand  which  is  to  bring  one  to  a  new  and 
intimate  knowledge  of  bird-life.  It  is  out  of  the  question  to  present 
here  anything  like  an  adequate  essay  on  the  calls  and  songs  of  birds, 
but  the  subject  is  so  attractive,  and  its  investigation  is  so  well  within 
reach  of  the  local  or  isolated  student,  that  it  must  at  least  be  treated 
in  sufficient  detail  to  suggest  lines  of  study. 

Call-Notes. — The  term  call-notes  is  somewhat  loosely  applied  to  a 
great  variety  of  bird  utterances,  including  true  call  notes  as  well  as 
notes  or  'calls'  of  alarm,  anger,  etc. 

The  student  may  first  consider  the  origin  of  voice  in  birds,  begin- 
ning with  silent  species,  like  the  Man-o'-war-bird  and  Brown  Pelican 
(though  the  young  of  both  are  noisy  enough),  through  others,  like  the 
Cormorant,  Water-Turkey,  or  Black  Vulture,  which  utter  only  the 
most  rudimentary  sounds,  to  those  which  have  acquired  an  extended 
vocabulary,  like  the  Crow  or  Jay.  Then  may  follow  a  study  of  the  calls 
of  young  birds.  With  altricial  birds,  which  are  reared  in  the  nest,  the 
hunger  or  food-call  with  which  the  returning  parent  is  greeted  is  the 
most  characteristic,  and  is  common  to  such  unlike  birds  as  Thrushes 
and  other  Oscines,  Swifts,  Pelicans  and  Herons,  in  fact,  doubtless,  to 
all  birds  which  are  fed  in  the-nest. 

On  the  other  hand,  with  prsecocial  birds  which  follow  the  parent 
shortly  after  birth,  what  may  be  termed  the  'lost'  or  'location'  call  is 
the  most  important.  Here  the  chick  is  quickly  taught  to  feed  itself, 
and  its  life  depends  chiefly  on  its  ability  to  keep  up  with  the  flock  and 
receive  parental  care  and  guidance.  The  peep  of  a  chick  or  duckling 
will  be  readily  recalled  as  a  note  of  this  kind. 

When  threatened  by  danger,  both  altricial  and  prsecocial  young,  as 
a  rule,  try  to  avoid  observation  by  squatting  a,nd  remaining  motionless, 
but  young  Vultures  hiss  in  the  most  curious  manner;  young  Pelicans 


CALL -NOTES  61 

and  young  Boobies  scream;  young  Man-o'- war-birds  squeal  and  rattle 
their  bills;  and  all  three  species  strike  at  one  most  viciously.  Possibly 
the  size  and  snowy  plumage  of  these  young  birds  renders  them  so  con- 
spicuous that  they  cannot  expect  to  escape  observation  by  remaining 
motionless,  and  therefore  adopt  a  more  direct  and  aggressive  means 
of  self-preservation. 

As  the  young  bird  develops,  its  range  of  calls  increases  until  finally 
we  have  the  full  vocabulary  of  maturity.  This  varies  widely  with  differ- 
ent species,  and  it  may,  I  thiilk,  be  truly  said  that  no  exhaustive  study 
has  as  yet  been  made  of  the  calls  of  a  single  species  of  wild  bird. 

When  the  young  bird  is  old  enough  to  care  for  itself,  the  language 
of  the  nursery  is  forgotten,  and  the  recognition  call,  by  which  individuals 
of  the  same  species  are  brought  together  in  flocks  or  companies,  is 
doubtless  its  most  valuable  and  most  frequently  employed  vocal  asset. 
This  is  particularly  true  with  migratory  species,  whose  oft-repeated 
notes,  while  winging  their  way  through  the  night,  serve  to  mark  the 
line  of  flight  and  keep  stragglers  in  line.  The  pink  of  the  Bobolink,  the 
liquid  purt  of  the  Olive-backed  Thrush,  the  fine  but  far-carrying  cheep 
of  Warblers,  are  familiar  illustrations. 

Calls  of  this  nature,  by  which  a  bird  simpfy  announces  its  presence, 
together  with  those  of  alarm,  are  uttered  by  mosT  birds,  and  it  is  probable 
that  they  constitute  a  common  language,  the  significance  of  which  is 
generally  understood.  That  is,  a  migrating  bird  may  be  guided  by  the 
notes  of  other  species,  without  necessarily  knowing  to  what  species 
the  call  it  follows  belongs,  just  as  it  will  recognize  as  an  alarm  call  the 
warning  note  of  a  bird  of  a  different  species,  which  has  been  the  first 
to  see  and  give  notice  of  the  presence  of  a  Hawk  or  Owl  or  other  form 
of  danger. 

Crows,  however,  immediately  recognize  the  hoot  of  a  Barred  Owl 
as  such,  and  on  hearing  it  at  once  utter  a  certain  caw-caw  which  may 
be  termed  their  'rally  call,'  and  which  is  so  quickly  responded  to  by 
other  Crows  that  within  a  few  minutes  a  throng  of  them  has  surrounded 
the  cause  of  the  disturbance.  This  example  serves  well  to  illustrate 
the  difference  between  the  common  or  characteristic  call  of  a  certain 
species,  its  simple  "I  am  here"  or  "This  is  I,"  and  others  possessing  a 
special  significance.  That  the  rally  call  of  the  Crow  is  clearly  under- 
stood by  all  the  Crows  that  hear  it,  no  one  will  doubt  who  has  observed 
its  effect;  while  further  attention  to  Crow  caws  will  reveal  a  surprising 
variation  in  their  character  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  uttered; 
all  of  which  doubtless  possesses  an  exact  significance  to  Crows  and 
may  some  day  be  intelligible  to  man. 

The  Robin  also  supplies  a  familiar  illustration  of  a  bird  possessing 
a  wide  variety  of  calls,  each  one  of  which  has  its  own  meaning,  and  indeed 
one  need  go  no  further  than  the  hen-yard  to  find  opportunities  for  the 
study  of  bird  language  and  to  be  convinced  of  the  possibilities  which 
may  arise  from  close,  sympathetic  observation  of  this  phase  of  the  bird's 
life. 


62  SONG 

Each  species  will  offer  its  own  problem,  but  in  every  instance  the 
greatest  interest  will  center  about  the  life  of  the  nest,  where  the  com- 
plex relations  of  parent  with  parent  and  of  both  with  offspring,  supply 
occasions  for  the  utterance  of  notes  heard  under  no  other  conditions. 
Not  the  least  interesting  of  these  will  be  the  warning  calls  by  which  the 
adult  conveys  to  her  inexperienced,  or  even  blind,  young,  knowledge  of 
a  threatening  danger,  in  the  presence  of  which  they  must  betray  no 
sign  of  life.  Perhaps  no  one  case  more  strongly  illustrates  the  impor- 
tance of  a  means  of  exact  communication  among  birds,  for  failure  to 
understand  and  obey  may  here  be  followed  by  death. 

Song. — As  a  rule,  the  songs  of  birds  are  uttered  by  the  male  alone 
and  mainly  or  only  during  the  nesting  season.  It  is  true  that  in  rare 
cases  the  female  sings;  the  female  Cardinal  and  Rose-breasted  Gros- 
beak, for  example,  sometimes  sing  to  a  limited  extent,  and  the  female 
of  a  certain  tropical  American  Wren  (Pheugopedius  rutilus)  sings  a 
delightful  duet  with  her  mate.  It  is  also  true  that  some  birds  sing  more 
or  less  throughout  the  year,  while  many  have  a  short,  second  song- 
season  after  the  postnuptial  molt.  But  song  in  its  full  development,  and 
with  its  real  significance,  is  restricted  to  the  nesting-season.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  secondary  sexual  character,  an  irrepressible  manifesta- 
tion of  the  greatly  increased  vitality  of  the  bird  during  the  period  of 
reproduction. 

The  systematist  classifies  as  Oscines,  or  true  singing  birds,  those 
species  which  have  the  "syrinx  with  four  or  five  distinct  pairs  of  intrinsic 
muscles,  inserted  at  ends  of  three  upper  bronchial  half-rings  and  thus 
constituting  a  highly  complex  and  effective  musical  apparatus"  (Coues) ; 
but  while  this  group  contains  the  most  gifted  singers,  it  does  not  by  any 
means  contain  all  our  song  birds,  many  species  having  a  less  highly 
developed  syrinx  with  fewer  muscles,  which  are  inserted  into  the  middle, 
not  the  ends,  of  the  bronchial  half-rings,  still  being  able  to  produce  both 
pleasing  and  complex  vocal  sounds.  Note,  for  example,  the  songs  of 
certain  Snipe  and  Plover  or  of  Goatsuckers.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
true  Oscines,  like  Crows,  Magpies,  and  Jays,  with  a  highly  developed 
vocal  apparatus,  are  practically  songless,  while  the  Cactus  Wren,  a 
member  of  a  family  of  noted  songsters  utters  only  harsh  squawks. 

Song,  therefore,  is  not  restricted  solely  to  the  Oscines,  but  in  a 
broad  sense  is  the  attribute  of  every  species  of  birds  which  gives  expres- 
sion to  the  emotions  inspired  by  the  nesting-period.  The  whistling  of 
Grebes,  the  'bleating'  of  Snipe,  the  'booming'  of  Bitterns,  the  'trumpet- 
ing' of  Cranes,  the  'whinny'  of  Soras  or  'cooing'  of  Doves,  the  hooting 
of  the  Owls,  are,  therefore,  types  of  songs,  and  we  may  even  include 
here  such  mechanical  forms  of  bird  music  as  the  'drumming'  of  Grouse, 
tapping  of  Woodpeckers  or  'booming'  of  Nighthawks. 

Through  the  exercise  of  these  vocal  and  instrumental  gifts,  which  so 
delightfully  voice  the  joys  and  hopes  of  spring,  the  male  bird  replies  to 
the  challenge  in  kind  of  a  rival,  and  what  is  of  far  more  importance, 
informs  the  female  of  his  presence. 


SONG  63 

It  does  not  follow  that  he  deliberately  woos  her  in  musical  terms, 
since  not  only  caged  birds  but  those  species  in  which  the  males  arrive 
in  advance  of  the  female,  sing  with  or  without  an  audience. 

Recall,  as  example,  a  solitary  captive  whose  notes  day  after  day, 
and  possibly  spring  after  spring,  never  arouse  response  from  others  of 
his  species,  or  the  more  pleasing  picture  of  a  flock  of  male  Redwings, 
chanting  their  gurgling  chorus  with  no  streaked  female  to  hear  them. 
Even  when  the  flock  has  broken  and  its  individuals  have  taken  pos- 
session of  their  own  special  bit  of  marsh  or  swamp-land,  they  sing  alone 
until  their  notes  attract  the  later  migrating  females  and  the  match  is 
made. 

Attention  is  often  called  to  the  fact  that  the  best  songsters  are  dull 
in  color,  while  brightly  plumaged  birds  are  poor  singers,  but  the  musical 
standard  here  adopted  is  wholly  human,  and  so  far  as  we  know  harsh 
tones  may  be  just  as  effective  in  winning  a  mate  as  sweet  ones.  (See 
also,  under  Color.) 

While  the  main  object  of  song  is  now  accomplished,  fortunately 
for  the  nature  lover  the  singer  continues  to  voice  his  passion  during  the 
period  of  nest-building,  while  his  mate  is  incubating,  and  rarely  (e.  g. 
the  Warbling  Vireo  and  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak)  while  he  himself  sits 
upon  the  nest. 

With  the  appearance  of  the  young  the  song  wanes,  and  with  one- 
brooded  species  it  now  soon  ceases,  but  the  excess  vitality  possessed 
by  those  birds  which  rear  a  second  brood  is  manifested  also  in  their 
renewed  vocal  efforts,  and  their  song  season  is  prolonged  to  midsummer 
or  early  August. 

As  has  been  said,  many  species  have  a  second  song-period,  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  annual  post  breeding  molt,  but  it  lasts  only  for  a  few 
days  and  the  song  rarely  reaches  the  fullness  of  springtime.  As  dimin- 
ishing vigor  of  the  later  nesting-season  ceases  to  demand  full  expression, 
the  song  may  decrease  in  volume  and,  at  times,  is  uttered  sotto  voce 
with  closed  bill,  when,  though  perfect  in  form,  it  may  be  heard  only  at 
close  range. 

The  time  of  the  day,  as  well  as  the  time  of  the  year  in  which  a  species 
sings,  is  also  to  be  noted.  Early  morning  and  late  afternoon  are  the 
periods  of  greatest  activity  in  the  bird's  day,  and  it  is  then  that  most 
species  are  heard  singing,  but  each  species  will  be  found  to  be  more  or 
less  regular  in  regard  to  the  time  of  its  singing.  Some  begin  earlier  and 
sing  later,  some  sing  more  or  less  throughout  the  day,  others  only  before 
sunrise  and  after  sunset,  others  still  by  night  as  well  as  by  day. 

In  recording  a  bird's  biography  one  should  also  learn  the  duration 
of  the  song  itself,  noting  whether  it  is  a  short,  definite  effort,  like,  for 
example,  that  of  the  Meadowlark  or  House  Wren,  or  a  more  or  less 
continuous  performance  like  that  of  the  Red-eyed  Vireo,  Mockingbird 
or  Robin.  Nothing  so  stimulates  song  as  song,  and  the  frequency  of 
song  in  its  relation  to  the  abundance  of  the  species  should  be  observed. 
The  partial  or  complete  cessation  of  song  during  periods  of  cold  or 


64  SONG 

inclement  weather  will  further  illustrate  the  connection  between  song 
and  the  bird's  physical  condition. 

Singing  usually  claims  all  a  bird's  attention.  Some  birds,  it  is  true, 
like  the  Red-eyed  Vireo  or  Black  and  White  Warbler,  sing  as  they  work, 
but  in  most  instances  the  bird  seeks  a  point  of  vantage  from  which  to 
deliver  his  message.  The  Brown  Thrasher  mounts  to  the  topmost 
twig  of  the  tallest  tree,  the  Mocker  often  takes  his  stand  on  a  chimney, 
Bob-white  mounts  to  a  fence-post^  while  most  of  the  song  birds  of 
prairie  and  plain,  like  the  Horned  Larks,  Pipits,  Longspurs  and  Lark 
Bunting,  for  lack  of  other  perch,  deliver  their  songs  from  the  air. 

Other  birds,  like  the  Bobolink  and  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak,  sing 
while  flying  as  well  as  while  perching,  and  observation  will  show  that 
each  species  of  bird  has  a  more  or  less  well-defined  taste  in  the  selection 
of  its  song-perch.  •* 

The  flight-song  of  birds  inhabiting  treeless  regions  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  the  exceptional  and  infrequent  flight — or  ecstasy — song  of 
certain  birds,  like  the  Ovenbird,  Water-Thrushes,  and  Maryland 
Yellow-throat,  which  usually  sing  from  a  perch,  but  which,  on  occasion, 
bound  into  the  air,  rising  only  a  few  feet  in  the  case  of  the  Yellow- 
throat,  but  a  hundred  or  more  with  the  Seiuri,  and  on  trembling  wing 
utter  a  hurried,  ecstatic  outburst  of  twittering  notes  wholly  unlike  their 
normal  song.  The  Meadowlark  has  such  a  flight-song,  but  in  my  ex- 
perience the  bird  of  the  plains  (Sturnella  neglecta)  utters  it  far  more 
frequently  than  does  our  eastern  Sturnella  magna,  a  variation  possibly 
due  to  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  their  haunts. 

A  further  study  of  Meadowlark  songs  opens  the  subject  of  geograph- 
ical variation  in  the  songs  of  the  same  species.  Its  widely  different 
song  is  one  of  the  Western  Meadowlark's  best  claims  to  specific  dis- 
tinctness from  the  eastern  bird,  but  even  among  the  slightly  differ- 
entiated forms  of  Sturnella  magna,  there  are  striking  variations  in  voice. 
The  songs  of  some  Florida  Meadowlarks  are  scarcely  recognizable  to 
one  familiar  only  with  the  Meadowlark  in  the  north,  while  the  Meadow- 
lark  of  Cuba  would  not  be  known  to  him  by  its  notes. 

The  'musical'  ear  will  detect  more  or  less  pronounced  variations 
in  the  voices  of  other  widely  distributed  species,  as  they  are  heard  in 
the  various  parts  of  their  range,  and,  in  addition  to  this  geographical 
variation,  a  variation  with  age  may  bfe  detected:  This  is  obvious  enough 
with  species  like  the  Song  Sparrow,  the  young  of  which,  while  still 
wearing  in  whole  or  part  their  nestling  plumage,  sing  an  evidently 
immature  song;  and  is  still  apparent  with  birds  like  the  Orchard  Oriole 
or  Indigo  Bunting,  whose  first  spring  plumage  betrays  their  age  and 
explains  why  their  songs  are  less  finished,  less  developed  than  those  of 
the  adults  of  their  kind. 

Birds  inherit  at  least  the  calls  they  utter  when  in  the  nest,  just  as 
a  child  cries  instinctively,  but  they  apparently  do  not  inherit  their 
songs  any  more  than  the  child  inherits  the  language  of  its  parents,  and 
in  many  recorded  instances  they  have  learned  the  notes  of  the  birds 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT  65 

within  sound  of  whose  voices  they  have  been  reared.  There  are,  for 
example,  a  number  of  cases  in  which  young  House  or  English  Sparrows 
when  reaped  with  Canaries  have  learned  the  Canary's  song.  Two 
Baltimore  Orioles,  reared  by  W.  E.  D.  Scott  ('04)  apart  from  all  other 
birds,  developed  a  song  of  their  own  which  was  wholly  unlike  that  of 
their  species,  and  this  song  was  learned  by  four  other  Baltimore  Orioles 
which  were  subsequently  reared  in  the  companionship  of  the  first  two. 

It  is  this  strong  tendency  to  imitate  which  Jias  given  rise  to  the 
theory  of  the  mimetic  origin  of  bird  song,  and  wmch  is  no  doubt  largely 
responsible  for  much  of  the  individual  variation  so  prevalent  in  birds' 
songs.  There  is,  for  example,  a  Maryland  Yellow-throat  now  (May, 
1910)  living  near  my  home,  the  first  half  of  whose  song  is  that  of  the 
Yellow  Warbler,  while  the  remainder  resembles  that  of  its  own  species, 
evidence  that  the  inherent  predisposition  toward  the  acquisition  of  the 
song  of  its  ancestors  was  not  sufficiently  strong  to  prevent  its  song  from 
being  modified  by  the  notes  of  another  species. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  determine  just  when  this  presumably 
inherent  tendency  is  active.  Is  the  nestling  unconsciously  influenced  by 
the  song  of  its  parent  during  the  period  of  its  infancy?  Single-brooded 
birds  may  not  hear  the  song  of  their  species  from  the  time  they  leave 
the  nest  until  the  following  spring  song  again  announces  the  opening 
of  the  nesting-season.  It  seems  probable,  therefore,  that  their  song  is 
acquired  during  the  formative  period  of  immaturity  and  before  they 
come  into  contact  with  other  species  whose  notes  their  strong  mimetic 
gifts  might  lead  them  to  adopt  as  their  own,  as  doubtless  did  the  Mary- 
land Yellow-throat  mentioned  above. 

With  some  species  the  tendency  to  imitate  is  functional  long  after 
it  has  served  its  universal  purpose  of  giving  them  the  notes  character- 
istic of  their  species.  Among  our  birds  the  Mockingbird  takes  first 
rank  as  a  mimic,  and  L.  M.  Loomis  tells  me  of  one  with  a  repertoire 
containing  no  less  than  thirty-two  songs  of  other  species  of  birds;  but 
on  the  other  hand  some  Mockingbirds  sing  only  their  own  song.  The 
Catbird,  White-eyed  Vireo,  Blue  Jay  and  introduced  Starling  are  also 
to  be  numbered  among  the  mimics. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

What  North  American  birds  are  voiceless?  Which  possess  rudimentary 
voices?  Trace  the  development  of  voice.  Define  the  difference  between 
call-notes  and  song.  Note  the  development  of  call-notes  in  the  young  of 
prsecocial  birds;  of  altricial  birds.  Interpret,  as  far  as  possible,  the  call-notes 
of  certain  species.  Give  illustrations  of  different  types  of  anger  calls  (e.  g. 
spitting  of  brooding  Chickadee,  snapping  of  bill  by  Screech  Owl,  hiss  of 
Duck,  etc.);  of  alarm  notes;  of  scolding  notes.  How  are  call-notes  used 
by  migrating  birds?  Do  birds  understand  the  call-notes  of  other  than  their 
own  species?  Do  the  young  understand  the  notes  of  their  parents?  What 
relation  exists  between  voice  and  character  (e.  g.  scream  of  Hawkpcoo  of 
Dove)?  Define  Oscines.  Give  instances  of  song  in  non-Oscines;  in  the 
female.  Define  the  song  season.  What  species  have  been  heard  singing  in 
the  fall  or  winter?  What  is  the  relation  between  song  and  the  advance  of 


66  THE  NESTING  SEASON 

the  nesting-season?  Among  single-brooded  species?  Among  double-brooded 
species?  Mention  types  of  mechanical  and  other  forms  of  bird  music. 
What  is  the  function  of  song?  What  are  the  earliest  and  latest  dates  on 
which  certain  species  have  been  heard  singing?  What  species  arrive  in 
song?  What  is  the  relation  between  song  and  the  color  of  a  bird's  plumage? 
What  birds  sing  sotto  voce?  Note  the  hours  at  which  certain  birds  sing. 
What  relation  exists  between  the  song-perch,  haunt  and  habit  (terrestrial 
or  arboreal)?  What  birds  sing  at  night?  What  birds  sing  on  the  wing  or 
have  a  true  flight-song?  Give  instances  of  individual  variation  in  song; 
of  variation  with  age;  of  geographical  variation.  Do  young  birds  sing 
their  first  fall?  Do  birds  inherit  the  call-notes  and  songs?  When  does  the 
young  bird  acquire  its  song?  Give  instances  of  mimicry  in  birds. 

REFERENCES 

1871.  DARWIN,  C.,  The  Descent  of  Man. — 1884-5.  BICKNELL,  E.  P., 
A  Study  of  the  Singing  of  Our  Birds,  The  Auk,  I,  pp.  60-71,  126-140,  209- 
218,  322-332;  II,  pp.  144-154,  249-262.— 1889.  RHOADS,  S.  N.,  The  Mimetic 
Origin  and  Development  of  Bird  Language,  Am.  Nat.  XXIII,  pp.  91-102. — 

1895.  SHALER,  N.  S.,  Domesticated  Animals,  155  pp,  8vo.,  (Scribner's). — 

1896.  WITCHELL,    C.   A.,   The  Evolution  of   Bird-Song,    lOmo.,   253   pp., 
(Black,  London). — 1901.    SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.,  Data  on  Song  in  Birds,  Science, 
N.  S.,  XIV,  p.  522.— 1904.    MATHEWS,  F.  S.,  Field  Book  of  Wild  Birds  and 
Their  Music,  16mo.,  262  pp.,  illus.,  (Putnam's). — 1904.    SCOTT,  W.  E.  D., 
Inheritance  of  Song  in  Passerine  Birds,  Science,  N.  S.,  XIX,  D.  154;  XX,  p. 
282. — 1908.    CRAIG,  W.,  The  Voices  of  Pigeons  Regarded  as  a  Means  of 
Social  Control,  Am.  Journ.  Sociology,  XIV,  pp.  86-100. 

THE  NESTING  SEASON     . 

Date  The  Egg,  continued 

Number  of  Broods  Colors 

Courtship  Shape 

The  Nest  Variations 

Enemies  of  Nesting  Birds  Incubation 
Nesting-site                                       The  Young  Bird 

Material  Condition  at  Birth 

Construction  Food 

Character  of  the  Nest  Nest  Sanitation 

Inheritance  Defence  of  the  Young 

Parasitism  Voice 

The  Egg  Nest  Exercises 

Number  Laid  Fear 

Size  Flight 

Date. — Why  should  a  bird  build  its  nest  at  a  certain  time  of  the 
year?  Some  variation  in  nesting  dates,  it  is  true,  is  shown  by  all  birds, 
but  this  does  not  affect  the  truth  of  the  statement  that  most  species 
have  a  definite  nesting  season. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  answered  that  the  nesting  period,  as  a 
whole,  is  determined  by  those  climatic  changes,  which,  independent 
of  latitude,  divide  the  year  into  seasons.  In  the  extreme  north,  where  it 
is  possible  for  birds  to  nest  only  during  a  small  portion  of  the  year,  the 


NESTING  DATE  67 

relation  between  nesting  time  and  season  is  obvious  enough.  But  in  the 
south,  so  far  as  climate  is  concerned,  birds  might  rear  their  young  any 
month  in  the  year;  nevertheless,  even  in  the  tropics  most  species 
appear  to  have  a  more  or  less  well-defined  nesting-season. 

So  we  look  for  a  deeper  reason  why  there  should  be  this  regular, 
annual,  nesting  period,  and  we  apparently  find  it  in  the  bird  itself.  In 
the  bird-world  as  in  the  plant-world  there  exist  cycles  of  physiological 
development.  The  tree  buds,  leaves,  blossoms,  fruits,  loses  its  foliage 
and  rests ;  then,  all  in  due  time,  the  same  events  are  repeated  in  proper 
order.  Thus  the  bird  migrates  (if  it  be  migratory),  mates,  builds  its 
nest,  lays  its  eggs,  incubates,  rears  its  young,  molts,  and  retreats  to 
winter  quarters.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  program,  as  where  a 
bird  raises  more  than  one  brood,  or  has  more  than  one  molt,  but  they 
are  only  the  results  of  variations  in  the  underlying  physiological  pro- 
cesses which,  through  a  regular  series  of  events,  prepare  the  bird  for 
the  nesting  season. 

Insect-,  seed-  or  fruit-eating  birds  require  an  abundant  supply  of 
food  during  the  nesting-season,  when,  within  a  comparatively  limited 
area,  they  must  find  sustenance  for  their  young  as  well  as  for  themselves. 
Now  while  it  is  true  that  in  the  tropics  food  is  to  be  had  throughout 
the  year,  it  is  far  more  abundant  and  varied  during  the  spring  or  early 
summer.  There,  with  the  coming  of  rains,  the  trees  renew  their  foliage, 
then  insects  become  more  numerous,  and  coincidentally  the  instincts  of 
the  nesting-season  become  active  in  birds. 

Confining  our  attention  to  our  own  birds,  we  observe  that  some 
species  nest  early  and  some  late  in  the  nesting-season.  Why  is  this? 
The  character  of  the  food  of  the  young  is  the  most  obvious  cause 
determining  the  exact  date  of  a  bird's  nesting.  Hence  those  birds  of 
prey  which  feed  their  offspring  on  mammals  or  birds  are  the  first 
birds  to  nest,  while  those  birds  that  rear  their  brood  on  insects  or  fruit 
nest  later. 

But  is  not  a  bird's  nesting-time  also  dependent  on  whether  it  be 
migratory  or  resident?  This  is  a  difficult  question  to  answer,  since  it  is 
by  no  means  easy  to  determine  whether  or  not  a  species  is  resident, 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  Among  resident  species  of  not  dissimilar 
feeding  habits,  there  is  often  much  difference  in  nesting  dates.  The 
White-breasted  Nuthatch  near  New  York  City,  for  instance,  nests  in 
the  middle  of  April,  while  the  Downy  Woodpecker  waits  until  a  month 
later.  The  Bluebird  nests  in  the  first  half  of  April,  the  Cedar  Waxwing 
the  latter  half  of  June.  Possibly  a  study  of  the  food  of  their  young  may 
explain  this  difference  in  dates.  . 

Some  migratory  birds  which  arrive  at  about  the  same  time  also 
nest  on  widely  different  dates.  Robins  and  Red- winged  Blackbirds, 
for  instance,  reach  New  York  City  in  late  February  or  early  March, 
but  the  Robin  nests  nearly  a  month  earlier  than  the  Redwing.  Haunts 
may  here  exert  some  influence.  The  early  nesting  Robins  find  favorable 
sites  in  evergreens,  long  before  the  vegetation  in  the  marshes  the  Redr 
7 


68  NUMBER  OF  BROODS 

wings  frequent  affords  concealment  for  their  nests.  The  Woodcock, 
on  the  other  hand,  nests  shortly  after  its  arrival;  possibly  because  a 
site  is  at  once  available. 

Consequently,  in  addition  to  those  physiological  factors  which 
induce  an  annual  nesting-season  as  one  of  the  phenomena  in  the  cycle 
of  the  bird's  year,  the  exact  date  of  a  bird's  nesting  appears  to  be 
governed  by  (1)  the  nature  of  the  food  of  its  young;  (2)  whether  it 
is  resident  or  migratory,  though  this  remains  to  be  determined;  and 
(3)  the  condition  of  its  nesting  haunts.  To  these  will  doubtless  be 
added  other  causes,  as  we  become  more  intimate  with  the  facts  involved. 

Number  of  Broods. — Why  do  some  birds  raise  only  one  brood  and 
others  two  or  even  three?  We  should  look  for  a  partial  answer  to  this 
question  in  the  length  of  time  required  by  a  species  to  rear  a  brood.  If 
the  period  from  the  beginning  of  the  nest-building  to  the  date  when  the 
resulting  young  are  able  to  care  for  themselves  is  so  short  that  the 
parents  are  still  in  the  physiological  condition  incident  to  reproduction, 
a  second  family  may  be  expected,  and  under  similar  circumstances  a 
third  may  follow.  The  eggs  of  the  English  Sparrow  hatch  in  about 
twelve  days,  the  young  remain  in  the  nest  only  about  a  week,  and  the 
species  is  reported  to  have  reared  six  broods  in  a  season  near  New  York 
City,  but  this  number  is  doubtless  exceptional.  Robins'  eggs  hatch  in 
thirteen  days;  the  young  leave  the  nest  when  about  two  weeks  old, 
and  the  species  raises  two  or  even  three  broods.  But  the  eggs  of  Fish 
Hawks,  for  example,  require  four  weeks'  incubation;  the  young  do  not 
fly  until  about  six  weeks  old,  and  the  species  is  one-brooded.  These 
facts,  however,  fail  to  explain  why  many  birds  in  which  the  periods  of 
incubation  and  rearing  of  the  young  are  quite  as  short  as  those  of  the 
Robin,  should  have  only  one  brood.  The  time  of  a  bird's  arrival  on 
the  nesting-ground  doubtless  has  some  bearing  on  the  question,  and  we 
should  also  take  into  account  the  time  of  return  to  its  winter  haunts, 
without  in  the  least  being  able  to  say  why  it  should  come  and  go  at  a 
certain  time.  Still,  among  permanent  residents  and  migrants,  which 
arrive  and  depart  at  about  the  same  season,  some  are  single-brooded 
while  others  raise  two  or  even  three  broods.  For  instance,  of  the  former, 
the  Song  Sparrow  rears  two  and  on  occasions,  three  broods,  while  the 
Chickadee  has  but  one.  Here  size  of  the  brood  may  be  a  factor.  Among 
migrants,  the  Robin  is  two-  or  rarely  three-brooded,  while  the  Purple 
Grackle,  which  comes  just  as  early  and  remains  nearly  as  long,  is  one- 
brooded.  Possibly  there  are  here  temperamental  differences  not  to  be 
explained  by  observable  influences. 

The  question,  not  infrequently  asked,  whether  any  of  our  migrant 
birds  nest  in  their  winter  homes,  makes  it  necessary  to  add  that  a  bird 
has  only  one  nesting-season,  and  with  those  species  which  rear  more 
than  one  brood  there  is  no  appreciable  interval  of  rest  between  the  first 
and  succeeding  broods. 

A  table  of  dates  showing  when  one  may  expect  to  find  full  sets  of 
birds'  eggs  of  the  first  laying  near  New  York  City  is  appended: 


NESTING   DATES 


Feb.  28.  Great  Horned  Owl. 
Mar.  12.  Barred  Owl. 

28.  Carolina  Wren. 
30.  Duck  Hawk. 
Apl.     1.  Woodcock. 

3.  Red-shouldered  HawK. 
3.  Screech  Owl. 
6.  Red-tailed  Hawk. 
9.  American  Crow. 
9.  Long-eared  Owl. 
10.  Bluebird. 

17.  White-breasted  Nuthatch. 

18.  Broad-winged  Hawk. 
20.  Robin. 

25.  Mourning  Dove. 
25.  Purple  Grackle. 

28.  Phoebe. 

29.  Song  Sparrow. 
May    1.  Black-crowned  Night 

Heron. 
1.  Cooper's  Hawk. 

1.  Kingfisher. 

2.  Osprey. 

3.  Cardinal. 

5.  Cowbird. 

6.  Wood  Duck. 

6.  Green  Heron. 

7.  Flicker. 

8.  Barn  Swallow. 
10.  Clapper  Rail. 
10.  Ruffed  Grouse. 
10.  Sparrow  Hawk. 

10.  Vesper  Sparrow. 

11.  Louisiana  Water-Thrush. 

12.  Ruby-throated  Humming- 

bird. 

13.  Red-headed  Woodpecker, 

14.  Acadian  Flycatcher. 
14.^1ue  Jay. 

14.  Chipping  Sparrow. 

14.  Towhee. 

15.  Virginia  Rail. 
15.   Meadowlark. 
15.  Field  Sparrow. 
15.  Swamp  Sparrow. 

15.  Hooded  Warbler. 

16.  Blue- winged  Warbler. 

16.  Brown  Thrasher. 

17.  Fish  Crow. 
17.  Redstart. 
17.  Catbird. 


May  17.  Wood  Thrush. 

18.  Red-winged  Blackbird. 

18.  Black  and  White  Warbler. 

18.  House  Wren. 

19.  Tree  Swallow. 
19.  Bank  Swallow. 

19.  Chickadee. 

20.  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak. 
20.  Worm-eating  Warbler. 
20.  Oven-bird. 

20.  Veery. 

21.  Sharp-shinned  Hawk. 
21.  Downy  Woodpecker. 

21.  Least  Flycatcher. 

22.  Northern  Parula  Warbler. 

23.  Hairy  Woodpecker. 

23.  Chat. 

24.  Spotted  Sandpiper. 

25.  Chimney  Swift. 
25.  Baltimore  Oriole. 
25.  Purple  Martin. 
25.  White-eyed  Vireo. 

25.  Maryland  Yellow-throat. 

26.  Bob-white. 
26.  Marsh  Hawk. 

28.  Grasshopper  Sparrow. 

28.  Red-eyed  Vireo. 

28.  Yellow-throated  Vireo. 

29.  Black-billed  Cuckoo. 
29.  Kingbird. 

29.  Bobolink. 

29.  Indigo  Bunting. 

29.  Chestnut-sided  Warbler. 

30.  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 
30.  Orchard  Oriole. 

30.  Seaside  Sparrow. 

30.  Sharp-tailed  Sparrow. 

30.  Rough-winged  Swallow. 

30.  Cliff  Swallow. 

30.  Warbling  Vireo. 

31.  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren. 
31.  Least  Bittern. 

June    l!vNighthawk^ 

1.  Kentucky  Warbler. 

3.  Whip-poor-will. 

3.  Crested  Flycatcher. 

3.  Scarlet  Tanager. 

5.  Wood  Pewee. 

7.  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren 

19.  Cedar  Waxwing. 

20.  American  Goldfinch. 


70  COURTSHIP 

Courtship. — The  first  evidence  of  the  near  approach  of  the  nesting- 
season  among  birds  is  furnished  by  the  phenomena  of  courtship.  Chief 
among  these  are  song  and  the  sounds  produced  in  various  ways  which 
take  the  place  of  song;  display  of  plumage,  fighting,  dancing,  and  other 
often  remarkable  activities  through  which  birds  give  vent  to  their 
emotions  at  this  period  of  maximum  vitality.  As  a  rule,  these  vocal  or 
physical  exhibitions  are  given  by  the  male;  and  the  question  at  issue  is, 
are  they  simply  expressions  of  irrepressible  vigor  or  are  they  designed 
to  attract  the  attention  or  stimulate  the  interest  of  the  female  and  thus 
aid  the  bird  to  win  a  mate. 

The  function  of  song  is  discussed  in  another  chapter,  but  in  fighting 
for  a  mate,  action  and  cause  are  so  closely  connected  that  the  develop- 
ment of  spurs,  for  instance,  is  generally  considered  a  result  of  that 
form  of  natural  selection  which  awards  success  to  the  strongest,  best- 
armed  fighter  and  enables  it  to  transmit  its  own  desirable  characters  to 
its  offspring.  This  matter  is,  however,  primarily  to  be  settled  by  the 
males.  Two  or  more  males  meet,  battle,  and  the  victor  gets  the  prize 
of  a  mate;  but  has  this  mate  any  voice  in  the  matter?  In  those  more 
peaceful  contests  where  rival  males  attempt  to  outdo  one  another 
through  display  of  plumage  or  violent  actions,  it  is  even  more  difficult 
to  decide  to  what  extent  the  female  is  influenced,  but  it  seems  probable 
that  there  is  less  actual  selection  than  passive  acceptance  on  her  part 
of  the  male  which  is  most  active  in  battle  or  display. 

It  is  much  less  difficult  to  make  observations  in  this  field  than  to 
interpret  them.  What,  for  example,  is  the  significance  of  the  squabbles, 
struttings  and  irrepressible  vociferousness  of  the  English  Sparrow  when 
courting? 

Most  of  our  birds  are  monogamous  and  doubtless  take  a  new  mate 
for  each  nesting  season;  but  some  of  the  larger  birds,  notably  among  the 
Hawks  and  Owls,  are  known  to  be  more  constant  and  are  believed  to  be 
mated  for  life.  In  either  case,  however,  the  mate,  if  lost,  is  usually 
soon  replaced,  at  least  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  nesting-season. 

Exceptions  to  the  rule  of  monogamy  are  shown  by  the  Anis  (Croto- 
phaga)  which  are  communistic,  and  by  certain  species  which  are  polyg- 
amous. The  Anis  live  in  small  flocks  throughout  the  year.  The 
females  lay  in  a  common  nest  and  all  share  the  family  duties. 

Among  our  North  American  birds  the  Wild  Turkey  is  polygamous, 
though  all  association  with  the  female  ceases  after  incubation  begins, 
while  the  male  of  the  Prairie  Hen  and  of  some  other  members  of  the 
Grouse  family  are  said  to  have  more  than  one  mate.  The  Great-tailed 
Grackle  in  Mexico  has,  at  least,  as  many  as  five  or  six  wives,  and  our  , 
Red-winged  Blackbird  has  been  suspected  of  Mormonism. 

The  males  of  our  Cowbirds  are  believed  to  outnumber  the  females, 
and  as  this  parasitic  species  apparent^  never  pairs,  its  sexual  relations 
may  be  described  as  representing  a  kind  of  promiscuous  polygamy. 


THE  NEST  71 

The  Nest 

Enemies  of  Nesting  Birds. — It  will  add  to  our  appreciation  of  a 
bird's  resources  and  most  assuredly  to  our  sympathy  with  birds,  if 
before  discussing,  their  nesting  habits  we  merely  mention  some  of  the 
enemies  and  dangers  which  threaten  birds  at  this  season.  These  are 
of  two  kinds;  first,  the  elements;  second,  predatory  animals  including 
parasites.  High  winds,  heavy  rains,  prolonged  wet  or  cool  periods  and 
hail-storms  are  among  the  weather  phenomena  often  fatal  to  the  life 
of  the  nest;  while  chief  among  the  animals  that  prey  upon  the  eggs  or 
young  of  our  birds,  are  Crows,  Jays,  Crackles,  cats,  squirrels,  opossums, 
minks,  weasels,  skunks,  snakes,  and  man,  who  either  directly,  as  an 
egg  collector  for  the  table  or  cabinet,  or  indirectly,  in  mowing  fields, 
clearing  hedgerows  and  in  other  ways,  has  won  a  prominent  place  among 
the  enemies  of  nest-life. 

With  such  an  array  of  adverse  conditions  and  relentless  foes,  the 
bird  which  reaches  maturity  may  be  said  to  have  escaped  nine-tenths 
of  the  dangers  to  which  bird-flesh  is  heir.  One  realizes,  therefore,  how 
important  it  is  for  birds  to  select  a  site,  build  a  nest,-  and  care  for  their 
young  in  a  way  which  has  proved  to  be  most  desirable  for  their  species; 
and  how  readily  imperfect  inheritance  of  the  proper  activities  or  in- 
ability to  conform  to  new  conditions  may  mean  failure  to  rear  a  brood, 
and  in  the  end  extinction  of  the  species. 

Nesting  Site. — The  nature  of  a  bird's  nesting  site  appears  to  be 
determined  by  (1)  the  necessity  for  protection;  (2)  condition  of  the 
young  at  birth;  (3)  temperament,  whether  social  or  solitary;  (4) 
habit,  whether  arboreal,  terrestrial  or  aquatic;  (5)  haunt,  whether  in 
woodland,  field,  marsh,  etc. 

Protection  may  be  secured  by  hiding  the  nest,  by  placing  it  in  more 
or  less  inaccessible  situations  in  trees  or  on  cliffs,  or  by  frequenting  some 
isolated  islet  uninhabited  by  predatory  animals.  As  I  have  elsewhere 
said  ("Camps  and  Cruises  of  an  Ornithologist,"  pp.  35-37),  "So  far  as  my 
experience  goes,  all  colonial  ground-nesting  birds  breed  only  on  islands." 
Auks,  Murres,  Skimmers,  Petrels,  Tropic  Birds,  Gannets,  Cormo- 
rants, Pelicans  and  Flamingoes  are  examples  among  North  American 
birds,  with  which  Bank  Swallows  appear  to  be  the  only  exception.  It 
is  less  to  their  terrestrial  habit  than  to  their  gregariousness  that  we  must 
attribute  the  necessity  of  an  island  home  for  these  birds.  When  nesting, 
all  the  individuals  of  a  given  species,  which  at  other  seasons  are  scat- 
tered over  a  wide  area,  are  focused  in  a  small  space.  To  find  one  nest 
is  to  find  all,  and  to  a  large  degree  the  fortune  of  one  nest  is  also  the 
fate  of  its  neighbor. 

Even  when  arboreal,  colonial  birds  like  Herons,  Spoonbills,  Anhingas, 
and  Cormorants  usually  breed  in  trees  growing  in  water  and  which  are 
thus  insulated.  The  birds  just  mentioned  are  all  exceptions  to  the  rule 
that  terrestrial  feeding  birds  usually  nest  on  the  ground,  while  arboreal 
feeders  nest  in  trees.  But  here  the  condition  of  the  young  at  birth  exerts 


72  NESTING  SITE 

an  influence.  The  young  of  Herons,  Spoonbills,  Anhingas,  Cormorants 
and  Ibises  are  altricial,  hence  require  the  protection  of  a  more  or  less 
inaccessible  nest  during  the  comparatively  long  period  they  are  con- 
fined to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Whip-poor-will  is,  in  feeding  habit, 
a  bird  of  the  air,  but  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  ground,  the  pracocial 
young  apparently  not  requiring  the  shelter  of  a  nest. 

Exceptions  to  the  rule  that  exclusively  terrestrial  feeding  birds 
usually  nest  upon  the  ground  have  already  been  referred  to  under 
Herons,  Ibises,  Spoonbills,  etc.,  whose  gregariousness  in  connection 
with  the  condition  of  the  young  at  birth  evidently  demands  an  arboreal 
site;  but  the  reasons  why  such  terrestrial  birds  as  the  Quail  and  Grouse, 
Snipe  and  Plover  or  the  Loons  and  Grebes  nest  on  the  ground  are 
obvious.  It  is  equally  to  be  expected  that  birds,  like  the  Catbird,  which 
live  among  bushes,  should  nest  among  them,  and  that  arboreal  species, 
like  Tanagers,  should  nest  in  trees,  though  we  shall  always  find  inter- 
esting variations  or  departures  from  the  normal;  as,  for  example,  the 
nesting  of  the  Solitary  Sandpiper  in  the  old  homes  of  such  arboreal 
species  as  the  Robin,  or  of  the  Wood  Duck  and  Golden-eye  in  trees, 
while  such  purely  individual  variations  as  a  Wild  Goose  occupying  a 
Fish  Hawk's  nest  or  a  Mallard  laying  in  a  Rough-leg's  nest,  occur 
without  number. 

^—  It  is  to  be  expected,  too,  that  the  character  of  a  bird's  haunts  should 
be  reflected  in  its  nesting-site,  and  as  a  result  we  have  some  most  inter- 
esting variations  in  site  among  birds  of  the  same  family  but  which  live 
in  unlike  haunts.  Many  Hawks,  for  example,  are  wood-dwellers,  and 
the  ideal  Hawk's  nest  is  placed  in  a  tree;  but  the  Marsh  Hawk  lives  in 
treeless  areas  and  nests  upon  the  ground.  So  the  Burrowing  Owl  of 
the  prairies  nests  in  holes  in  the  ground;  while  the  forest-haunting  mem- 
bers of  its  family  usually  select  hollow  trees.  Consequently  it  follows 
that  when  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  range  of  the  same  species 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  corresponding  variation  in  the  nature  of  its  nesting- 
site.  The  Red-winged  Blackbirds  living  in  reedy  marshes  weave  their 
nests  to  the  reed-stems,  while  those  Redwings  of  the  adjoining  alder 
growths  place  their  nests  in  alder  bushes.  Mourning  Doves  nest  in 
trees  in  the  East,  and  on  the  ground  in  treeless  areas  of  the  West.  Night 
Herons,  which  in  the  East  may  build  seventy  or  eighty  feet  from  the 
ground,  in  the  West  build  at  water-level  among  reeds.  Even  more 
surprising  is  it  to  find  the  Great  Blue  Heron  in  treeless  areas  nesting  on 
the  bare  ground  or  on  rocks,  rarely,  or  never,  however,  using  a  terres- 
trial site  except  upon  islands.  While  many  birds  show  little  or  no  varia- 
tion in  the  character  of  their  nesting-sites,  others  place  their  nests  in 
many  and  widely  different  situations,  even  under  the  same  conditions. 
Robins,  for  example,  aside  from  nesting  in  trees  at  varying  heights, 
place  their  nests  on  window-sills,  in  arbors,  summer-houses  or  barns, 
on  fence-rails,  etc.,  and  in  cases  of  this  kind  it  is  interesting  to  learn 
the  fate  of  those  nests  which  in  site  depart  from  the  prevailing  type. 
Civilization,  which  while  it  has  added  the  cat  to  the  Robin's  enemies, 


NESTING   SITE  73 

has  also  decreased  the  number  of  its  natural  foes,  is  no  doubt  respon- 
sib)^  for  much  of  this  variation;  few  of  our  native  birds  have  so  pros- 
pered through  the  change  from  forest  to  farm;  though  even  more 
marked  departure  from  feral  nesting  habit  has  been  shown  by  the 
Chimney  Swift,  Barn  and  Cliff  Swallows,  Martin,  House  Wren  and 
Bluebird;  not  to  mention  the  irrepressible  English  Sparrow.  Herring 
Gulls,  on  the  same  islet,  build  in  trees  as  well  as  on  the  ground,  and  as 
Dutcher  and  Baily  have  shown,  the  tree  nests  have  a  solid  foundation 
of  sticks  and  twigs  which  is  lacking  in  those  nests  built  on  the  ground. 
(The  Auk,  XX,  1903,  p.  419.) 

On  Gardiner's  Island,  where  there  are  no  predatory  mammals,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  Crows,  practically  no  enemies  of  nesting  birds, 
Robins  build  their  nests  in  almost  any  situation,  even  on  the  ground, 
with  apparently  equal  chances  of  rearing  their  young.  Here  too  Fish 
Hawks  nest,  not  only  in  trees,  but  also  in  the  most  exposed  situations 
on  the  beach;  and  because  of  the  protection  afforded  by  an  insular 
home,  their  eggs  and  young  are  as  safe  as  those  of  the  tree-nesting  in- 
dividuals of  their  kind. 

As  I  have  elsewhere  said  ("Camps  and  Cruises,"  p.  37,  also  pp.  38-61 ; 
and  Bird-Lore,  V,  1903,  p.  59),  it  is  not  probable  that  in  instances  of 
this  kind  certain  birds  have  with  deliberate  intent  abandoned  the 
customs  of  their  species,  but  the  tendency  to  vary,  being  unchecked, 
finds  tangible  expression  under  conditions  where  new  habits  may  be 
successfully  formed.  Doubtless  the  same  tendency  exists  in  the  Fish 
Hawks  nesting  on  the  mainland;  but  there  the  struggle  for  existence 
is  so  much  more  intense  that  any  wide  departure  from  the  standard 
may  be  attended  by  disastrous  results.  Environment  is  thus  the  mold 
in  which  habit  is  cast. 

Through  these  generalizations  we  come  to  the  more  practical,* 
definite  side  of  the  question  of  nesting-site,  and  ask  which  sex  selects 
it.  With  some  species  it  is  known  to  be  the  female,  with  others  the 
male,  and  with  others  still  the  situation  must  evidently  be  satisfactory  to 
them  both;  but  exact  observations  on  this  subject  are  few. 

More  difficult  it  will  be  to  learn  whether  the  same  individual  occu- 
pies the  same  site  and  even  the  same  nest  season  after  season.  Fish 
Hawks  and  birds  which  return  [to  the  same  islet  year  after  year 
are  known  to  do  this,  and  the  habit  is  probably  common  to  many 
species.  Doubtless  the  present-day  practice  of  banding  birds  with 
numbered  metal  tags  will,  in  time,  yield  much  valuable  information  in 
this  field. 

With  birds  which  have  more  than  one  brood  in  a  season,  a  new  nest 
is  usually  built.  It  is  then  of  interest  to  compare  its  site  with  that  chosen 
for  the  earlier  nest,  to  ascertain  how  much  variation  in  site-selection 
the  same  individuals  may  exhibit. 

Material. — The  material  of  which  a  bird  builds  its  nest  depends 
in  most  cases  upon  the  nature  of  the  bird's  haunts.  The  nests  of  marsh- 
haunting  birds  are  usually  made  of  reeds  or  woven  of  wet  marsh  grasses; 


74  MATERIAL 

woodland  birds  generally  employ  twigs,  rootlets,  bark,  leaves,  mosses, 
etc.,  while  field-inhabiting  species,  as  a  rule,  use  chiefly  dried  grasses. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  a  change  in  the  nature  of  a  bird's  haunts 
often  causes  more  or  less  variation  in  the  character  of  its  nesting  mate- 
rial. In  the  North,  for  example,  the  Acadian  Flycatcher  builds  its  nest 
of  plant-stems,  grasses,  and  dried  blossoms,  but  in  Florida  it  uses  the 
Spanish  or  Tillandsia  'moss,'  a  material,  by  the  way,  which  enters  into 
the  nests  of  many  birds.  In  the  East,  Night  Herons,  building  in  trees, 
use  sticks;  in  the  West,  where  they  nest  in  marshes,  the  nest  is  composed 
of  reeds.  There  are  many  similar  instances. 

A  familiar  case  of  local  variation,  due  to  change  in  environment, 
is  furnished  by  the  Baltimore  Oriole,  which  gathers  string,  worsteds, 
etc.,  in  place  of  plant  fibers;  and  experimenters  have  tried  to  determine 
the  bird's  choice  of  colors  by  supplying  it  with  worsteds  of  varied  hues, 
without,  however,  other  result  than  a  demonstration  of  range  in  choice 
among  different  individuals,  since  some  selected  gay  and  others  dull 
colors. 

The  use  by  birds  of  rags,  paper,  horse-hair,  etc.,  also  clearly  illus- 
trates the  influence  of  civilization  on  the  bird's  selection  of  material 
with  which  to  build  a  nest. 

The  necessity  for  concealment  is,  in  some  cases,  a  potent  influence 
in  the  choice  of  nesting  material.  What  is  generally  spoken  of  as  'nest 
decoration,'  if  it  have  any  significance,  is  assuredly  not  designed  to 
make  the  nest  conspicuous  through  display,  but  inconspicuous  by 
matching  it  with  its  surroundings.  The  lichen-covered  nests  of  the 
Wood  Pewee,  Blue-gray  Gnatcatcher,  arid  Hummingbird  are  examples 
of  this  class. 

The  Great-crested  Flycatcher  introduces  a  bit  of  cast-off  snake- 
skin  into  its  nest,  it  has  been  said,  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  scare-crow. 
The  explanation  is  important  if  true  but  lacks  evidence  to  support  it. 

The  student  should  try  to  observe  the  methods  employed  by  birds 
in  gathering  and  carrying  the  material  for  their  nests,  noting,  for 
example,  Robins,  Barn  and  Eave  Swallows  picking  up  billfuls  of  mud, 
a  Chimney  Swift  breaking  off  dead  twigs  with  bill  or  feet,  a  Humming- 
bird collecting  lichens  from  a  tree-trunk,  an  Oriole  tugging  at  a  plant 
fiber,  etc. 

Construction. — Then  follows  a  study  of  nest-construction,  from  the 
simple  method  of  the  Skimmer  which  by  squatting  low  and  turning 
around  again  and  again  hollows  a  nest  in  the  sand,  to  the  more  complex 
activities  of  Swallows,  Swifts  and  Orioles,  which  respectively  exhibit 
the  arts  of  the  mason,  joiner  and  weaver.  Herrick's  detailed  and,  so  far 
as  I  am  aware,  unique  study  of  a  pair  of  Robins  while  nest-building, 
should  be  read  in  this  connection.  The  work  may  be  performed  by  one 
or  both  sexes.  In  the  former  case  the  female  is  usually  the  builder  when 
the  male  may  assist  by  bringing  material.  The  nest  may  be  completed 
in  a  day  and  occupied  at  once,  or  a  longer  time  may  be  required  and  it 
may  apparently  be  deserted  for  days  after  its  completion.  The  weather, 


PLATE  II 


WELL-FOBMED  NEST  OF  RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRD — AN  ALTRICIAL  SPECIES 
Englewood,  N.  J. 


6ikpLE  NEST  'OF  PHEASANT  (Phasianus) — A  PRJSCOCIAL  SPECIES 
Gardiner's  Island,  L.  I. 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  NEST  75 

particularly  if  the  temperature  is  much  below  the  average,  is  a  factor 
here.  In  some  species,  notably  the  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren,  the  nest- 
building  instinct  does  not  seem  to  be  satisfied  by  the  making  of  a  single 
structure,  and  the  male  continues  his  work  after  the  female  is  sitting, 
building  one  or  more  additional  homes  in  which  possibly  he  may  sleep, 
and  which  are  sometimes  called  'cock-nests.' 

Character  of  the  Nest. — From  an  architectural  point  of  view,  nests 
may  differ  greatly  even  when  the  material  of  which  they  are  composed 
is  the  same.  The  tools  (bill  and  feet)  with  which  a  bird  is  provided  do 
not  often  bear  any  relation  to  the  character  of  the  home  their  owner 
builds.  A  Swallow,  it  is  true,  could  not  construct  a  Woodpecker's 
dwelling;  but  a  momentary  comparison  of  the  widely  different  kinds 
of  nests  built  by  various  species  of  Swallows  and  Swifts  (which  so  far 
as  nesting  tools  are  concerned  may  be  classed  with  Swallows),  readily 
shows  how  little  the  structure  of  the  bird  has  to  do  with  nest  archi- 
tecture. 

Most  of  the  causes  determining  the  nature  of  site  and  material 
are  also  more  or  less  active  in  shaping  the  nest  itself,  but  of  them  all 
by  far  the  most  important  is  the  condition  of  the  young  bird  at  birth. 
Indeed  in  considering  this  question  we  are  brought  very  near  to  an 
inquiry  concerning  the  origin  of  birds'  nests. 

As  regards  their  condition  when  leaving  the  egg,  birds  may  be 
roughly  classified  in  two  groups:  First,  those  which  leave  the  nest  shortly 
after  hatching;  second,  those  which  are  reared  in  the  nest.  Birds  of 
the  first  class  are  termed  praecocial;  those  of  the  second,  altricial.  Com- 
pare the  newly  hatched  young  of  a  Grouse  and  a  Robin  and  we  have 
two  excellent  examples  of  praecocialism  and  altricialism;  while  a  further 
comparison  of  the  Grouse's  simple  bed  of  leaves  with  the  Robin's 
firm,  deep  cup  of  mud  and  grasses  equally  well  illustrates  the  difference 
in  the  nests  of  prsecocial  and  altricial  birds.  The  former  serve  only  to 
hold  the  eggs,  the  latter  perform  not  only  this  function  but  must  also 
house  the  young  during  their  period  of  helplessness. 

The  significance  of  the  condition  of  the  young  at  birth  is  doubtless 
far-reachifig,  but  unfortunately,  it  is  not  as  yet  understood.  It  appears 
that  most  of  the  older  or  lower  forms  of  birds — that  is,  those  which 
most  closely  approach  the  reptilian  types,  whence  it  is  believed  birds 
have  descended — are  praecocial.  On  the  other  hand,  all  the  higher 
birds,  that  is  those  farthest  removed  from  reptilian  ancestors,  are 
altricial.  For  example,  among  North  American  birds  the  Grebes, 
Loons,  Gulls,  Terns,  Ducks,  Rail,  Coots,  Snipe,  Plover,  Quail,  and 
Grouse,  are  prsecocial,  and  build,  as  a  rule,  nests  of  the  most  rudimen- 
tary kind,  while  the  great  group  of  Perching  Birds  (Passeres),  con- 
taining half  the  known  birds,  are  altricial,  and  all  build  more  or  less 
complex  nests. 

It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  as  altricialism  has  been  evolved  from 
prsecocialism,  so  the  type  of  nest  has  changed,  keeping  pace  with  the 
demands  which  the  young  birds  make  upon  it.  There  are,  however, 


76  INHERITANCE 

some  exceptional  cases  of  birds,  like  Pelicans,  Water-Turkeys,  and 
Cormorants,  which,  while  low  in  the  evolutionary  scale,  have  altricial 
young,  and  in  consequence  build  well-formed,  complex  nests.  The 
Noddy  Tern,  sole  tree  nest-builder  of  its  group,  usually  constructs  in 
bushes  a  nest  of  sufficient  strength  to  harbor  the  young  for  two 
months.  (Thompson,  Bird-Lore,  V,  1903,  p.  81.) 

Other  low  types  of  altricial  birds  secure  shelter  for  their  helpless 
young  without  actually  building  a  nest,  but  by  using  a  natural  cavity 
in  tree  or  cliff,  or  by  making  a  burrow,  and  we  doubtless  have  here  a 
primitive  type  of  bird  home. 

It  is  impracticable  to  go  into  further  detail  here,  but  the  study  of 
birds'  nests  may  be  indefinitely  extended  by  taking  up  certain  species 
of  birds  and  considering  their  nesting-habits  in  the  light  of  what  appears 
in  this  chapter. 

Inheritance. — There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  nest-building  is 
as  much  an  instinctive  activity  with  birds  as  it  is  with  bees  or  wasps. 
Some  writers  would  have  us  believe  that  the  young  bird  in  the  nest 
makes  mental  notes  of  its  surroundings  for  use  the  following  spring; 
but  even  man  himself  could  not  tell  how  certain  birds'  nests  were  built 
merely  by  looking  at  them.  The  young  bird,  therefore,  builds  its  first 
nest  without  ever  having  seen  one  made  and  with  no  other  experience 
with  nests  than  is  implied  by  having  lived  in  one. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  impulse  to  build  is  as  much  the 
result  of  a  physiological  prompting  as  the  impulse  to  mate  which  pre- 
cedes it,  or  the  impulse  to  lay  which  follows  it.  Inherited  habit  directs 
the  impulse  in  normal  channels  and,  allowing  for  the  range  of  individ- 
uality present  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  all  birds,  the  bird,  in  its 
proper  environment,  selects  a  site  and  constructs  a  home  after  the  man- 
ner of  its  species.  When,  however,  the  environment  is  changed  and  new 
conditions  of  site  or  material  are  introduced,  the  nest-building  impulse, 
unchecked,  and  inevitably  demanding  an  outlet  $  finds  expression  through 
new  media.  Possibly  it  is  governed  to  some  extent  by  intelligence,  but 
any  departure  from  type  is  usually  an  experiment,  and  the  progressive 
individual  pays  the  price  or  gains  the  reward  of  the  pioneer  by  dire 
failure  on  the  one  hand,  or  exceptional  success  on  the  other. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  observe  evidences  of  sexual  activity  among 
birds  in  the  fall — a  mere  reflection  of  the  instincts  of  the  nesting 
season — and  among  them  is  what  might  be  called  'play'  at  site-hunt- 
ing and  material  gathering.  So  I  have  seen  Tree  Swallows,  in  August, 
investigate  the  openings  in  piles  and  pick  up  bits  of  dried  grass  only 
to  drop  them  after  a  flight  of  fifty  yards  or  more;  and  in  this  connection 
it  is  of  significance  to  learn  that  they  were  all  birds  of  the  year  ("Bird 
Studies  with  a  Camera,"  p.  103;  see  also  Brewster,  The  Auk,  1898,  p. 
194). 

Parasitism. — In  a  comparatively  few  cases,  the  instinct  to  build  a 
nest  is  wanting,  when  the  bird  entrusts  its  egg  to  the  care  of  another 
species.  The  European  Cuckoo  and  our  own  Cowbird  are  examples  of 


THE  EGG  77 

this  kind  of  parasitism.  The  former  lays  its  egg  in  some  convenient 
place  and,  taking  it  in  its  bill,  inserts  it  into  the  foreign  nest;  but  the 
Cowbird,  as  far  as  is  known,  lays  its  egg  in  the  nest  selected. 

Of  the  nearly  one  hundred  species  of  North  American  birds  in  whose 
nests  the  egg  of  the  Cowbird  has  been  found,  one  fourth  are  Warblers, 
indicating  how  often  the  Cowbird  chooses  as  a  foster  parent  a  bird 
smaller  than  itself.  The  Warbler  may  nest  upon  the  ground,  or  eighty 
feet  above  it,  and  still  be  preyed  upon  by  the  Cowbird,  which  never 
having  had  a  home  of  its  own  has  formed  no  attachment  for  any  particu- 
lar site.  Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  the  lack  of 
the  nest-building  instinct  in  the  Cowbird,  but  none  is  conclusive  (see, 
however,  Herrick  '11).  In  any  consideration  of  the  subject,  however,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  some  of  our  Cowbird's  seven  tropical  Amer- 
ican relatives  have  advanced  toward  the  prevalent  custom  of  monogamy, 
Molothrus  Radius  of  Argentina  always  incubating  its  own  eggs  and 
sometimes  building  a  nest.  (See  Bendire,  "The  Cowbirds,"  Rep.  U.  S. 
N.  M.  for  1893,  pp.  587-624.) 

The  Egg 

Number  Laid. — The  number  of  eggs  comprising  a  full  'set'  or 
'clutch'  ranges  from  one  to  as  many  as  twenty.  No  law  governing 
this  number  is  known,  though  birds  of  temperate  zones  usually  lay 
more  eggs  than  their  representatives  in  the  tropics.  Our  northern 
Terns  (Common,  Roseate,  Arctic),  for  example,  usually  lay  three  eggs, 
while  southern  Terns  (Noddy,  Sooty,  Bridled)  lay  but  one.  Our 
Thrushes  lay  normally  four  eggs,  but  tropical  Thrushes  lay  only  two  or 
three. 

Generally  speaking,  birds  of  the  same  family  lay  approximately 
the  same  number  of  eggs,  but  there  is  much  variation  between  birds 
of  closely  related  families  (e.  g.  Loons  and  Grebes,  Thrushes  and  Wrens), 
while  birds  of  similar  nesting-site  may  not  lay  the  same  number  of 
eggs  (e.  g.  Bob-white  and  Meadowlark). 

The  young  of  praecocial  birds  require  less  care  than  do  those  which 
are  wholly  dependent  on  their  parents,  and  among  Grouse,  Quail,  and 
Ducks  we  find  the  largest  families.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  eminently 
prsecocial  Snipe  and  Plover  have  but  four  young.  These  birds,  however, 
are  too  small  to  cover  more  than  four  of  their  disproportionately  large 
eggs,  while  the  gallinaceous  birds  can  readily  cover  a  dozen  or  more. 
Therefore,  size  of  the  parent,  as  well  as  condition  of  the  young  at  birth, 
is  here  a  governing  factor. 

The  number  of  eggs  laid  is  no  indication  of  the  fecundity  of  the 
bird.  At  the  time  of  laying,  the  ovary  contains  a  large  number  of  partly 
formed  eggs,  of  which,  normally,  only  the  required  number  will  become 
fully  developed.  But  if  the  nest  be  robbed,  the  stolen  eggs  will 
frequently  be  replaced.  The  oft-cited  case  of  the  Flicker  which  laid 
seventy-one  eggs  in  seventy-three  days  is  in  point,  while  the  long  con- 


78  THE  EGG 

tinued  laying  of  our  domestic  fowls  is  a  familiar  illustration  of  the 
results  following  unnatural  stimulation  of  the  ovaries  caused  by  per- 
sistent robbing. 

Size  of  the  Eggs. — Primarily,  the  size  of  the  egg  depends  upon  the 
size  of  the  bird  that  lays  it.  Hummingbirds,  the  smallest  birds,  lay 
the  smallest  eggs,  while  Ostriches,  the  largest  birds,  lay  the  largest 
eggs.  This  scale,  however,  is  not  always  maintained,  the  eggs  of  prseco- 
cial  birds  being  relatively  larger  than  those  of  altricial  birds  of  the  same 
size,  obviously  because  of  the  more  advanced,  larger  young  they  hold. 
Compare,  for  example,  the  eggs  of  a  Meadowlark  with  those  of  an 
Upland  Plover,  or  a  Robin's  eggs  with  those  of  a  Spotted  Sandpiper. 

The  Colors  of  Eggs. — The  colors  of  eggs  are  due  to  pigments  deposited 
by  ducts  while  the  egg  is  receiving  its  shell  in  the  lower  or  uterine 
dilation  of  the  oviduct.  One  or  all  the  layers  of  the  shell  may  be  pig- 
mented,  and  variation  in  color  may  be  caused  by  a  superimposed 
stratum  of  carbonate  of  lime,  producing  lilac  tints  and  'clouded'  or 
'shell'  markings.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  their  descent  from  reptilian 
ancestors  all  birds  doubtless  laid  white  eggs,  as  do  all  reptiles,  and  color 
is  believed  to  have  been  acquired  for  purposes  of  protection,  as  the 
bird  has  departed  from  the  reptilian  habit  of  covering  its  eggs  or  laying 
them  in  covered  situations  and  has  adopted  a  more  or  less  open  nest. 
Hence,  where  the  eggs  are  still  placed  in  holes  or  hollowed  trees,  they  as  a 
rule  are  white,  and  where  they  are  laid  in  exposed  situations  they  are 
usually  protectively  marked.  Compare,  for  example,  the  eggs  of  King- 
fishers, Woodpeckers,  and  Owls,  with  those  of  Terns,  Snipe,  or  Plover. 
There  are,  however,  numerous  exceptions  to  this  rule;  for  instance, 
Doves  lay  white  eggs  in  frail,  open  nests.  But  here  both  sexes  incubate 
and  the  eggs  are  rarely  exposed.  Again,  Grebes  lay  white  or  whitish 
eggs  in  flat,  open  nests,  but  they  generally  cover  them  with  nest 
material  before  leaving  the  nest. 

While  we  cannot  so  readily  explain  why  Chickadees  or  Cliff  Swal- 
lows lay  pigmented  eggs,  it  is  obvious  that  the  significance  of  the  colors 
of  eggs  can  be  ascertained  only  by  a  study  of  them  where  they  were 
laid. 

Shape  of  Eggs. — Birds7  eggs  are  usually  ovate,  but  may  be  ellip- 
tical, spherical,  pyriform  or  conical.  The  pyriform  egg  of  the  Murre, 
when  moved  slowly,  describes  a  circle  about  its  own  point,  and  is 
therefore  less  apt  to  roll  over  the  narrow,  rocky  ledges  on  which  Murres 
usually  lay,  than  an  oval  egg.  The  conical  eggs  of  Snipe  and  Plover 
are  placed  in  the  nest  point  downward  or  inward,  thus  fitting  together 
so  closely  that  they  can  be  easily  covered  by  the  comparatively  small- 
bodied  parent.  Thus  with  form,  as  with  color,  it  is  clear  that  the  egg 
should  be  studied  where  the  bird  placed  it. 

Variations. — Although,  generally  speaking,  the  eggs  of  the  same 
species  resemble  one  another,  there  is  a  wide  range  of  variation  in  color, 
size  and  shape,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  number.  Doubtless  these  varia- 
tions are  in  the  main  an  index  of  the  physical  condition  of  the  bird 


PLATE  III 


EGGS  OF  MEADOWLARK  AND  UPLAND  PLOVER 
Size  of  eggs  in  relation  to  condition  of  young  birds  when  hatched.    Note  that,  while 
the  birds  are  of  about  the  same  size,  the  eggs  of  the  Meadowlark,  an  altricial  bird,  are 
much  smaller  than  those  of  the  Upland  Plover,  a  prsecocial  bird. 


4H  •> 


EGGS  OF  COMMON  TERN 

Collected  in  a  small  colony  on  an  island  in  Shoal  Lake,  Man.,  to  show  variation  in 
color  and  pattern. 


THE  YOUNG  BIRD  79 

concerned.  Fully  adult,  vigorous  birds  probably  lay  larger  and  more 
heavily  pigmented  eggs  and  more  of  them  than  their  younger  or  weaker 
fellows.  Again,  the  first  eggs  of  a  set,  as  well  as  those  of  first  sets,  where 
more  than  one  is  laid,  may  be  more  strongly  pigmented  or  larger  than 
those  laid  later.  But  whatever  their  cause,  the  cataloguing  of  these 
variations  constitutes  no  small  part  of  the  labors  of  the  oologist,  whose 
delight  in  finding  an  unusually  large  set,  or  one  containing  'runt'  eggs, 
or  colored  eggs  which  should  be  plain,  or  plain  eggs  which  should  be 
colored,  is  somewhat  out  of  proportion  to  the  scientific  value  of  the 
'discovery/ 

Incubation. — The  period  of  incubation  is  more  or  less  closely  related 
to  the  size  of  the  egg.  With  the  Chipping  Sparrow  it  is  twelve  days, 
but  with  the  Ruby-throated  Hummingbird  fourteen;  the  English 
Sparrow  requires  twelve  or  thirteen,  the  Robin  thirteen  or  fourteen, 
the  Fish  Hawk  about  twenty-eight,  but  the  exact  period  has  been 
ascertained  for  comparatively  few  of  our  birds. 

Incubation  is  usually  performed  by  the  female  and  is  sometimes 
equally  shared  by  the  male;  or  the  male  may  merely  cover  the  eggs 
during  the  female's  absence;  or  again,  as  with  the  Ruby-throated 
Hummingbird,  he  may  not  be  seen  near  the  nest  after  the  eggs  are 
laid.  With  the  Phalaropes  the  male  alone  incubates. 

The  treatment  of  their  eggs  by  sitting  birds  is  a  subject  concern- 
ing which  we  have  not  much  information,  though  some  birds  are  known 
to  turn  them  with  their  feet  and  others  with  their  bills.  I  have  seen  a 
Least  Bittern  calmly  eat  two  of  her  five  eggs  which  had  been  punc- 
tured by  a  Marsh  Wren,  and  then  settle  herself  on  the  remaining  three. 
("Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,"  p.  75.) 

The  disposal  of  the  egg-shell  is  also  a  matter  of  interest.  Most 
birds  carry  it  some  distance  from  the  nest  before  dropping  it,  but  young 
Flamingoes  eat  it! 

The  Young  Bird 


80  FOOD  OF  THE  YOUNG 

But  altricial  birds  which  may  be  hatched  at  longer  intervals  are 
brooded  more  or  less  constantly  for  days  or  until  their  own  feathers 
are  sufficiently  grown  to  protect  them.  Even  then,  when  exposed  to 
rain  or  sun,  the  parent  may  stand  above  them  with  half-spread 
wings. 

Food. — The  young  of  prsecocial  birds  feed  themselves,  but  either 
learn  by  experience  or  are  taught  by  their  parents  what  they  shall  eat. 
Recall  a  Hen  clucking  to  her  chicks  and  picking  up  and  dropping  bits 
of  food  she  desires  them  to  have.  Even  the  act  of  drinking  is  not 
instinctive.  (See  especially  Lloyd  Morgan's  ''Habit  and  Instincts.") 

The  young  of  altricial  birds,  not  only  when  they  are  in  the  nest,  but 
as  long  as  a  month  after  leaving  it,  are  fed  by  the  parents.  The  nature 
of  the  food  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  given  are  subjects  of  far  too 
great  import  to  be  adequately  treated  here.  The  food,  at  first,  is  usually 
more  or  less  digested  in  the  crop  or  stomach  of  the  parent  whence  it  is 
regurgitated  into  the  mouth  of  the  young.  With  Passerine  birds,  this 
method,  when  employed,  is  soon  abandoned,  and  food  in  a  more  or 
less  natural  state  is  captured  and  given  directly  to  the  open-mouthed 
offspring;  but  the  Flicker,  Hummingbirds,  and  Doves,  for  example, 
feed  only  by  regurgitation,  inserting  their  bill  far  into  the  mouth  of 
their  young. 

Young  Pelicans,  Cormorants,  Water  Turkeys,  Spoonbills,  and 
Ibises  thrust  their  bill  down  the  throat  of  their  parents.  Flamingoes 
introduce  the  tip  of  their  great  bill  into  that  of  their  single  chick,  giving 
it,  by  regurgitation,  a  few  drops  of  predigested  liquid  food,  an  exceptional 
method  of  feeding  among  prsecocial  birds;  young  Herons  grasp  the  bill 
of  their  parent  at  the  base  with  their  own,  as  one  would  with  a  pair 
of  scissors,  when  the  old  bird  either  disgorges  food  into  the  nest  or  skill- 
fully into  the  mouth  of  the  young.  Hawks  tear  the  food  into  bits 
and  give  it  to  their  young,  and  larger  insects  are  beaten  or  pulled 
apart  by  Passerine  birds,  both  parents  sometimes  working  together  at 
the  task. 

The  young  of  Passerine  birds  are  fed  every  few  minutes  throughout 
a  greater  part  of  the  day,  but  the  young  of  larger  birds  are  waited  on 
less  frequently,  hours  often  elapsing  between  meals,  at  which,  however, 
they  receive  large  portions. 

The  rate  of  growth  of  young  birds,  particularly  of  young  perching 
birds,  is  little  short  of  marvelous.  Herrick  ('08,  p.  187)  writes  of  a 
young  Cedar  Waxwing  the  weight  of  which  "doubled  on  the  first  day, 
more  than  trebled  on  the  second,  and  nearly  quadrupled  on  the  third. 
On  the  twelfth  day,  when  it  weighed  approximately  one  and  one-fifth 
ounces,  and  had  increased  in  weight  thirteen-fold,  it  left  the  nest." 
"At  a  corresponding  rate  of  growth,"  he  adds,  "a  ten-pound  baby  when 
one  day  old  would  weigh  twenty-one  pounds,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve 
days  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  pounds."  A  young  Song  Sparrow, 
studied  by  Owen,  weighed,  on  hatching,  2.9  grams,  and  when  at  the 
age  of  seven  days  it  left  the  nest,  16  grams.  (The  Auk,  1899,  p.  222.) 


DEFENCE  OF  THE  YOUNG  81 

Herrick  ('05,  p.  181),  whose  continued,  systematic  studies  have 
added  so  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  nest,  was  among 
the  first  to  discover  that  admirable  adjustment  of  the  young  bird's 
nervous  system  which  prevents  it  from  being  overfed.  He  writes: 
"The  food  is  placed  not  simply  in  the  mouth  of  the  young  bird  but  well 
down  the  sensitive  throat,  and  if  the  bird  does  not  immediately  respond, 
it  is  withdrawn  and  passed  to  another,  and  often  to  a  third,  until  a 
throat  is  found  which  has  the  proper  reaction  time.  If  the  gullet  is 
already  full,  the  swallowing  reflex  is  inhibited,  and  the  bird  must  wait." 

Nest  Sanitation. — Second  only  in  importance  to  the  subject  of  food 
is  that  of  nest-sanitation.  The  young  of  altricial  birds  as  unlike  as 
Hawks  and  Hummingbirds  void  their  excreta  far  pver  the  edge  of  the 
nest,  but  with  probably  all  our  Passerine  birds,  and  with  some  others, 
it  is  enclosed  in  a  membranous  sac,  which  is  removed  and,  in  some 
cases,  devoured  by  the  parent. 

Defence  of  the  Young. — Just  how  birds  defend  their  young  from  their 
natural  enemies  we  cannot  always  say,  but  before  man  as  a  possible 
nest-robber,  some  species  (e.  g.  Pelicans,  Flamingoes,  Cormorants, 
Ibises,  Spoonbills,  Herons,  and  most  Raptores)  desert  the  nest  without 
protest;  others  (Gulls,  Terns,  some  Raptores)  protest  loudly  and  dart  at 
the  enemy,  sometimes  actually  hitting  him;  the  Passeres,  with  some 
exceptions  (e.  g.  Crows  and  Jays),  utter  loud  alarm  or  call  notes, 
which  more  often  betray  their  secret  than  conceal  it,  and  the  Thrasher 
will  occasionally  strike  the  intruder;  while  many  ground-nesting  birds 
(e.  g.  Ducks,  Snipe,  Grouse,  Nighthawks,  Doves)  seek  to  draw  atten- 
tion from  their  nest  or  young,  by  feigning  partial  helplessness  and 
fluttering  painfully  before  the  marauder,  always,  however,  keeping 
just  beyond  his  reach;  a  wonderful  exhibition  of  parental  devotion  the 
origin  and  development  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  explain. 

Voice. — Some  suggestions  for  a  study  of  the  notes  of  young  birds 
are  made  in  the  chapter  on  the  " Voice  of  Birds."  Their  instinctive 
obedience  to  parental  command  is  also  mentioned.  Observe,  for  ex- 
ample, how  young  Gulls,  Terns  or  Grouse  squat  and  remain  perfectly 
motionless  in  response  to  a  certain  alarm  note;  and  how,  under  the 
same  stimulus,  a  brood  of  young  Ducks  scatters. 

Certain  birds  have  a  feeding  note  which  induces  the  young  bird  to 
open  its  mouth  in  preparation  for  the  coming  morsel.  On  leaving  the 
nest  some  young  birds  (e.  g.  Baltimore  Oriole,  Yellow-headed  Black- 
bird) develop  a  food-call,  which  is  lost  when  they  have  learned  to  care 
for  themselves. 

Nest  Exercises. — While  in  the  nest,  young  birds  devote  much 
attention  to  their  newly  grown  feathers,  preening  them  carefully  and 
repeatedly.  The  parasites  which  infest  some  birds,  notably  Phoebes, 
while  in  the  nest,  also  give  the  young  bird  much  occupation.  The  fre- 
quent stretching  of  the  wing  is  a  characteristic  nest  activity,  and, 
according  to  Scott,  the  grasping  of  the  nest-lining  with  the  toes  is  an 
important  nest  exercise. 


82  FEAR— FLIGHT 

Fear. — Herrick  (1.  c.  p.  227)  considers  the  instinct  of  fear  to  be 
inherited,  but  it  apparently  is  often  wanting  in  birds  which  have  never 
known  parental  care.  I  have  seen  young  Wild  Geese,  which  were 
hatched  from  eggs  taken  from  a  wild  bird's  nest  and  placed  under  a 
hen,  so  devoid  of  the  sense  of  fear  that  when  two  weeks  old  they  would 
attempt  to  crowd  into  a  hand  basin  when  it  was  being  used;  while 
innumerable  instances  of  birds  raised  from  the  nest,  which  have  never 
developed  a  sense  of  fear,  could  be  mentioned.  In  a  state  of  nature, 
the  young  bird  does  not  evince  fear  until  it  has  acquired  sufficient 
strength  to  respond  to  the  impulses  born  of  fear;  in  other  words,  until 
it  can  run,  swim,  or  flutter  in  the  first  attempts  at  flight. 

Flight. — Some  young  birds  remain  in  the  nest  only  a  week  (e.  g.  Song 
Sparrow,  House  Sparrow),  while  the  wandering  Albatross  is  said  not 
to  leave  its  nest  until  forced  to  by  the  parents  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nesting  season  succeeding  its  birth. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  stimulus  which  finally  induces  flight; 
whether  supplied  by  the  parent,  for  example,  through  a  refusal  to 
bring  further  food  to  the  nest,  or  through  increasing  strength  which 
prompts  the  bird  to  make  its  initial  venture  in  the  world.  The  first 
flight  may  be  a  mere  flutter  to  an  adjoining  limb,  or  so  well  directed 
that  the  young  bird  (e.  g.  Swallows)  directs  its  movements  with  the 
ease,  grace,  and  precision  of  the  adult. 

The  nest  may  now  be  used  as  a  roosting  place;  and  the  young 
remain  under  the  care  of  the  parents  for  as  much  as  a  month.  With  the 
Robin,  the  male  is  said  to  frequent  the  summer  roosts  formed  by  these 
birds,  with  the  young,  while  the  female  incubates  the  second  set  of  eggs. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

Necessity  for  Concealment. — If  one  would  study  the  habits  of  birds 
under  natural  conditions,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  they  be  unalarmed 
by  one's  presence.  With  birds,  as  with  man,  the  consciousness  of  being 
under  observation  induces  more  or  less  artificiality  of  behavior,  and  if  one 
would  gain  true  insight  into  either  bird-life  or  human  life  one's  subject 
should  be  unaware  that  it  is  an  object  of  scrutiny. 

Some  nests  may  be  built  within  range  of  already  existing  hiding-places, 
but  in  the  end  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  employ  a  portable  blind  such  as 
has  been  described.  During  ten  years'  experience  this  blind  has  met 
many  and  widely  different  demands,  and  whether  one  uses  a  camera  or  only 
a  notebook  it  will  enable  one  to  reach  a  point  of  vantage  from  which  either 
photographs  or  observations  can  be  satisfactorily  made.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  speak  of  the  value  of  the  camera  as  a  means  of  securing  graphic,  com- 
municable records  of  the  life  of  the  nest,  but  in  any  event  I  cannot  too 
strongly  urge  the  use  of  a  blind.  When  one  wishes  to  have  several  nests 
under  observation,  a  blind  may  be  placed  and  left  near  each  one,  and  with 
extremely  wary  species  it  may  be  erected  at  night.  It  is  then  not  associated 
with  any  cause  of  alarm,  and  is  more  quickly  accepted  than  if  the  birds 
were  disturbed  when  it  was  being  set  up.  It  will  usually  save  much  time 
to  have  a  companion  accompany  you  to  the  blind  and  depart  as  you  enter  it. 
The  impression  of  fear  caused  by  your  approach  will  be  largely  dispelled 
by  his  withdrawal,  since  birds  do  not  distinguish  between  two  and  one. 

Professor  Herrick's  plan  of  cutting  off  the  limb  containing  the  nest 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT  83 

and  removing  it  to  the  blind  may  be  employed  by  careful,  conscientious 
Btudents,  who  are  in  a  position  to  assume  the  responsibilities  involved  and 
who- desire  not  merely  to  photograph  but  to  see  at  close  range  the  details 
of  the  later  phases  of  nest-life,  but  it  is  not  a  method  to  be  recommended 
to  the  general  public.  In  the  beginning,  at  any  rate,  one  will  find  abundant 
opportunity  afforded  by  nests  which  can  be  studied  without  moving  them 
or  unduly  disturbing  their  surroundings. 

Do  not  imagine  that  the  most  thorough  history  of  the  life  of  one  nest 
completes  your  studies  of  that  species.  It  may  serve  for  the  individuals 
concerned,  but  the  behavior  of  many  individuals  must  be  learned  before 
one  can  assert  what  are  the  habits  of  the  species.  Again  I  emphasize  the 
need  for  specialization.  Better  a  mass  of  data  which  permit  one  to  judge 
of  the  significance  of  the  facts  involved,  than  an  accumulation  of  isolated, 
unrelated  observations. 

The  preceding  annotated  outline  of  the  principal  phases  of  bird  study 
in  the  nesting  season  will  be  of  greater  value  to  the  student  if  read  with 
the  nesting  habits  of  some  particular  species  in  mind,  and  as  a  further  guide 
to  the  study  of  nest  life  there  is  appended  a  summary  of  the  more  im- 
portant problems  confronting  the  local  student. 

Date. — What  species  are  among  the  first  to  nest?  Why?  How  long 
after  its  arrival  does  a  migratory  species  nest?  Are  there  any  relations 
between  the  development  of  foliage  and  nesting-date?  Between  food  and 
nesting-date?  What  appear  to  be  the  local  factors  governing  the  nesting- 
date?  What  species  raise  more  than  one  brood?  Do  you  know  of  any  defin- 
ite cases  of  third  broods?  Why  are  some  birds  single-  and  others  double- 
brooded? 

Courtship. — Does  the  male  arrive  in  advance  of  the  female?  Do  the 
birds  ever  arrive  mated?  What  evidences  of  courtship  are  noted?  Does 
the  male  display  before  the  female?  Does  the  female  appear  to  be  inter- 
ested? Does  she  select  or  accept  a  mate?  Does  the  sexual  display  continue 
after  mating?  Does  display  precede  a  second  brood? 

Nest  Enemies. — To  what  forms  of  danger  are  nesting  birds  subjected 
in  your  vicinity? 

Nesting-site. — What  factors  influence  the  choice  of  nesting-site?  Which 
of  them  are  potent  in  your  vicinity?  Why  do  gregarious  grQund-builders 
nest  on  islands?  What  variations  in  site  have  been  noted?  How  are  they 
to  be  accounted  for?  With  what  species  has  civilization  affected  the  nature 
of  the  nesting-site?  Which  sex  selects  the  site?  Is  the  same  site  used  for 
the  nests  of  second  broods?  OF  in  succeeding  years? 

Material. — What  factors  govern  the  bird  in  the  choice  of  material? 
What  variations  have  been  noted?  What  birds  use  artificial  material, 
string,  etc.?  How  is  it  gathered?  How  far  from  the  nest?  By  one  or  both 
sexes?  How  is  so-called  "nest  decoration"  to  be  explained? 

Nest-Building. — Is  the  nest  made  by  one  or  both  sexes?  If  the  male 
does  not  build,  does  he  bring  material?  How  is  the  nest  constructed? 
How  much  time  is  required  for  its  completion?  Is  it  delayed  by  inclement 
weather?  Is  more  than  one  nest  built?  If  the  nest  is  abandoned,  state  why. 

The  Nest. — What  relation  exists  between  the  nest  and  the  structure 
of  its  builder?  What  causes  determine  the  appearance  of  the  nest?  What 
variations  in  form  have  been  noted?  How  are  they  to  be  explained?  Which 
nests  are  of  the  most  primitive  kind?  Which  nests  are  most  advanced? 
How  do  new  conditions  change  the  character  of  the  nest?  Do  birds  inherit 
their  nest-building  abilities?  Do  second  nests  resemble  those  built  for  the 
first  brood? 

The  Egg. — How  long  after  the  completion  of  the  nest  is  the  first  egg 
laid?  Are  the  eggs  laid  at  regular  intervals?  At  certain  hours?  How  many 
are  laid?  What  factors  appear  to  govern  the  number?  the  size?  the  shape? 
the  color?  What  variations  have  been  noted?  If  an  egg  should  be  removed 
will  the  bird  replace  it-?  Will  a  Cowbird's  egg  be  rejected?  How? 

Incubation. — When  does  incubation  begin?    How  long  does  it  continue? 


84  THE  PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS 

Is  it  performed  by  one  or  both  sexes?  Is  there  any  regularity  in  the  daily 
periods  of  sitting?  Does  one  sex  ever  feed  the  other  while  on  the  nest? 
Will  the  sitting  bird  permit  a  near  approach?  Does  the  bird  return  to  the 
nest  directly  or  with  much  caution?  Are  the  eggs  turned  in  the  nest?  Are 
they  covered  when  left?  How  is  the  egg-shell  disposed  of  after  hatching? 
The  Young  Bird. — What  is  the  condition  of  the  young  bird  at  birth? 
If  blind,  when  do  the  eyes  open?  What  notes  does  it  utter?  How  long  is 
it  in  the  nest?  How  is  it  fed?  on  what?  how  often?  Is  the  food  prepared? 
What  prevents  the  young  bird  from  being  over-fed?  At  what  rate  does  it 
increase  in  weight?  How  is  it  brooded?  How  is  the  nest  cleaned?  Do  the 
young  obey  the  parent?  When  is  fear  first  shown?  Is  it  instinctive?  What 
nest  exercises  are  manifested?  How  long  after  leaving  the  nest  is  the  young 
bird  dependent  on  the  parents?  What  induces  it  to  leave  the  nest?  Does 
it  fly  at  once?  Does  it  return  to  the  nest?  Does  it  frequent  roosts?  Does  it 
flock  with  other  young  or  with  adults  or  both?  How  do  the  parents  protect 
the  young? 

REFERENCES 

(Restricted  largely  to  the  more  recent  studies  of  the  nesting  habits  of 
birds.) 

1844.  RENNIE,  J.,  Bird  Architecture  (London). — 1878.  ALLEN,  J.  A., 
An  Inadequate  Theory  of  Birds'  Nests,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  III,  pp.  22- 
32. — 1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  12mo.,  218  pp. 
ills.,  (Appleton).  — 1900.  DUGMORE,  A.  R.,  Bird  Homes,  4to.,  183  pp., 
ills.,  (Doubleday). — 1902.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Among  the  Water-Fowl,  12mo.,  224 
pp.,  ills.,  (Doubleday).  — 1905.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild  Wings,  8vo.,  341  pp., 
ills.,  (Houghton,  Mifflin). — 1905.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Home  Life  of  Wild 
Birds,  rev.  ed.,  255  pp.,  ills.,  (Putnam's).  (Important.)  — 1907.  FINLEY, 
W.L.,  American  Birds,  12mo.,  256pp.,  ills.,  (Scribner's) . — 1907.  CHAPMAN, 
F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises  of  an  Ornithologist,  8vo.,  432  pp.,  illus.,  (Apple- 
ton). — 1908.  WATSON.  J.  B.,  The  Behavior  of  the  Noddy  and  Sooty  Terns, 
Papers  from  Tortugas  Lab.  of  Cam.  Inst.,  II,  pp.  189-255,  (Important). 
— 1910.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Instinct  and  Intelligence  in  Birds,  Pop.  Sci. 
Monthly,  June,  July,  and  August. — 1911.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Nests  and 
Nest-building  in  Birds,  Journ.  of  Animal  Behavior,  Vol  I,  (Holt). 

THE  PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS 

The  Molt 

Plumage  Wear 

The  Colors  of  Plumage 

Color  and  Age 

Color  and  Season 

Color  and  Sex 

Color  and  Climate 

Color  and  Concealment 

Banner  Marks 

Albinism  and  Dichromatism 

Feathers  are  the  only  character  which  birds  do  not  share  with 
other  forms  of  life.  No  other  animals  are  feathered  and  no  birds  are 
featherless. 

It  is  apart  from  our  object  to  describe  here  the  development  and 
structure  of  feathers,  but  rather  to  discuss  their  function,  as  in  their 


PLATE  TV 


SCARLET  TANAGER 
1.  Adult  male,  summer.    2.  Adult  male  in  post-nuptial   (fall)  molt,  by  which  it 
passes  into  (3)  winter  plumage.    4.  Young  male,  first  winter.    5.  Female,  which,  after 
the  post-juvenal  molt,  undergoes  no  changes  in  color.   6.  Juvenal,  or  nestling  plumage, 
which,  in  the  male,  is  followed  by  plumage  No.  4,  and,  in  the  female,  by  plumage  No.  5. 


THE  MOLT  85 

form  they  fit  the  bird  for  locomotion  (see  beyond,  under  Uses  of  the 
Wing  and  Tail)  or  in  color  adapt  it  to  the  special  needs  of  its  haunts 
and  habits.  In  the  first  place,  however,  the  field  student  should  have 
some  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  feather  change  included  under  the  general 
term  of  molt. 

The  Molt. — When  hatched,  a  Passerine  bird  is  naked  except  for  a 
scanty  growth  of  filmy  down  on  the  feather  tracts  of  the  upper  half  of 
the  body.  This  is  the  'natal  down'  of  Dwight  ('00)  whose  terminology 
I  adopt.  The  natal  down  is  quickly  succeeded  by  the  'Juvenal1  or  nest- 
ling plumage,  which  is  sufficiently  grown  in  from  eight  to  fourteen  days 
to  enable  the  bird  to  leave  the  nest.  The  tail  is  still  only  about  half- 
grown  and  the  wings,  as  a  rule,  barely  large  enough  to  permit  of  short, 
uncertain  flight. 

Some  birds  (e.  g.  Sharp-tailed  and  Seaside  Sparrows)  wear  this  Juvenal 
or  nestling  plumage  between  two  and  three  months,  but  most  species 
lose  it  shortly  after  leaving  the  nest.  In  either  case,  it  is  followed  by 
the  first  winter  plumage,  which  is  acquired  by  molt  (postju venal) 
of  all  the  body  feathers,  most  of  those  of  the  wings  and  tail  usually 
being  retained.  If  the  young  bird  now  resembles  its  parent,  their 
plumage  changes  are  thenceforth  the  same. 

In  the  fall  all  birds  molt,  but  in  the  spring  there  is  no  regularity 
as  to  feather  renewal,  even  among  closely  related  species.  The  Bobo- 
link and  the  Sharp-tailed  Sparrow  have  a  complete  spring  molt  (pre- 
nuptial),  even  to  the  wings  and  tail;  the  Scarlet  Tanager  and  Gold- 
finch molt  only  the  body  feathers;  other  species  acquire  some  new 
feathers  about  the  head  and  chin,  and  with  many  there  is  no  feather 
growth  at  this  season,  the  differences  between  the  winter  and  breeding 
plumages  being  due  to  wear  or  fading. 

After  the  breeding  season,  all  adult  birds  pass  through  a  complete 
molt  (postnuptial),  and  the  bird  is  again  in  winter  plumage. 

In  its  simplest  form,  and  ignoring  the  comparatively  few  cases  in 
which  an  essentially  adult  plumage  is  not  acquired  at  or  before  the  first 
prenuptial  (spring)  molt,  the  molt  among  the  Passeres  may  be  summar- 
ized as  follows:  (1)  Natal  down,  lost  by  postnatal  molt  which  brings 
the  (2)  Juvenal  or  nestling  plumage;  lost  by  post  Juvenal  molt  which 
brings  the  (3)  first  winter  plumage;  lost  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in 
some  species  by  prenuptial  molt  which  brings  the  (4)  nuptial  plumage; 
lost  by  postnuptial  molt  which  brings  the  (5)  second  and  subsequent 
winter  plumages. 

With  some  minor  variations  this  is  the  general  order  of  molt  among 
other  than  Passerine  birds.  Except  the  Ducks  and  Ptarmigan  all  birds 
have  a  complete  postnuptial  molt,  and  with  many  Snipe  the  spring  or 
prenuptial  molt  is  complete.  Some  Snipe  wear  the  Juvenal  plumage 
until  winter  or  even  until  the  prenuptial  molt,  the  post  Juvenal  molt 
being  omitted. 

Among  the  praecocial  Gulls,  Terns,  Ducks,  Shore-birds  and  Galli- 
naceous birds  the  natal  down  thickly  covers  the  body  and  the  chick 


86  PLUMAGE  WEAR 

swims  or  runs  about  in  i£  shortly  after  hatching.  In  tiie  Gallkise  the 
wing-quills  are  large  enough  to  permit  of  short  flights  while  the  body 
of  the  chick  is  still  in  the  downy  plumage.  They  are  lost  at  the  suc- 
ceeding postnatal  molt,  which  is  entire,  new  wing-  and  tail-feathers, 
as  well  as  body  feathers,  being  acquired. 

Ptarmigan  unmistakably  demonstrate  the  need  of  a  protective 
coloration  by  undergoing  only  a  limited  instead  of  complete  molt  at 
the  close  of  the  nesting  season.  It  affects  solely  the  upperparts  and 
breast,  or  exposed  surfaces,  and  is  obviously  a  transition  plumage,  of 
neutral  browns  and  grays,  designed  to  prevent  the  acquisition  of  the 
wholly  white  winter  dress  until  the  coming  of  snow,  at  which  time  a 
complete  molt  follows  and  the  bird  becomes  as  white  as  its  surround- 
ings. 

Male  Ducks  have  a  not  dissimilar  supplementary  or  partial  post- 
nuptial molt  which  is  apparently  also  acquired  for  protective  pur- 
poses. It  affects  chiefly  the  scapulars,  head,  neck  and  breast,  and  is 
worn  only  while  the  bird  is  deprived  of  the  power  of  flight  through  the 
loss,  in  the  postnuptial  molt,  of  its  wing-quills  In  this  'eclipse7  plu- 
mage, as  it  is  called,  the  male  resembles  the  female,  but  when  the 
new  wing-quills  are  grown  and  the  power  of  flight  returns,  this  eclipse 
plumage  is  shed  and  the  male  plumage  regained.  (See  Plate  V.) 

The  simultaneous  loss  of  the  flight-feathers  is  common  to  swim- 
ming birds  which  have  a  secondary  means  of  locomotion  in  their  natato- 
rial powers,  but  with  other  birds  the  wing-quills  are  molted  slowly  and 
symmetrically  from  the  middle  of  the  wing  both  inwardly  and  out- 
wardly. As  the  old  feathers  are  lost  new  ones  grow,  and  the  bird  car 
therefore  fly  during  the  whole  period  of  feather  renewal. 

In  other  feather  tracts,  also,  normal  molt  follows  an  orderly  sequence, 
feather  succeeding  feather  and  plumage  plumage  throughout  the  life  of 
the  individual.  The  minor  variations  of  molt  within  the  limits  above 
outlined  for  the  Passeres  are  endless,  but  they  can  be  considered 
adequately  only  by  treating  of  each  species  separately.  For  further 
details  the  student  is  therefore  referred  to  the  succeeding  descriptions 
of  plumage,  and  particularly  to  the  papers  of  Dwight  ('00)  cited 
beyond. 

Plumage  Wear. — Molt,  wear  and  fading  are  the  only  processes  by 
which  the  color  of  a  bird's- plumage  is  changed.  The  claim  that  a  feather 
may  be  repigmented,  and  that  consequently  a  bird's  plumage  may 
undergo  radical  changes  in  color  without  the  growth  of  new  feathers 
and  without  the  aid  of  wear  and  fading,  has  never  been  substantiated, 
and  by  students  of  the  development  of  the  feather  from  germ  to  ma- 
turity such  a  change  is  declared  to  be  impossible.  (See,  especially, 
Strong.) 

Striking  changes  are,  however,  effected  by  wear,  chiefly  of  the  tips 
or  margins.  These  differ  in  color  from  that  of  the  base  of  the  feather 
which  is  wholly  or  in  part  concealed.  The  loss  of  these  margins  may 
completely  alter  the  Bird's  appearance,  as  where  the  brown  Snow 


PLATE  V 


ADULT  MALE  WOOD  DUCK  IN  'ECLIPSE'  PLUMAGE 

Note  the  absence  of  primaries,  indicating  inability  to  fly.    From  a  specimen  collected 
by  E.  A.  Mearns,  at  Fort  Snelling,  Minn.,  July  24,  1888. 


THE  COLORS   OF  PLUMAGE 


87 


Bunting  of  October  is  transformed  to  the  black  and  white  bird  of 
June,  and  this  without  the  acquisition  of  a  feather.  (Fig.  10.)  The 
Bobolink,  Red- winged  and  Rusty  Blackbirds  also  illustrate  color  change 
by  wear. 

With  the  Purple  Finch  and  Indigo  Bunting,  -as  Dwight  ('00)  has 
shown,  wear  increases  the  brightness  of  the  bird's  colors. 


October 
FIG.  10 


January 


March 


June 


Feathers  from  back  of  Snow  Bunting,  showing  seasonal  changes  in  form 
and  color  due  to  wearing  off  of  tips.    (Natural  size.) 

The  Colors  of  Plumage . — Gofer  is  nature's  last  touch  in  adapting  a 
bird  to  the  needs  of  its  own  special  environment.  In  many  instances  it 
apparently  has  been  given  during  the  prevalence  of  existing  conditions 
of  haunt  and  habit;  consequently,  in  studying  color,  there  is  a  greater 
possibility  of  associating  cause  and  effect  than  exists  when  we  attempt 
to  determine  the  origki  of  the  older,  more  stable  characters  of  form. 
One,  therefore,  may  reasonably  ask  what  is  the  significance  of  the  mani- 
fold shades  and  tints,  marks  and  patterns,  not  to  mention  various 
appendages  found  in  the  plumage  of  birds?  But  before  a  reply  is  justi- 
fied, the  bird  must  be  studied  in  nature,  its  food,  its  foes,  its  general 
habits  and  special  actions  learned;  and  at  ail  times  the  student  should 
avoid  the  human  viewpoint,  but  imagine  himself  in  the  position  of  food 
or  foe,  an  individual  of  the  same  species  or  one  of  a  species  with  which 
the  bird  under  consideration  may  come  in  contact. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  any  color  character  should  invariably 
achieve  its  end;  if  it  does  so  more  than  half  the  time,  it  will  in  the  aggre- 
gate prove  beneficial  to  the  species.  (See  A.  H.  Thayer,  "Concealing 
Coloration,"  p.  8.) 

In  the  study  of  color,  there  is  a  wide  field  for  laboratory  experiment 
on  captive  birds  to  determine  the  laws  of  molt,  the  effects  of  food, 
humidity,  hybridizing,  artificial  selection,  etc.,  into  which  it  is  not 
possible  to  enter  here.  (See  Beebe,  '08.) 

Color  and  Age. — Most  passerine  birds  acquire  an  essentially  adult 
plumage  not  later  than  their  first  prenuptial  (spring)  molt.  Prominent 
exceptions  are  the  Orchard  Oriole,  Crossbills  and  Redstart,  which  breed 


88  COLOR  AND  SEASON 

in  a  plumage  more  like  that  of  the  female  than  of  the  adult  male  and 
aequire  their  mature  plumages  at  the  first  postnuptial  (fall)  molt. 

Less  striking  instances  of  failure  to  acquire  a  fully  adult  plumage  at 
the  first  spring  molt  are  shown  by  birds  like  the  Scarlet  Tanager,  which 
at  its  first  prenuptial  molt  retains  most  if  not  all  the  brownish  wing- 
quills  and  some  of  their  coverts  of  its  first  winter  plumage,  the  black 
wing-quills  of  maturity  not  appearing  until  the  first  postnuptial  molt; 
or  the  American  Goldfinch,  which  does  not  gain  the  yellow  shoulder 
patch  until  after  the  first  breeding  season.  (Plate  IV.) 

When  the  adults  of  both  sexes  are  alike  in  color,  the  young  in  Juvenal 
plumage  more  or  less  closely  resembles  them  (e.  g.  Flycatchers,  Jays, 
Crows,  most  Sparrows,  Chickadees,  Thrushes);  when  the  male  differs 
from  the  female,  the  young  in  Juvenal  plumage  more  nearly  resembles 
its  mother  (e.  g.  Red-winged  Blackbirds,  Orioles,  Purple  Finches,  Gold- 
finches, Hooded  Warblers,  Redstarts).  (Plate  VI.) 

The  juvenal  plumage  often  gives  interesting  clues  to  relationships 
and  ancestry.  The  nestlings  of  the  Blackpoll  and  Bay-breasted  Warblers, 
for  instance,  are  almost  indistinguishable,  as  are  indeed  the  first  winter 
costume  of  these  species;  while  the  spotted  breasts  of  nestling  Robins 
and  Bluebirds  betray  their  relationship  with  the  Thrushes. 

Color  and  Season. — Dull  or  inconspicuously  colored  birds,  having 
once  acquired  the  plumage  of  maturity,  exchange  it  only  for  another 
of  the  same  kind  at  their  respective  molts;  but  birds  of  striking  colors 
frequently  change  their  bright  breeding  costume  for  one  less  likely  to 
expose  them  to  danger  while  migrating.  The  male  Scarlet  Tanager, 
for  instance,  at  the  postnuptial  molt  takes  the  olive-green  body  plumage 
of  his  mate,  only  the  black  wings  and  tail  coming  in  the  same  color 
as  before.  At  the  same  molt,  the  male  Bobolink  assumes  a  plumage 
practically  indistinguishable  from  that  of  his  mate.  With  both  birds 
this  dull  plumage  is  worn  until  the  prenuptial  molt  the  following  spring. 
Other  examples  are  the  American  Goldfinch,  Bay-breasted,  Blackpoll, 
and  Myrtle  Warblers.  (Plates  IV,  XX.) 

Among  Gallinaceous  birds  the  Ptarmigan  alone  have  marked  sea- 
sonal changes  in  plumage,  but  in  the  Shore-birds,  Gulls,  Terns,  and 
Grebes,  they  are  more  or  less  pronounced. 

Here  should  be  mentioned  the  various  appendages  like  the  plumes 
of  the  Night  Heron  and  Egrets,  and  crests  or  other  head  decorations  in 
the  White  Pelican  and  Grebe,  which  are  usually  acquired  at  the  prenup- 
tial molt  and  are  worn  only  during  the  nesting  season. 

Color  and  Sex. — When  there  is  a  sexual  difference  in  color  among 
birds,  with  few  exceptions  the  male  is  the  brighter.  In  North  America 
the  exceptions  are  the  three  species  of  Phalaropes.  No  conclusive 
reason  why  the  male  should  be  brighter  than  the  female  has  been  ad- 
vanced. Darwin's  theory  of  sexual  selection  endows  the  female  with  an 
esthetic  sense,  making  the  most  brightly  plumed  male  more  acceptable 
in  her  eyes  than  his  less  effectively  attired  rivals.  No  one  who  has 
watched  a  bird  display  its  charms  before  the  female  (and  this  is  done 


PLATE  VI 


RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRDS  IN  JUVENAL  PLUMAGE 

Illustrating  the  law  that  when  the  adults  differ  in  color  the  young  of  both  sexes 
usually  resemble  the  female. 


CHICKADEES  IN  JUVENAL  PLUMAGE 
Illustrating  the  law  that  when  the  adults  are  alike  the  young  resemble  them. 


COLOR  AND  SEX  89 

more  commonly  than  is  generally  supposed,  and  by  species  which  do 
not  possess  pronounced  sexual  characters  of  color  or  plume),  will  doubt 
the  ardor  or  objects  of  the  suitor;  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  effect 
of  such  display  is  to  stimulate  the  female  to  the  point  of  accepting 
rather  than  of  selecting  a  mate.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however, 
that  if  this  theory  be  true  the  male  which  breeds  in  immature  plumage 
(e.  g.  Orchard  Oriole;  Redstart)  is  placed  at  a  distinct  disadvantage. 

Wallace  ('91)  attributes  gay  colors  and  showy  plumes  to  the  action 
of  the  surplus  vital  energy  which,  because  of  a  bird's  perfect  adaptation 
to  its  environment,  can  expend  itself  in  the  production  of  brilliant 
colors  and  ornamental  appendages  without  endangering  their  owner; 
but  in  this  connection  we  should  recall  that  when,  as  with  the  Phalar- 
opes,  the  male  plays  the  part  of  the  female,  incubating  unaided  by  her, 
then  it  is  the  female  that  wears  the  brighter  colors. 

Thayer,  without  positively  committing  himself  on  the  subject  of 
sexual  coloration,  contends  that,  whatever  be  the  minor  uses  of  the 
distinctively  male  costumes,  their  main  function  is  for  the  purposes  of 
concealment;  but  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  male  of  the  Red- 
winged  Blackbird,  Bobolink,  Scarlet  Tanager  or  Lark  Bunting,  for 
example,  is  as  protectively  colored  as  his  dull-plumaged  mate,  which 
lives  in  the  same  environment.  If,  however,  his  brighter  colors  increase 
his  chances  of  death,  there  must  be  born  a  greater  number  of  males  than 
females,  to  offset  the  higher  mortality. 

Again,  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  is  only  the  female's  plumage 
which  has  an  especial  significance,  the  task  of  incubation  requiring  in 
her  a  concealing  coloration  which  will  protect  the  contents  of  the  nest 
as  well  as  herself.  The  whole  subject  is  as  attractive  as  it  is  difficult. 
It  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  other  secondary  sexual  char- 
acters of  which  a^synopsis  from  " Bird-Life"  is  appended: 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  SECONDARY  SEXUAL  CHARACTERS  OF  BIRDS 
I.  STRUCTURAL 

gjze  (  Male  larger  than  female  (usual). 

1 "  ( Female  larger  than  male  (rare). 

Color    I  Male  brighter  than  female. 

(  Female  brighter  than  male  (rare). 

Plumage  . . .  •  f  Assumption   of   plumes,    ruffs,  crests,   trains,    etc. ; 

Form    J       special  modification  of  wing-   and  tail-feathers. 
I  a.  Worn  by  male  alone. 
[  b.  Worn  by  both  sexes. 

{Sole  or  greater  development  in  male  of  brightly  colored 
bare  tracts  of  skin,  combs,  wattles,  caruncles,  and  other 
fleshy  or  horny  appendages. 

Of  the  feet. .  . .  Sole  or  greater  development  in  male  of  spurs. 

Of  the  bill.   . . .  Male  with  more  highly  colored  or  larger  bill  than  female. 


90  COLOR  AND   CLIMATE 

II.  FUNCTIONAL 

Pursuit  I  ^y  ma-le  when  similar  to  or  brighter  than  female. 

*  ( By  female  when  brighter  than  male. 

Display  ..... .By  male  of  accessory  plumes  and  other  appendages. 

Battle     By  male  using  spurs,  wings,  bill,  etc. 

Music  I  Vocal,  by  male  and  rarely  female. 

{  Mechanical,   by  male  and  sometimes  female. 


Special 


Dances,  mock  fights,  aerial  evolutions,  construction  of 
bowers,  decoration  of  play-grounds,  attitudinizing,  strut- 
ting, etc. 


habits  ... 

a.  By  male  before  the  female. 

b.  Among  the  males  alone. 

Color  and  Climate. — The  immediate  effect  of  climate  on  a  bird's 
plumage  is  to  increase  or  decrease  its  general  tone  of  color;  thus,  those 
representatives  of  a  species  living  in  arid  regions  are  paler  than  repre- 
sentatives of  the  same  species  living  in  humid  regions.  The  degree  of 
difference  is  closely  related  to  the  annual  rainfall,  as  it  indicates  rela- 
tive humidity;  and  where  there  are  no  abrupt  changes  in  climate,  these 
climatic  variations  change  as  gradually  as  the  conditions  which  cause 
them.  At  first  so  slight  that  only  the  expert  systematic  ornithologist, 
with  access  to  large  series  of  specimens,  can  detect  them,  they  become, 
in  some  instances,  so  pronounced  that  not  only  the  general  tone  of 
color  but  pattern  itself  is  affected.  It  is  on  such  variations  that  most 
subspecies  or  geographical  races  of  birds  are  based.  (See  Allen,  '77.) 

Among  North  American  birds,  they  are  best  illustrated  by  the  oft- 
cited  case  of  the  Song  Sparrow.  (See  Diagram  A  and  Plate  VII.)  Twenty- 
three  races  of  this  exceedingly  plastic  species  are  recognized.  They  are 
distributed  from  the  Valley  of  Mexico  northward  throughout  the 
United  States  and  a  large  part  of  Canada  to  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
Note,  however,  that  only  two  of  them  are  found  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  where  climatic  conditions  are  comparatively  uniform; 
while  California  alone  has  ten  resident  races,  an  indication  of  its  great 
diversity  of  climate. 

The  Desert  Song  Sparrow  (Diagram  A.  8;  Plate  VII)  the  palest 
race,  inhabits  the  Colorado  desert  region  where  the  average  rainfall  is 
about  six  inches;  the  Sooty  Song  Sparrow  (Diagram  A.  19;  Plate  VII) 
the  darkest  race,  is  found  on  the  northwest  Pacific  Coast  where  the 
annual  rainfall  averages  over  ninety  inches. 

Again,  observe  that  the  Mexican  Song  Sparrow  (Diagram  A.  1)  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  range  of  the  species  is  one  of  the  smallest 
races,  measuring  some  six  inches  in  length,  and  that  there  is  a  gradual 
increase  in  size  northward  until  the  maximum  is  reached  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  range  of  the  species,  where  the  Aleutian  8ong  Sparrow 
(Diagram  A.  23;  Plate  VII)  attains  a  length  of  nearly  nine  inches. 


DIAGRAM   A.     ILLUSTRATING   THE    DISTRIBUTION   OF 
SONG    SPARROWS. 


1.  Mexican  Song  Sparrow. 

2.  Michoacan  Song  Sparrow. 

3.  Durango  Song  Sparrow. 

4.  Mountain  Song  Sparrow. 

5.  Dakota  Song  Sparrow. 

6.  Eastern  Song  Sparrow. 

7.  Merrill's  Song  Sparrow. 

8.  Desert  Song  Sparrow. 

9.  Brown's  Song  Sparrow. 

10.  San  Clemente  Song  Sparrow. 

11.  Santa  Barbara  Song  Sparrow. 

12.  Cooper's  Song  Sparrow. 


13.  Herrmann's  Song  Sparrow. 

14.  Alameda  Song  Sparrow. 

15.  Suisun  Song  Sparrow. 

16.  Samuel's  Song  Sparrow. 

17.  Mendocino  Song  Sparrow* 

18.  Rusty  Song  Sparrow. 

19.  Sooty  Song  Sparrow. 

20.  Yakutat  Song  Sparrow. 

21.  Kenai  Song  Sparrow. 

22.  Bischoff's  Song  Sparrow. 

23.  Aleutian  Song  Sparrow. 


(91) 


92  COLOR  AND   CONCEALMENT 

If  we  compared  only  the  palest  Song  Sparrow  with  the  darkest,  we 
might  well  believe,  so  unlike  are  they,  that  each  form  represents  a 
distinct  species;  but  when  we  include  in  our  comparison  representatives 
of  all  the  twenty-three  races  of  Song  Sparrows  we  find  complete  inter- 
gradation  in  color  and  in  size.  Nowhere  can  one  draw  the  line.  As 
the  climatic  conditions  under  which  the  birds  live  change,  the  birds 
keep  pace.  Cause  and  effect  go  hand  in  hand.  Here  we  have  a  species 
in  flower,  as  it  were,  a  single  Song  Sparrow  stalk  with  its  twenty-three 
blossoms,  any  one  of  which  might  make  an  independent  growth  as  a 
species  it  if  were  separated  from  the  parent  stem.  Doubtless  some  day 
the  separation  will  come,  when  we  shall  have  several  species  of  Song 
Sparrow,  each  with  its  group  of  races,  but  at  present  we  have  only 
one  species,  divided  into  some  twenty-three  sub-species,  or  species  in 
process  of  formation. 

A  variety  of  reasons  may  be  advanced  to  account  for  the  pronounced 
geographical  variations  shown  by  the  Song  Sparrow.  Its  wide  range 
indicates  physical  adaptability  and  ready  adjustment  to  differences  in 
food  and  habitat.  Its  variations  in  size,  while  they  conform  to  the 
general  law  of  increase  in  size  northward,  are  exceptionally  marked, 
and  are  not  equalled  by  those  of  any  other  North  American  bird — a 
further  indication  of  an  inherent  plasticity. 

The  species  is  comparatively  non-migratory.  Several  races,  notably 
in  California,  are  permanently  resident  in  contiguous  and  restricted 
areas.  Such  strictly  non-migratory  species  are  continuously  subjected 
to  the  influences  of  their  environment,  which  are  heightened  by  perma- 
nent isolation.  But  even  the  most  migratory  forms  come  early  and  stay 
late,  and  are  thus  in  the  breeding  area  for  a  much  greater  part  of  the 
year  than,  for  example,  many  Warblers  which  come  in  May  and  leave 
in  August. 

But,  suggest  as  we  may  the  various  factors  which  appear  to  be  active 
in  producing  such  geographic  variations  as  the  Song  Sparrows  exhibit, 
they  are  not  potent  with  all  birds,  even  when  other  things  are  equal, 
and  it  seems  probable  that  some  species  are  in  an  active  state  of  de- 
velopment and  readily  respond  to  the  influences  of  their  surroundings, 
while  others  are  fixed  and  make  no  such  response.  The  latter  represent 
older  types  of  birds,  which  are,  so  to  speak,  near  to  or  a  part  of  the 
trunk  of  the  bird's  family  tree,  while  the  former  class  includes  the  birds 
at  the  terminal  branches  of  this  tree. 

Color  and  Concealment. — It  is  clear  that  the  life  of  the  individual 
bird,  and  hence  the  continued  existence  of  its  species,  depends  pri- 
marily on  its  success  in  securing  food  and  in  escaping  from  its  foes.  The 
colors  of  predaceous  species  must,  therefore,  tend  to  conceal  them  from 
their  prey  (aggressive  or  deceptive  colors),  while  the  colors  of  those 
that  are  preyed  on  are  designed  to- conceal  them  from  their  enemies 
(protective  colors) . 

When,  however,  a  bird's  food  may  be  secured  without  the  exercise 
of  caution,  when  it  apparently  is  not  preyed  upon,  or  when  it  is  protected 


COLOR  AND   CONCEALMENT  93 

by  the  character  of  its  haunts,  its  colors,  unchecked  by  any  need  for 
concealment,  may  make  it  conspicuous.* 

Inconspicuousness  is  achieved  primarily,  not  alone  in  birds  but 
also  in  most  other  animals,  by  that  disposition  of  color  which  makes 
them  darkest  where  they  receive  the  most  light,  and  palest  where  they 
are  most  in  shadow.  This  is  the  far-reaching  principle  of  counter- 
shading  discovered  by  Abbott  H.  Thayer  and  announced  by  him  in 
1896  (The  Auk,  1896,  pp.  124, 318).  Of  it  Poulton  remarks:  "For  ages  the 
artist  has  known  how  to  produce  the  appearance  of  solid  objects  stand- 
ing out  on  his  canvas,  by  painting  in  the  likeness  of  the  shadows.  It 
has  remained  for  this  great  artist-naturalist  to  realize  the  logical  anti- 
thesis, and  show  how  solid  objects  may  be  made  to  fade  away  and 
become  ghost-like,  or  even  invisible,  by  painting  out  the  shadows." 

Thayer's  experiments  in  conclusive  demonstration  of  this  law  may 
be  repeated,  even  if  crudely,  by  taking,  say,  four  bits  of  wood  shaped 
to  resemble  a  bird's  body,  or,  failing  these,  several  symmetrical  pota- 
toes of  about  the  same  size.  Run  a  stout  wire  rod  through  these  objects, 
leaving  intervals  of  about  eight  or  ten  inches  and,  selecting  a  spot  not 
in  direct  sunlight,  support  the  rod  at  both  ends,  on  uprights  which  will 
raise  it  six  or  eight  inches  from  the  ground.  The  models  should  be  uni- 
formly colored  to  resemble  the  earth  against  which  they  are  seen,  and 
the  resemblance  may  be  heightened  by  sprinkling  some  of  the  earth 
upon  them. 

If  the  secret  of  protective  coloration  is  an  exact  likeness  in  color 
between  an  animal  and  its  background,  these  models  should  be  essen- 
tially invisible,  whereas  they  are  exceedingly  conspicuous.  Now,  in 
imitation  of  nature,  paint  out  the  shadow  on  the  lower  half  of  two  of  the 
models  by  grading  through  earth  color  laterally,  to  pure  white  on  the 
lower  median  line,  when  it  will  be  seen  that  at  a  distance  of  thirty 
feet  or  more  these  white-bottomed  models  have,  in  a  magical  manner, 
become  nearly  if  not  quite  invisible,  although  they  are  still  the  same 
color  on  the  upper  half  as  the  untoucheH  models,  which  are  plainly 
visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  forty  or  fifty  yards. 

To  prove  that  this  result  is  due  to  the  disposition  of  color,  as 
regards  light  and  shade,  rather  than  tb~  color  alone,  turn  the  models  so 
that  the  white  is  uppermost,  thus  reversing  nature's  law,  and  thereby 
rendering  the  two  models  which  before  were  indistinguishable  even 
more  prominent  than  those  which  are  uniformly  colored. 

Such,  in  briefest  outline,  is  an  explanation  of  Thayer's  law  of  coun- 
ter-shading, for  a  fuller  description  of  which,  as  well  as  of  its  various 
modifications,  the  student  is  referred  to  Thayer's  work  on  "Concealing 
Coloration."  Thayer's  law  of  obliterative  markings  is  also  presented 
in  this  book.  This  explains  the  pattern  of  coloration  or  markings  of 
counter-shaded  birds  which  bear  on  their  plumage  a  picture  of  the 
background  against  which  they  are  most  commonly  seen  by  their 

*In  this  connection  see  Reighard  on  the  colors  of  coral-reef  fishes.  Papers  from 
Tortugas  Lab.  of  Cam.  Inst.  Wash.,  1908,  pp.  261-325. 


94  COLOR  AND  CONCEALMENT 

prey  or  by  their  'enemies.  Or,  as  Gerald  Thayer  puts  it:  the  object's 
"oblitepatively-shaded  surface  must  bear  a  picture  of  such  background 
as  would  be  seen  through  it,  if  it  were  transparent."  (1.  c.  p.  31.)  Thus 
our  Woodcock  is  said  to  bear  a  picture  of  "dead  leaves,  twigs  and 
grasses,  variously  disposed  over  shadow-holes,"  while  the  plumage  of 
Wilson's  Snipe  represents  "sticks,  grasses,  etc.,  with  their  shadows  at 
various  distances."  The  plumage  of  the  Upland  Plover  shows  a  "grass" 
pattern,  a  type  common  to  many  field  or  upland  species.  Certain  of 
the  Plover  and  Sandpipers  wear  this  plumage  during  the  summer,  when 
they  live  among  weeds  and  grasses,  but  lose  it  for  one  of  pure  and 
simple  counter-shading  when  they  winter  along  the  shores  and  beaches. 

From  these  more  obvious  instances  of  obliterative  picture  patterns, 
Thayer  leads  us  to  an  interpretation  of  the  brilliantly  colored  and  in- 
tricately marked  plumage  of  birds  like  the  male  Wood  Duck,  Peacock, 
and  Paradise  Bird  (Paradisea),  or  of  such  special  markings  and  appen- 
dages as  the  speculum  in  Ducks,  gorget  in  Hummingbirds,  tail-coverts 
in  the  Resplendent  Trogon,  etc.,  all  of  which,  under  certain  vital  con- 
ditions, are  considered  by  him  to  make  or  to  aid  in  making  their  wearers 
inconspicuous.  The  use  of  no  pattern,  mark  or  appendage  is  left  un- 
explained by  the  proposer  of  this  law,  and  while  naturalists  recognidte 
the  importance  of  his  studies,  Thayer's  contention  "that  patterns  and 
utmost  contrasts  of  color  (not  to  speak  of  appendages)  of  animals  make 
wholly  for  their  'obliteration,'  "  finds  few  supporters. 

Flamingoes,  Crows,  Ravens  and  Turkey  Vultures,  for  example, 
are  seemingly  from  any  point  of  view  conspicuous.  The  nature  of  their 
food  and  their  excessive  wariness  or  absence  of  foes  apparently  re- 
move them  from  the  action  of  the  laws  producing  a  true  concealing 
coloration. 

Protected  primarily  by  the  character  of  their  haunts,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  striking  and  endlessly  varied  colors  of  Tanagers, 
Honey  Creepers,  Cotingas,  Toucans,  Trogons,  Parrots  and  other  bril- 
liantly marked  arboreal  birds  may  be  explained  in  a  similar  manner. 
It  is  important  to  remember  in  this  connection  that  many  birds  of  such 
habits  are  dull  as  well  as  brightly  colored,  and  we  may  suggest  that 
among  tree-haunting,  and  to  a  less  extent  thicket-haunting  birds,  the 
actual  physical  causes  of  color,  uncontrolled  by  natural  selection,  have 
run  riot.  When,  however,  the  nature  of  a  bird's  haunts  affords  it  less 
adequate  means  of  concealment,  then  color  plays  a  more  important 
part  in  protecting  it,  and  there  is  consequently  less  variation  from  the 
type  of  color  which  presumably  has  proved  to  have  the  highest  conceal- 
ing value. 

Thrushes,  Ovenbirds  and  Doves,  for  example,  which  feed  on  the 
ground,  may  frequent  the  tree-tops  without  unduly  exposing  themselves 
to  danger,  but  let  a  male  Scarlet  Tanager  or  other  brightly-colored 
arboreal  bird  alight  upon  the  ground  and,  even  when  motionless,  it 
is  conspicuous. 

This  illustration  may  serve  also  to  remind  us  that  the  protective 


PLATE  VIII 


WOODCOCK  ON  NEST 

A  protectively  colored  bird  which,  relying  on  its  color  to  escape  detection,  may  some- 
times be  touched  before  it  takes  wing. 


BLACK  SKIMMER  ON  NEST 

A  conspicuously  colored  bird  which  is  so  shy  that  it  leaves  its  nest  at  the  first  indication 

of  danger. 


BANNER  MARKS  95 

value  of  any  color  scheme  or  pattern  of  marking  is  active  only  when 
the  animal  bearing  it  is  at  rest.  Without  re'gard  to  color,  movement  at 
once  reveals,  and  bearing  this  in  mind,  the  action  of  a  bird  in  the  pres- 
ence of  danger  is  a  supreme  test  of  the  protective  or  non-protejctive 
value  of  its  colors. 

If  the  bird  is  wary  and  can  be  approached  only  with  difficulty, 
we  may  feel  assured  that  it  realizes  its  conspicuousness  and  conse- 
quently it  relies  for  safety  on  its  watchfulness  and  its  wings.  But  if 
the  bird  attempts  to  hide  and  flies  only  when  convinced  that  it  has  been 
discovered,  then  we  may  believe  that  it  relies  primarily  on  the  nature 
of  its  coloring  to  escape  observation,  when  we  are  evidently  justified 
in  assuming  that  its  colors  are  truly  protective.  Compare  the  colors 
and  actions  of  such  'wild'  birds  as  Gulls,  Terns,  Skimmers,  Ducks, 
Geese,  Cormorants,  Cranes,  Herons,  Flamingoes,  Stilts,  Avocets,  and 
Crows,  with  those  of  birds  which  take  wing  only  to  avoid  being  stepped 
on  (e.  g.  Bitterns,  Rails,  Woodcock,  Wilson  Snipe,  Quails,  Grouse,  Whip- 
poor-wills)  to  appreciate  how  closely  color  is  here  correlated  with  habit. 

Compare  further  the  colors  and  habits  of  the  flightless  young  of  Gulls, 
Terns,  Skimmers,  Stilts  or  Avocets  with  those  of  their  parents  to  observe 
how  there  may  be  both  a  protective  and  a  conspicuous  plumage  in  the 
same  species.  Enter  the  breeding  resorts  of  any  of  these  birds  and  the 
conspicuously  colored  adults  at  once  take  wing  while  the  protectively 
colored  young,  squatting  motionless,  make  no  attempt  to  escape,  even 
by  running,  until  they  are  actually  touched. 

Obviously,  then,  the  significance  of  the  colors  of  birds  is  to  be  learned 
only  by  the  study  of  species  by  species  in  nature.  The  whole  subject 
is  preeminently  within  the  domain  of  the  field  naturalist.  Only  when 
our  knowledge  of  a  bird's  haunts  and  habits,  its  food  and  foes,  and  its 
actions  in  the  presence  of  danger  is  reasonably  complete  are  we  in  a 
position  to  determine  to  what  factors  we  may  attribute  its  particular 
colors  and  markings.  This  is  the  ground  taken  by  Theodore  Roosevelt 
in  his  extended  criticism  ('11)  of  Abbott  Thayer's  theories,  and  while 
one  may  argue  that  Mr.  Roosevelt  underrates  the  necessity  of  conceal- 
ing coloration  in  animals,  one  must  commend  his  admirable  plea  for  the 
accumulation  of  further  evidence  from  nature  before  giving  a  verdict. 

Banner  Marks. — The  plumage  of  many  birds  contains  marks  which 
are  usually  conspicuous  only  when  the  bird  is  in  motion.  White  outer 
tail-feathers  (e.  g.  Junco,  Vesper  Sparrow,  Meadowlark),  or  wing- 
patches  (e.  g.  Mockingbird),  or  a  white  rump  (e.  g.  Flicker),  are  mark- 
ings of  this  type  and  to  them  the  term  'banner',  'recognition'  or 
'directive'  marks  have  been  applied. 

Some  authors  would  have  us  believe  that  such  flight-revealed  mark- 
ings have  a  directive  value  which  assists  birds  of  the  same  species  in 
keeping  together  (see  Tracy,  '10)  but  the  ease  with  which  dull-eyed  man 
learns  to  recognize  birds,  even  at  a  great  distance,  makes  it  difficult 
to  believe  that  birds  require  some  conspicuous  mark  to  distinguish 
others  of  their  own  kind,  as  Abbott  Thayer  has  well  shown  (The  Auk, 


96  ALBINISM 

1900,  p.  108).  On  the  other  hand,  there  seems  better  ground  for  belief 
in  the  theory,  advanced  by  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  that  these  so-called 
banner  marks  protect  their  possessors  by  being  so  strikingly  evident 
when  their  wearers  are  in  flight  that  their  sudden  and  complete  efface- 
ment  when  the  creature  takes  to  cover,  tends  to  puzzle  the  pursuer, 
which,  looking  in  vain  for  a  victim  conspicuously  marked  with  white, 
soon  abandons  the  chase. 

The  subject  is  a  fascinating  one  and  is  to  be  especially  commended  to 
field  students,  who  alone  can  supply  the  data  on  which  a  solution  of 
the  problems  involved  can  be  based. 

Albinism. — Albinism  is  not  infrequent  among  birds  and  may  occur 
in  any  species.  I  hare  seen  a  white  Crow  and  a  white  Turkey  Vulture. 
It  is,  however,  rarely  complete  but  more  frequently  affects  a  part  of  the 
plumage,  when  it  is  usually  symmetrical,  that  is,  if  a  feather  in  one  wing 
be  white  the  corresponding  feather  in  the  other  wing  will  also  be  white; 

The  presence  of  an  albino  bird  always  excites  interest.  When,  be- 
cause of  its  markings,  the  history  of  the  individual  may  be  learned,  and 
possibly  its  return  to  a  certain  locality  noted  year  after  year,  albinism 
permits  of  the  making  of  observations  of  real  value.  But  albinism  in 
itself  is  a  matter  calling  for  no  special  record  or  comment.  It  is  due  to 
an  absence  of  pigment  in  the  part  affected  and  may  indicate  a  more  or 
less  degenerate  condition  in  the  individual  exhibiting  it.  Albinistic 
English  Sparrows  are  not  uncommon,  a  fact  which  may  be  due  to  the 
abundance  of  the  species  and  ease  with  which  it  is  observed,  or  to  exces- 
sive inbreeding  among  a  comparatively  limited  number  of  very  local 
individuals. 

Melanism,  or  undue  blackness,  implies  an  excess  of  pigment,  while 
xanthochroism  and  erythrism  are  terms  applied  respectively  to  ab- 
normally yellow  or  red  birds.  These  three  phases  of  color  are,  as  a  rule, 
shown  only  in  caged-birds  and  are  then  evidently  due  to  unnatural 
diet  or  other  conditions.  (See  Beebe,  '07.) 

Dichromatism. — Dichromatism  implies  the  existence  of  two  phases 
of  color  in  the  same  species.  It  is  well  illustrated  by  our  Screech  Owl, 
some  individuals  of  which  are  gray  and  others  rufous.  (See  frontispiece.) 
This  difference  in  color  is  not  dependent  upon  age,  sex  or  season;  indeed, 
gray  and  rufous  birds  may  be  found  in  the  same  family.  It  appears, 
however,  to  be  connected  with  locality,  since  a  species  may  be  dichro- 
matic in  one  part  of  its  range  and  less  so  or  not  at  all  in  another  part 
of  its  range.  The  rufous  phase  of  the  Screech  Owl,  for  example,  is  rare 
in  Florida,  just  as  the  black  phase  of  the  gray  squirrel  is  rare  in  Florida. 
Beyond  this  relation  between  dichromatism  and  locality  its  causes  are 
not  understood. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

The  processes  of  molt  and  feather-growth  may  be  studied  in  captive 
birds  provided  they  be  kept  under  proper  conditions.  Change  in  conditions 
may  advance  or  retard  molt.  (See  Beebe,  '08.) 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT  97 

Describe  condition  of  a  Passerine  bird  at  birth  and  its  subsequent 
plumages  and  molts.  About  how  long  is  it  in  the  nest?  How  long  does  it 
wear  the  Juvenal  plumage?  What  plumage  follows?  What  feathers  are 
usually  retained  at  the  postjuvenal  molt?  When  does  the  prenuptial  molt 
occur?  Is  it  usually  complete?  What  molt  is  complete?  How  does  the 
natal  down  of  prsecocial  birds  differ  from  that  of  altricial  birds?  How  long 
do  some  Snipe  wear  the  postjuvenal  plumage?  What  variation  in  the  law 
of  molt  is  shown  by  Ptarmigan  and  most  swimming  birds?  Describe  changes 
in  color  due  to  wear  or  fading.  Give  illustrations  of  the  acquisition  by  molt 
of  nuptial  plumes.  Describe  differences  in  color  due  to  age.  When  do  most 
birds  acquire  their  mature  plumage?  Mention  several  species  which  do  not 
reach  full  plumage  until  at  least  their  second  year.  Describe  the  plumage 
changes  of  the  Scarlet  Tanager,  American  Goldfinch,  and  Bobolink.  When 
the  adults  are  unlike  in  color,  which  is  usually  the  brighter?  Which  parent 
does  the  nestling  usually  resemble?  What  may  be  inferred  from  the  spotted 
Juvenal  plumage  of  the  Bluebird?  What  is  Darwin's  theory  of  sexual  se- 
lection? What  is  Wallace's  theory?  Describe  what  is  meant  by  secondary 
sexual  characters  and  give  cases  in  illustration.  What  relations  exist  be- 
tween the  degree  of  intensity  of  a  bird's  color  and  the  climatic  conditions 
under  which  it  lives?  Describe  the  case  of  the  Song  Sparrows.  Is  it  believed 
that  their  changes  in  color  are  due  to  the  direct  influence  of  environment 
rather  than  to  the  influence  of  natural  selection  in  establishing  protective 
colors?  Why  are  concealing  colors  necessary?  To  what  factors  other  than 
color  may  a  bird  owe  its  comparative  immunity  from  its  foes?  Are  they 
required  by  all  species?  How  may  we  account  for  the  wide  range  of  color 
in  arboreal  birds?  What  is  Thayer's  principle  of  counter-shading?  Demon- 
strate this  theory  with  the  aid  of  decoys.  What  are  'obliterative'  markings? 
What  are  'banner'  or  'directive'  marks?  What  theories  have  been  advanced 
to  account  for  their  significance?  Mention  all  the  birds  you  know  which 
reveal  white  marks  in  flight.  What  is  albinism?  melanism?  xanthrochroism? 
erythrism?  Describe  an  albino  which  you  have  seen.  Did  it  act  like  normally 
colored  birds  of  its  own  species?  What  may  be  learned  from  observing 
albinoes  or  other  birds  so  marked  that  they  may  be  recognized?  Have  you 
ever  known  a  caged-bird  to  change  in  color? 

REFERENCES 

1871.    DARWIN,  C.,  The  Descent  of  Man,  Chaps.  XIII-XVL— 1877. 

ALLEN,  J.  A.,  The  Influence  of  Physical  Conditions  on  the  Genesis  of  Species, 
Radical  Review,  I,  pp.  108-140.  Reprinted  in  Smithsonian  Rep.  1905,  pp. 
375-402.— 1891.  WALLACE,  A.  R.,  Darwinism,  Chaps.  VIII-XI,  (Macmil- 
lan). — 1890.  POULTON,  E.  B.,  The  Colours  of  Animals,  (Appleton).— -1893. 
NEWTON  and  GADOW,  Colors  of  Birds,  in  Dictionary  of  Birds,  (Macmillan). 
—1896.  STONE,  W.,  The  Molting  of  Birds,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  pp. 
108-167. — 1900.  DWIGHT,  J.,  JR.,  Sequence  of  Plumages  and  Moults  of  the 
Passerine  Birds  of  New  York,  Annals,  Acad.  Sci.,  XIII,  pp.  73-360.  See  also 
Auk,  XVII,  pp.  34,  143,  368. — 1907.  BEEBE,  C.  W.,  Geographic  Variation 
in  Birds  with  Especial  Reference  to  the  Effects  of  Humidity,  Zoologica,  I, 
pp.  1-41. — 1908.  BEEBE,  C.  W.,  Seasonal  Changes  of  Color  in  Birds,  Am. 
Nat.,  XLII,  pp.  34-38. — 1909.  THAYER,  G.  H.,  Concealing  Coloration  in 
the  Animal  Kingdom,  4to.,  260  pp.,  ills.,  (Macmillan). — 1910.  TRACY, 
H.  C.,  Significance  of  White  Markings  in  Birds  of  the  Order  Passeriformes, 
Univ.  Cal.  Pub.  in  Zool.,  VI,  pp.  285-312. — 1910.  PYCRAFT,  W.  P.,  A  His- 
tory of  Birds,  (London:  Methuen  &  Co.). — 1911.  BARBOUR,  T.,  and  PHIL- 
LIPS, J.  C.,  Concealing  Coloration  Again,  Auk,  XXVIII,  179-188. — 1911. 
THAYER,  A.  H.,  Concealing  Coloration,  Pop.  Sci.  Monthly,  July,  pp.  20-35. 
— 1911.  ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE,  Revealing  and  Concealing  Coloration  in 
Birds  and  Mammals,  Bull.  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  His.,  XXX,  pp.  119-231. 


98  THE  FOOD   OF  BIRDS 

THE  FOOD  OF  BIRDS 

Food  and  Distribution 
Food  and  Habit 
Economic  Value  of  Birds 

Birds  and  Insects 

Birds  and  Weeds 

Birds  and  Rodents 

Birds  as  Scavengers 

Food  and  Distribution. — Birds  consume  a  large  amount  of  food  and 
they  rarely  store  it.  No  one  factor,  therefore,  exercises  a  greater  or 
more  constant  influence  on  their  activities  than  the  ever-present  neces- 
sity of  securing  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  proper  kind  of  nourishment. 

Not  only  are  a  bird's  daily  movements  more  or  le&  governed  by 
the  search  for  food,  with  pronounced  local  variations  in  numbers,  due 
to  the  ripening  of  fruits,  unusual  abundance  of  insects,  supply  of  car- 
rion, etc.,  but  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  species  during  certain 
seasons  may  depend  directly  on  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  a  certain 
kind  of  food.  Given  bayberries,  and  one  may  expect  Myrtle  Warblers 
to  winter  in  numbers  near  New  York  City;  buckwheat  in  a  pile  of 
chaff  induced  a  flock  of  Mourning  Doves  to  pass  the  winter  at  Engle- 
wood,  N.  J.;  the  failure  of  the  coniferous  seed  crop  is  evidently  the  reason 
for  the  irregular  occurrence  of  great  numbers  of  Crossbills  south  of  their 
usual  winter  range,  to  cite  only  a  few  of  the  innumerable  instances 
showing  how  both  the  local  and  general  movements  of  birds  are  influ- 
enced by  the  food-supply. 

Food  and  Habit. — From  the  Swifts,  coursing  the  sky  almost  be- 
yond the  reach  of  vision,  to  the  Diver  beneath  the  waters,  birds  neglect 
no  spot  containing  food.  The  result  is  not  only  great  diversity  of  fare, 
but  a  correspondingly  wide  range  in  the  methods,  or  feeding  habits, 
by  which  it  is  secured.  (See  under  Uses  of  the  Bill  and  Feet.) 

Economic  Value  of  Birds. — Interesting  as  we  shall  find  the  study 
of  a  bird's  food  in  relation  to  its  distribution  and  habits,  it  is  of  even 
greater  importance  for  us  to  learn  in  what  way  or  ways  the  nature  of 
its  food  determines  its  economic  relations  to  man.  X-) 

In  no  branch  of  American  ornithology  has  greater  advance  been 
made,  during  the  past  twenty  years,  than  in  the  study  of  the  value  of 
birds  to  man  based  on  a  knowledge  of  their  food.  This  is  due  chiefly 
to  the  investigations  of  the  Biological  Survey  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  also  to  the  researches  conducted  by 
certain  states,  notably  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  subject  is  too  wide  and  too  important  to  be  treated  ade- 
quately here  and  the  student  is  referred  to  the  many  valuable  papers 
listed  beyond,  particularly  to  those  issued  by  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture (many  of  which  can  be  secured  from  the  Superintendent  of 
Documents  at  Washington)  and  to  Forbush's  "Useful  Birds." 


BIRDS  AND  INSECTS  99 

The  nature  of  a  bird's  food  can  be  determined  by  observing  what  it 
eats  and  by  an  examination  of  what  it  has  eaten.  It  is,  of  course,  often 
impossible  to  see  just  what  a  bird  is  eating  or,  even  having  seen,  one 
still  may  not  recognize  the  particular  kind  of  insect,  fruit  or  seed  which 
has  been  swallowed.  Expert  analysis  of  the  contents  of  the  digestive 
tract  is  therefore  essential  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  character 
of  a  bird's  food.  The  conclusions  drawn  from  laboratory  work  should, 
however,  be  checked  by  studies  in  nature,  to  which  the  field  ornithol- 
ogist may  make  valuable  contributions. 

Looking  from  my  window  as  I  write,  I  see  five  Starlings  (Sturnus) 
running  actively  about  the  lawn  beneath  a  cherry  tree,  picking  up 
fallen  fruit.  An  examination  of  the  contents  of  their  stomachs  would 
unquestionably  reveal  the  presence  of  cherries,  but  I  see  this  ground- 
feeder  gather  fallen  cherries  far  more  frequently  than  growing  ones, 
and  stomach  analysis  alone  might,  therefore,  in  a  case  of  this  kind, 
lead  to  a  false  estimate  of  a  bird's  destructiveness.  (On  the  study  of 
food  habits  in  the  field,  see  especially  Forbush's  "Useful  Birds.") 

Equally  true  is  it  that  verdicts  based  only  on  casual  observations 
of  the  bird  in  nature  are  far  from  the  truth;  and  it  is  this  kind  of  hasty 
conclusion  that  the  economic  ornithologist  finds  the  greatest  difficulty 
in  combating.  A  Cooper's  Hawk  may  be  seen  to  catch  a  chicken  or 
scatter  a  flock  of  Bob-whites;  Robins  maybe  noted  in  the  cherry  trees 
or  Catbirds  in  the  strawberry  bed,  and  without  further  evidence 
all  Hawks  are  declared  to  be  destroyers  of  poultry  and  game,  and 
small  birds  generally  devourers  of  fruit.  But  thanks  to  the  investi- 
gations made  by  federal  and  state  governments,  as  already  mentioned, 
we  are  now  in  possession  of  accurate,  incontrovertible  data,  and  there  is 
no  excuse  for  signing  a  bird's  death  warrant  on  false  or  insufficient 
observation.  It  has  thus  been  determined  that  birds  are  of  inestimable 
value  to  man  (1)  by  eating  harmful  insects,  their  eggs  and  larvae; 
(2)  by  destroying  the  seeds  of  noxious  weeds;  (3)  by  devouring  field 
mice  and  other  small  mammals  which  injure  crops;  and  (4)  by  acting 
as  scavengers.  '  \lf 

Birds  and  Insects. — Dr.  L.  C.  Marlatt,  of  the  United  States'  De-' 
partment  of  Agriculture,  estimates  that  in  the  year  1904  the  loss  to' 
our  agricultural  interests  occasioned  by  insects  amounted  to  $795,000,-  ' 
000  (Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1904,  p.  464).    Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins, 
also  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  estimates  that  insects  cause  an 
annual  loss  to  our  forestry  and  timber  interests  of  $100,000,000.    It 
is  difficult  for  us  to  comprehend  fully  the  significance  of  these  figures, 
but  at  least  they  may  serve  to  impress  us  with  the  value  of  any  form  of 
life  which  in  turn  preys  upon  insects,  and  in  the  front  rank  of  insect 
enemies  stand  the  birds. 

It  is  possible  here  only  to  give  references  (see  beyond)  to  the  now 

extensive  literature  containing  exact  statistics  of  this  battle  of  the  birds 

and  the  bugs.   In  these  papers,  for  example,  it  will  be  found  stated  that 

the  stomach  of  a  single  Cedar  Waxwing  contained  100  canker  worms, 

9 


100  BIRDS  AND  WEEDS 

that  one  Cuckoo  had  eaten  250  caterpillars,  that  454  plant-lice  were 
found  in  the  stomach  of  one  Chickadee,  that  a  Nighthawk  had  made  a 
meal  on  60  grasshoppers,  that  a  Flicker  had  devoured  1,000  chinch 
bugs,  that  a  Scarlet  Tanager  was  seen  to  eat  630  gypsy  moth  cater- 
pillars in  eighteen  minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  2,100  an  hour;  while  a 
Maryland  Yellow-throat  ate  3,500  plant-lice  in  forty  minutes,  or  at 
the  rate  of  5,270  an  hour! 

As  the  destroyers  of  insects  that  breed  disease,  birds  stand  in  an 
even  closer  economic  relation  to  man.  Five  hundred  mosquitos,  for 
example,  were  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  single  Nighthawk;  Swallows 
and  other  wing-feeding  birds  also  feed  upon  this  pest,  which,  in  the 
larval  form,  is  eaten  by  various  marsh-inhabiting  birds.  It  is  probable, 
therefore,  that  as  our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  various  diseases  to 
which  man  is  subject  through  insect  attack  increases,  birds  will  here 
be  found  to  be  correspondingly  valuable. 

In  spite  of  the  immense  amount  of  authoritative  data,  of  which  we 
are  now  in  possession,  we  are  far  from  beginning  to  realize  the  profoundly 
important  part  played  by  insectivorous  birds  in  holding  in  check  the 
insects  injurious  to  vegetation  and  to  man.  We  may,  however,  accept 
without  question  the  opinion  of  Henry  W.  Henshaw,  Chief  of  the  Biolog- 
ical Survey,  who  states  as  his  conviction  that  without  the  services  of 
insect-eating  birds  "it  is  more  than  likely — nay,  it  is  almost  certain — 
that  within  a  limited  time  not  only  would  successful  agriculture  be- 
come impossible,  but  the  destruction  of  the  greater  part  of  vegetation 
would  follow."  (Nat.  Geog.  Mag.,  1908,  p.  89.) 

Birds  and  Weeds. — It  is  not,  however,  only  as  a  scourge  to  insects 
that  the  bird  is  of  value  to  the  farmer,  but  also  as  a  destroyer  of  the 
seeds  'of  weeds  it  performs  a  service  of  incalculable  importance.  Again 
we  must  turn  to  the  researches  of  the  economic  ornithologist  for  those 
definite  data  (see  especially  papers  by  Judd)  without  which  satisfactory 
conclusions  cannot  be  reached.  In  passing  we  may  merely  state  that 
700  seeds  of  the  pigeon  grass  were  taken  from  the  stomach  of  a  Tree 
Sparrow  by  Professor  Beal,  who  estimates  that  this  species  destroys 
no  less  than  875  tons  of  weed-seed  annually  in  the  single  state  of  Iowa; 
that  1,000  pigweed  seeds  were  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  Snow  Bunt- 
ing; that  a  Bob-white  contained  5,000  seeds  of  pigeon  grass,  while  a 
Mourning  Dove  had  eaten  the  enormous  number  of  7,500  seeds  of  the 
yellow  wood  sorrel. 

Birds  and  Rodents. — Still  we  have  not  given  the  birds  all  the  credit 
due  them  as  powerful  allies  of  the  agriculturist.  Every  farmer  knows 
all  too  well  how  seriously  small  rodents,  particularly  field  mice,  can 
damage  his  crops  in  the  field  as  well  as  in  the  storehouse  or  granary; 
but  few  farmers  know  that  Hawks  and  Owls,  birds  they  have  aways 
believed  should  be  killed  on  sight,  are  among  nature's  most  potent 
checks  on  the  undue  increase  of  these  destructive  little  creatures. 

The  loss  which  may  follow  ignorance  of  the  economic  value  of 
Hawks  and  Owls  has  never  been  more  clearly  shown  than  by  Dr. 


BIRDS   AND   RODENTS  101 

Merriam,  who  as  early  as  1886  made  the  folio  wing 'cbirimefks  on  the 
then  recently  passed  'Scalp  Act'  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
subsequent  investigations  have  confirmed  his  views;,  :  '•••'.  -• 

"On  the  23d  of  June,  1885,  the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  passed 
an  act  known  as  the  'scalp  act/  ostensibly  'for  the  benefit  of  agricul- 
ture/ which  provides  a  bounty  of  fifty  cents  each  on  Hawks,  Owls, 
weasels  and  minks  killed  within  the  limits  of  the  State,  and  a  fee  of 
twenty  cents  to  the  notary  or  justice  taking  affidavit. 

"By  virtue  of  this  act  about  $90,000  has  been  paid  in  bounties 
during  the  year  and  a  half  that  has  elapsed  since  the  law  went  into 
effect.  This  represents  the  destruction  of  at  least  128,571  of  the  above- 
mentioned  animals,  most  of  which  were  Hawks  and  Owls. 

"Granting  that  5,000  chickens  are  killed  annually  in  Pennsylvania 
by  Hawks  and  Owls,  and  that  they  are  worth  twenty-five  cents  each 
(a  liberal  estimate  in  view  of  the  fact  that  a  large  portion  of  them  are 
killed  when  very  young),  the  total  loss  would  be  $1,250,  and  the  poul- 
try killed  in  a  year  and  a  half  would  be  worth  $1,875.  Hence  it  appears 
that  during  the  past  eighteen  months  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  has 
expended  $90,000  to  save  its  farmers  a  loss  of  $1,875.  But  this  estimate 
by  no  means  represents  the  actual  loss  to  the  farmer  and  the  taxpayer 
of  the  State.  It  is  within  bounds  to  say  that  in  the  course  of  a  year 
every  Hawk  and  Owl  destroys  at  least  a  thousand  mice  or  their  equiva- 
lent in  insects,  and  that  each  mouse  or  its  equivalent  so  destroyed 
would  cause  the  loss  of  two  cents  per  annum.  Therefore,  omitting  all 
reference  to  the  enormous  increase  in  the  numbers  of  •  these  noxious 
animals  when  nature's  means  of  holding  them  in  check  has  been  removed, 
the  lowest  possible  estimate  of  the  value  to  the  farmer  of  each  Hawk, 
Owl,  and  weasel  would  be  $20  a  year,  or  $30  in  a  year  and  a  half. 

"Hence,  in  addition  to  the  $90,000  actually  expended  by  the  State 
in  destroying  128,571  of  its  benefactors,  it  has  incurred  a  loss  to  its 
agricultural  interests  of  at  least  $3,857,130,  or  a  total  loss  of  $3,947,130 
in  a  year  and  a  half,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  $2,631,420  per  annum.  In 
other  words,  the  State  has  thrown  away  $2,105  for  every  dollar  saved! 
And  even  this  does  not  represent  fairly  the  full  loss,  for  the  slaughter  of 
such  a  vast  number  of  predaceous  birds  and  mammals  is  almost  certain 
to  be  followed  by  a  correspondingly  enormous  increase  in  the  numbers 
of  mice  and  insects  formerly  held  in  check  by  them,  and  it  will  take  many 
years  to  restore  the  balance  thus  blindly  destroyed  through  ignorance 
of  the  economic  relations  of  our  common  birds  and  mammals." 

Birds  as  Scavengers. — Besides  destroying  various  species  of  insects 
inimical  to  the  health  of  the  human  race,  birds  further  increase  the 
healthfulness  of  the  world  by  acting  as  scavengers.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  overestimate  the  value  of  Buzzards,  Vultures,  and  other  offal- 
eating  birds  to  the  countries  in  which  they  live.  In  most  instances  the 
economic  importance  of  these  birds  is  too  obvious  to  be  overlooked,  and 
they  are,  therefore,  protected  by  law,  and  by  what  is  far  more  powerful 
than  law,  public  sentiment. 


102  BIRDS   AS  SCAVENGERS 

.-  In  ottt  southern  States  the  Turkey  'Buzzard'  and  Black  Vulture,  or 
'Carrion,  Crpw/  have  become  so  numerous  and  tame  as  a  result  of  the 
"  protepfcon-  there  given  t  them  that  they  walk  around  the  streets  of  the 
towns  and  cities  in  great  numbers,  and  with  no  more  evidence  of  fear 
than  is  shown  by  poultry.  Every  one  realizes  that  a  living  Buzzard  is 
of  infinitely  more  value  than  a  dead  one,  and  in  many  years7  experience 
in  the  South  I  have  never  seen  a  Buzzard  molested. 

The  value  of  Gulls  as  scavengers  was  forcibly  impressed  on  my  mind 
when,  some  years  ago,  I  visited  the  lower  harbor  of  New  York  Bay 
to  see  the  Gulls  which  were  attracted  by  the  scows  of  the  Street-clean- 
ing Department  of  New  York  City.  The  number  of  Gulls  present  on 
this  occasion  was  beyond  calculation,  but  certainly  exceeded  three 
hundred  thousand.  Before  the  scows  began  to  discharge  their  cargo 
most  of  the  birds  were  resting  on  the  water,  but  at  the  sound  of  the 
whistle  giving  the  signal  to  dump,  they  arose  in  clouds  and  clustered 
thickly  over  the  wake  of  each  of  the  eleven  scows  to  feed  on  the  vege- 
table and  animal  matter  thrown  overboard.  It  was  a  most  impressive 
object  lesson  in  the  economic  value  of  these  birds,  which  until  recently 
have  been  destroyed  in  enormous  numbers  for  millinery  purposes. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

How  may  a  bird's  local  or  seasonal  distribution  be  governed  by  the 
food  supply?  Give  instances.  Group  our  land  birds  under  general  headings 
according  to  the  nature  of  their  food.  How  is  the  nature  of  a  bird's  food 
determined?  Give  instances  illustrating  the  importance  of  field  observation; 
of  laboratory  examination.  To  what  extent  are  insects  believed  to  injure 
our  agricultural  and  forestry  interests  annually?  Give  definite  instances 
based  on  personal  observation  in  which  insectivorous  birds  were  seen  to 
destroy  injurious  insects.  How  may  birds  aid  in  preventing  disease? 
What  birds  are  known  to  feed  on  mosquitos?  Is  it  probable  that  agri- 
culture would  be  possible  without  the  service  rendered  by  birds?  Describe 
the  feeding  habits  of  aerial,  arboreal,  scansorial  and  terrestrial  insectivo- 
rous birds.  Is  the  food  of  young  birds  like  that  of  their  parents?  Why  are 
insectivorous  birds  particularly  valuable  in  the  winter?  Describe  the  value 
of  birds  as  weed-seed  eaters  and  give  statistics  of  their  destructive  powers. 
What  birds  are  the  natural  enemies  of  small  rodents?  Give  the  results 
of  stomach  analyses  of  various  species  of  Hawks  and  Owls  (see  body  of 
book).  Which  are  considered  beneficial?  Which  injurious?  What  birds 
are  known  to  act  as  scavengers? 

REFERENCES 

1880.  FORBES,  S.  A.,  The  Food  of  Birds,  Bull.  3,  Ills.  State  Lab.  Nat. 
Hist.,  pp.  80-149.  See  also  Bull.  6,  pp.  3-32. — 1883.  KING,  F.  H.,  Economic 
Relations  of  Wisconsin  Birds,  Geol.  Wise.,  I,  pp.  441-610. — 1886-1909. 
MERRIAM,  C.  HART,  Chief  and  others.  Reports  on  Investigations  of  the 
Biological  Survey  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Some  of  these  papers 
are  cited  here,  others  under  the  species  to  which  they  refer. — 1888.  WARREN, 
B.  H.,  Birds  of  Pennsylvania  with  Special  Reference  to  their  Food  Habits, 
266  pp. — 1889.  BARROWS,  W.  B.,  The  English  Sparrow  in  North  America, 
Bull.  No.  1,  Biol.  Surv.,  405  pp.— 1893.  FISHER,  A.  K.,  Hawks  and  Owls  of 
the  U.  S.  in  their  Relation  to  Agriculture,  209  pp. — 1895.  BARROWS,  W.  B., 
and  SCHWARZ,  E.  A.,  The  Common  Crow,  98  pp. — 1895.  FORBUSH,  E.  H., 


THE  ADULT  BIRD  103 

Birds  as  Protectors  of  Orchards,  Bull.  3,  Mass.  Board  Agric.,  pp.  20-32. — 
1895.  BEAL,  F.  E.  L.,  The  Food  of  Woodpeckers,  Bull.  7,  39  pp. — 1896. 
PALMER,  T.  S.,  Extermination  of  Noxious  Animals  by  Bounties,  Yearbook, 
U.  S.,  Dept.  Agr.,  pp.  55-68. — 1897.  BEAL,  F.  E.  L.,  Some  Common  Birds 
in  their  Relation  to  Agriculture,  Farmer's  Bull.,  No.  54,  40  pp. — 1898. 
FORBUSH,  E.  H.,  Nature's  Foresters,  Bull.  No.  1,  Mass.  Board  Agric.,  pp. 
27-40. — 1898.  PALMER,  T.  S.,  The  Danger  of  Introducing  Noxious  Animals 
.  and  Birds,  Yearbook,  pp.  87-110. — 1898.  NASH,  C.  W.,  Birds  of  Ontario  in 
Relation  to  Agric.,  Rep.  Farmer's  Inst.  Ont.,  Dept.  Agric.,  pp.  1-32. — 1898. 
JUDD,  S.  D.,  Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers,  Yearbook,  pp.  221-232. — 1899. 
PALMER,  T.  S.,  Review  of  Economic  Orn.  in  U.  S.,  Yearbook,  pp.  259-292. — 
1900.  BEAL,  F.  E.  L.,  How  Birds  Affect  the  Orchard,  Yearbook,  pp.  291- 
304. — 1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  The  Value  of  Birds  to  the  Commonwealth, 
Rep.  Board  Agric.  Conn.,  41  pp. — 1901.  BRUNER,  L.,  Birds  in  their  Rela- 
tion to  Agriculture,  Proc.  Neb.  Orn.  Union,  18-29. — 1901.  JUDD,  S.  D., 
Relation  of  Sparrows  to  Agriculture,  Bull.  15,  Biol.  Surv.,  98  pp. — 1902. 
JUDD,  SYLVESTER  D.,  Birds  of  a  Maryland  Farm,  Biol.  Surv.  Bull.  17,  116 
pp. — 1902.  FORBUSH,  E.  H.,  Two  Years  With  the  Birds  on  a  Farm, 
Mass.  State  Board  Agric.,  2nd.  Ed. — 1903.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  The  Economic 
Value  of  Birds  to  the  State,  Seventh  Rep.  N.  Y.  Forest,  Fish  and  Game 
Comm.,  66  pp.  With  bibliography. — 1903.  WEED,  C.  M.,  and  DEAR- 
BORN, NED,  Birds  in  Their  Relations  to  Man.  A  Manual  of  Economic 
Ornithology  for  the  U.  S.  and  Canada.  380  pp.  With  bibliography. — 1905. 
HENSHAW,  H.  W.,  Does  it  Pay  the  Farmer  to  Protect  Birds.  Yearbook, 
165-178. — 1906.  HOWELL,  A.  H.,  Birds  that  Eat  the  Cotton  Boll  Weevil,  Biol. 
Surv.  Bull.  25,  22  pp.;  Bull.  29,  30  pp.;  Circ.  64,  5  pp.— 1906.  McATEE,  W. 
L.,  Birds  that  Eat  Scale  Insects,  Yearbook,  pp.  189-198. — 1906.  BEAL,  F.  E. 
L.,  Birds  as  Conservators  of  the  Forests,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Forest,  Fish  and  Game 
Comm.,  1902,  3  pp.  235-274. — 1907.  FORBUSH,  E.  H.,  Useful  Birds  and  Their 
Protection,  Mass.  State  Board  Agric.,  437  pages.  Comprehensive. — 1907. 
HENSHAW,  H.  W.,  Value  of  Swallows  as  Insect  Destroyers,  Circ.  56,  Biol. 
Surv.,  4  pp. — 1907.  HENSHAW,  H.  W.,  Birds  Useful  in  the  War  Against 
the  Cotton  Boll  Weevil,  Circ.  57,  Biol.  Surv.,  4  pp. — 1908.  HENSHAW,  H. 
W.,  The  Policemen  of  the  Air,  Natl.  Geog.  Mag.,  pp.  79-118.— 1911.  BEAL, 
F.  E.  L.,  Food  of  the  Woodpeckers  of  the  United  States,  Bull.  37,  Biol. 
Surv.,  64  pp. 

GENERAL  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  ADULT  BIRD 

Habitat 

Habit  and  Structure 

The  Bill 

The  Wing 

The  Tail 

The  Feet 
The  Senses 
Intelligence 
Status  of  the  Species 

Having  devoted  the  larger  part  of  the  space  allotted  to  this  Intro- 
duction to  those  features  of  bird  study  in  nature  which  seem  most 
important  from  the  field  student's  point  of  view,  our  outline  of  a  bird's 
life  may  be  completed  by  briefly  calling  attention  to  certain  other 
subjects,  each  of  which  must  be  considered  if  we  would  approach  any- 
thing like  a  complete  local  biography  of  a  given  species. 

Habitat. — The  range  or  geographical  distribution  of  a  species  is 


104  HABIT  AND   STRUCTURE 

ascertained  only  by  compiling  the  data  of  many  workers,  but  its  local 
distribution,  or  habitat,  can  be  determined  by  a  single  observer.  Won- 
derful as  it  is  that  the  range  of  so  mobile  a  creature  as  a  bird  should 
have  more  or  less  well  denned  boundaries,  beyond  which  it  rarely 
advances,  even  more  remarkable  is  it  that  within  the  limits  of  this 
range  the  bird  often  should  have  still  more  sharply  marked  haunts. 
Thus,  shore,  salt  and  fresh  marshes,  meadow,  upland,  bush,  deciduous 
or  coniferous  forests,  all  have  birds  which,  when  nesting,  are  restricted 
to  them,  and  the  mapping  of  the  habitats  of  the  birds  in  one's  locality 
is  one  of  the  interesting  duties  of  the  local  ornithologist.  The  rarer 
birds  will  often  be  found  confined  to  certain  areas  where  perhaps  a 
small  colony  may  be  established,  and  one  should  note  whether  it  in- 
creases or  decreases  and  attempt  to  learn  the  reasons  for  its  success  or 
failure. 

Vegetation  as  it  influences  the  food-supply  or  offers  suitable  nesting 
sites,  will  be  found  to  be  the  chief  factor  in  controlling  the  distribution 
of  birds  locally;  and  it  is  important  to  record,  during  the  course  of 
years,  those  fluctuations  in  the  numbers  of  a  species  due  to  changes 
in  the  character  of  the  country  incident  to  man's  presence  as  he  fells 


FIG.  11.    Probelike  bill  of  Woodcock,  showing  extent  to  which  upper  mandible 
can  be  moved.     (One-half  natural  size.) 

forests,  drains  marshes,  permits  the  growth  of  scrub  on  fallow  land, 
introduces  new  types  or  sources  of  food,  furnishes  new  nesting-sites, 
etc.  (See,  especially,  the  Introduction  to  Brewster's  " Birds  of  the  Cam- 
bridge Region.") 

It  is  interesting,  too,  to  observe  the  distribution  of  a  bird  during  the 
day;  where  does  it  feed?  where  does  it  sleep?  does  it  have  regular  fly- 
ways  between  feeding-ground  and  roost? 

Habit  and  Structure. — The  relation  between  form  and  function  is 
in  most  cases  so  obvious  that  even  the  casual  observer  is  impressed  by 
the  admirable  adjustment  existing  between  a  bird's  habits  and  its 
structure.  The  subject  has  been  dealt  with  at  length  by  Headley, 
Beebe  and  others,  and  offers  far  less  opportunity  for  original  investi- 
gation by  the  local  student  than  is  found,  for  example,  in  a  study  of 
nesting  habits.  Nevertheless  he  should  learn  from  personal  observation, 
when  possible,  the  part  that  bill,  wings,  feet  and  tail  play  in  a  bird's  life. 

Uses  of  the  Bill — Birds'  bills  usually  take  the  form  of  forceps  or 
probes  rivaling  in  variety  of  shape  the  combined  outfits  of  the  sur- 


USES   OF   THE   WING 


105 


geon  and  dentist;  but  spears,  awls,  chisels,  picks,  hooks,  crackers, 
trowels,  needles,  scoops  and  strainers  are  also  represented  in  the  bird's 
equipment.  Primarily  these  instruments  or  weapons  are  designed  to 
secure  food  for  the  adult  and  to  feed  its  young,  but  the  bill  is  also  of 

service  in  preening, 
in  gathering  and 
placing  nesting  ma- 
terial or  excavating 
nesting  -  sites,  and 
as  a  weapon  of  at- 

FIG.  12.  Recurved  bill  of  Avocet.  (Two-thirds  natural  size.)     tfck   or   Defence   in 

the  usually  harmless 

struggles  of  birds.  Woodpeckers  use  it  as  a  drumstick.  Owls  rattle 
their  mandibles  threateningly,  and  Pelicans  snap  theirs  in  loud  defiance. 

With  some  birds,  the  bill  is  the  seat  of  some  special  growth  or  color 
during  the  breeding  season.  The  White  Pelican  then  wears  a  keel- 
like  knob  on  the  upper  mandible,  and  the  bills  of  Auks,  Puffins  and  some 
Ducks  are  brightly  colored  or  modified  in  form. 

Uses  of  the  Wing. — The  student  should  observe  the  relation  be- 
tween the  shape  of  a  bird's  wing  and  the  character  of  its  flight  and  the 
further  relation  between  the  manner  of  its  flight  and  its  general  habits. 


FIG.  13.    Long,  pointed  wing  and  small  foot    of  Tree  Swallow,  an 
aerial  bird.      (Natural  size.) 

Compare,  for  example,  the  wing  of  a  Turkey  Vulture  with  that  of  a 
Quail  or  Partridge;  one  aerial,  the  other  terrestrial  in  habit.  Note  the 
lengthened  flight-feathers  and  broad  expanse  of  the  Vulture's  wing, 
its  comparative  slowness  in  getting  under  way,  its  ability  to  soar 
indefinitely,  in  short,  to  remain  in  the  air  with  the  least  possible  expendi- 
ture of  effort;  while  the  rounded  wing  of  the  Quail,  although  incapable 
of  prolonged  flight  and  requiring  great  exertion  for  effective  use,  can 
nevertheless  be  employed  at  highest  speed  so  quickly  that  the  bird 
is  in  full  flight  almost  the  moment 
it  leaves  the  ground.  Continue 
the  comparison  through  your  list 
of  birds,  noting  not  only  the  power 
but  the  rhythm  of  the  wing-stroke, 
whether  it  be  regular  or  varied, 

Whether     the     flight    be    direct    Or         FlQ-  14-    Short,  rounded  wing  and  larg 
„„  j,,i    ,  •  .  ^  foot  of  Little  Black  Rail,  a  terrestrial  bird 

undulating,  etc.  (Natural  size.) 


106 


USES  OF  THE  WING 


Auks  and  other  members  of  their  family  fly  under  water  and  some 
Ducks  also  use  their  wings  when  diving,  while  the  true  Divers  use  both 
feet  and  wings.  (See  Townsend,  The  Auk,  and  "A  Labrador  Spring,"  pp. 
180-205.)  The  loss  by  molting,  depriving  birds  of  all  their  flight- 
feathers  at  the  same  time,  has  already  been  mentioned  (see  Molt), 


FIQ.  15.    Man-'o-war-bird;  a  species  in  which  the  wings  have  been  developed 
at  the  expense  of  the  feet. 

and  it  will  be  interesting  to  learn  whether  at  this  time  the  Auks  use  their 
feet  when  progressing  under  water  or  whether  a  wing  devoid  of  its 
quills  supplies  sufficient  power.  Young  birds  rest  upon  their  wings  as 
they  would  upon  fore-feet  and  in  some  instances  (e.  g.  Grebes  and  Galli- 
nules)  they  are  employed  in  climbing  about  among  reeds,  etc.,  or  with 
young  Herons,  among  branches.  Adult  Grebes  and  Loons,  like  the 
flightless  Penguins,  rely  on  their  wings  to  aid  them  when  on  land. 

The  whistling  or  humming  of  wings  may  be  the  accompaniment 
of  regular  flight,  as  with  the  Mourning  Dove,  certain  Ducks,  or  the 
Hummingbirds;  it  may  be  the  result  of  an  especial  evolution,  as  with 

the  swooping  Nighthawk,  or 
it  may  proceed  from  some 
special  structure,  as  with  the 
narrowed  outer  primaries  of 
the  Woodcock.  The  drum- 
ming of  Grouse  and  the 
'clapping'  of  Roosters,  before 
crowing,  are  further  illustra- 

FIQ.  16.    The  wing  as  a  musical  organ.    Wing     tions  of  the  US6  of  the  wing  as 
of  Woodcock,  showing  outer  attenuate  feathers     ^  musical  organ 
which  produce  the  'whistling'  sound  in  flight.  or^-       TT  •  ,•• 

Sitting  Hens  threaten  with 

their  wings,  Swans  and  Pigeons  strike  with  them,  Herons  use  the  wing 
as  a  shield,  altricial  birds  protect  their  young  from  sun  or  rain  by 
standing  over  them  with  spread  wings,  and  they  shelter  praecocial 
birds;  fledglings  flutter  the  wings  tremulously  when  begging  for  food. 

The  Tail. — A  bird's  tail  is  primarily  a  rudder.  Compare  the  direct 
line  of  flight  of  a  short-tailed  bird,  for  example,  a  Duck  or  Quail,  with 
the  darting,  erratic  movements  of  a  Tern  or  Barn  Swallow.  Soaring 
birds  spread  the  tail  as  an  additional  means  of  support  and  balance; 
and  when  spread  and  thrown  downward  and  forward  it  serves  as  a 
brake  for  the  bird  when  alighting. 


THE  TAII^-THE  FEET 


107 


With  Woodpeckers,  Creepers  and  Chimney  Swift  the  tail  is  modified 
for  use  as  a  prop. 

The  tail  is  exceedingly  variable  in  form  and  is  the  seat  of  many 
interesting  marks  and  colors  which  are  displayed  intentionally  or  when 


Fia.  17.    Tip  of  tail  of  (a)  Downy  Woodpecker  and  of  (6)  Brown  Creeper,  to  show  the 
pointed  shape  in  tails  of  climbing  birds  of  different  families.    (Natural  size.) 

the  bird  is  in  motion.  Turkeys,  Sage  Cocks,  Woodcock,  spread  the 
tail  when  strutting;  with  a  host  of  birds  white  on  the  outer  tail-feathers 
is  conspicuously  shown  in  flight  or  when  the  tail  is  nervously  'jetted' 
or  twitched  by  the  hopping  bird  (see  Color).  Some  birds  not  closely 
related  wag  the  tail  (e.  g.  Spotted  Sandpiper,  Water-Thrush,  Palm 
Warbler,  Pipit),  though  why 
they  should  so  do  does  not 
appear  to  be  known. 

The  Feet.— Birds'  feet  serve 
a  greater  variety  of  uses  than 
any  of  the  four  organs  whose 
uses  we  are  considering.  Pri- 
marily they  are  of  value  as  aids 
to  locomotion,  and  the  stu- 
dent should  first  note  their 
length  in  wading  birds  like 
Flamingoes,  Herons,  and  Stilts, 
and  the  relation  between  length 
of  foot  and  length  of  neck. 
Aside  from  its  length,  the  foot  is 
variously  modified  by  the  de- 
velopment of  webs  and  lobes 
and  lengthening  of  the  toes  and 
nails,  for  swimming,  running, 
hopping,  climbing  and  perch- 
ing. The  growth  in  the  fall  of 
horn-like  marginal  fringes  on 
the  toes  of  the  Ruffed  Grouse 
and  of  feathers  on  the  toes  of 
Ptarmigan,  presents  an  unusual 
case  of  seasonal  adaptation  in  FlQ<  18>  Flaming0)  showinTrelative  length 
structure.  of  legs  and  neck  in  a  wading  bird. 


108  THE  FEET 

In  short^ailed  birds  like  Murres,  the  feet,  when  extended  backward, 
act  as  rudders  in  flight.  It  may  be  added  that  all  the  Water-birds,  the 
Gallinae,  Columbae  and  Raptores,  carry  the  feet  extended  backward  in 
flight,  while  all  the  Passeres,  or  Perching  Birds,  carry  them  drawn  up 
forward.  In  the  intermediate  groups  (Cuckoos,  Trogons,  Wood- 
peckers, Swifts,  Hummingbirds  and  Parrots)  the  manner  in  which  the 


FIG.  19.   Toes  of  Ruffed  Grouse.    Naked  in  summer,  fringed  in  winter  to  serve  as 
snowshoes.    Illustrating  seasonal  adaptation  in  structure. 

feet  are  held  in  flight  does  not  appear  to  be  definitely  known,  though 
it  seems  probable  that  they  are  drawn  up  as  in  the  Passeres.  (See  Town- 
send,  "A  Labrador  Spring,"  pp.  180-205.) 

The  longer-winged  diving  birds,  like  Cormorants  and  Water-Tur- 
keys, use  only  the  feet  to  propel  them  when  under  water;  Grebes  and 
Loons  also  use  the  feet  for  a  similar  purpose,  and  to  a  lesser  extent 
the  wings. 

The  relation  between  the  two  organs  of  locomotion,  wings  and  feet, 
should  be  observed,  when  it  will  be  found 
that  when  the  former  are  greatly  developed  the 
feet  are  correspondingly  small  (e.  g.  Man-o'- 
war-bird;  Swallows),  while  when  the  feet  are 
large  the  wings  are  proportionately  short  and 
weak  (e.  g.  the  Rails  and  Gallinules). 

In  securing  food,  feet  are  of  service  in 
scratching  (e.  g.  Gallinse;  Fox  Sparrows),  while  in 
predaceous  birds  long,  recurved  talons  and  grasp- 
ing power  reach  their  maximum  among  birds. 

Parrots  use  the  foot  as  a  hand,  and  many 
birds  employ  it  to  gather  and  place  nesting 
material.    With  gallinaceous  birds,  particularly 
__  those  that  have  spurs,  the  foot  is  a  weapon.   In 

FIG.  20.  Foot  of  Osprey;    Herons  and  Goatsuckers,  the  middle-toe  has  a 
to   show    large,    apposed    lateral  terminal  comb  or  pectination  the  func- 

claws  and  spicules  on  under      ...  -      ,  .  ,    .          -. 

surface  of  toes.  tion  of  which  is  unknown. 


THE  SENSES 


109 


a.  b. 

FIG.  21.     Lobed  feet  (a)  Phalarope  and  (6)  Coot, 

swimming  birds  of  the  Snipe  and  Rail  families. 


It  should  be  repeated,  as  we  close  this  short  section  on  structure 
and  habit,  that  the  species  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  functions 
of  bill,  wings,  tail  and 
feet  have  been  restric- 
ted mainly  to  North 
American  birds,  in 
order  that  the  student 
may  verify,  by  per- 
sonal observation,  the 
close  relation  existing 
between  the  form  of 
an  organ  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is 
employed. 

The  Senses. —  In 
order  that  we  may 
more  nearly  take  the 
birds'  point  of  view 
and  appreciate  the  significance  of  their  actions,  it  is  essential  that  we 
should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  development  of  their  senses. 
Briefly,  it  is  believed  that  in  birds  the  senses  of  smell,  taste  and  touch 
are  inferior  to  our  own,  but  that  in  sight  and  hearing  they  are 
immeasurably  our  superiors. 

There  do  not  appear  to  be  on  record  any  well-defined  illustrations 
of  the  sense  of  smell  in  birds.  Vultures  are  believed  to  find  their  food 
by  the  exercise  of  sight  alone,  and  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  prob- 
ing birds  are  attracted  to  their  prey  by  its  scent. 

To  what  extent  birds  taste  their  food  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  deter- 
mine. That  certain  things  are  pleasant  and  others  disagreeable  will  be 
obvious  to  any  one  who  has  seen  a  bird  vigorously  wipe  its  bill  after 
attempting  to  eat  an  ill-tasting  bug;  but  it  is  also  clear  that  the  bird's 
standard  of  gustation  is  not  to  be  measured  by  our  own.  The  experi- 
ments of  Judd  (Am.  Nat.,  1899,  p.  474)  showed  that  many  insects, 
which  to  man  are  both  nauseating  and  foul-smelling,  arc  relished  by 
birds,  while  others  are  refused.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  bird's 
restricted  sense  of  smell  in  a  large  degree  limits  its  ability  to  detect  finer 
differences  in  taste. 

The  bird's  sense  of  touch  is  evidently  more  highly  developed  than 
either  the  sense  of  smell  or  that  of  taste.  It  is  seated  mainly  in  the  tip 
of  the  bill,  and  the  precision  and  delicacy  with  which  this  organ  is 
used  in  picking  up  the  smallest  seeds,  dislodging  insects,  their  eggs  and 
larvae  from  the  crevices  in  bark,  grasping  worms  or  grubs  out  of  sight 
in  the  ground,  or  catching  minute  forms  of  life  in  muddy  water,  demon- 
strates the  degree  of  ability  with  which  it  is  employed. 

When  we  reach  the  sense  of  hearing,  we  must  at  once  concede  that 
the  bird  is  so  far  beyond  us  that  we  probably  do  not  fully  realize  the 
extent  of  its  powers.  A  Barred  Owl,  which  alighted  with  his  back  toward 


110  THE  SENSES 

me,  at  a  distance  of  about  fifty  yards,  turned  his  head  instantly  in  response 
to  the  slightest  'squeak'  made  to  test  its  hearing.  The  same  sound 
will  often  turn  a  passing  Hawk  when  he  might  be  thought  to  be  beyond 
its  reach.  The  snapping  of  the  smallest  twig  throws  a  whole  Heron 
colony  into  wildest  commotion.  Woodpeckers  locate  the  grubs  of 
boring  beetles,  and  Robins  apparently  listen  for  crawling  worms. 

That  birds  not  only  have  incredibly  acute  hearing,  but  can  also 
distinguish  minor  differences  in  sound,  is  implied  by  the  wide  range 
of  sounds  which  birds  themselves  produce  and  which,  in  the  economy 
of  their  lives,  are  obviously  not  intended  to  fall  on  deaf  or  inappre- 
ciative  ears;  as  other  writers  have  before  remarked. 

A  colony  of  Roseate  Spoonbills  which  I  have  lately  studied  from  a 
blind,  were  not  alarmed  by  various  noises  made  in  manipulating  a 
camera,  but  at  a  single  word,  spoken  in  a  low  voice,  every  bird  sprang 
into  the  air. 

White  Egrets,  in  Florida,  have  acquired  so  great  a  fear  of  a  gun  that 
the  birds  of  a  rookery  in  which  my  blind  was  placed  left  their  nests 
with  a  rush  at  the  faint  report  of  a  gun  fired  by  a  guide  a  mile  and  a 
half  away. 

Crows  immediately  respond  to  an  imitation  of  the  call  of  the  Barred 
Owl,  and  though  this  may  be  uttered  but  once,  they  come  from  some 
distance  directly  to  the  spot  whence  the  hoot  proceeded. 

In  default  of  definite  experiments,  it  is  on  casual  observations  of  this 
nature  that  our  knowledge  of  the  comparative  power  of  a  bird's  hearing  is 
based.  There  is  much  need  for  further  data  here. 

With  eyes,  the  relation  between  cause  and  action  is  more  apparent, 
and  without  knowing  exactly  how  well  a  bird  can  see,  we  have  at  least 
seen  enough  to  be  impressed  by  its  marvelous  power  of  vision.  Recall 
a  quietly  observant  Loggerhead  Shrike  leaving  its  lookout  and  flying 
so  directly  to  a  grasshopper  in  the  grass  a  hundred  feet  away,  that  it  is 
clear  the  insect  was  seen  before  starting;  or  again,  Gulls  and  Petrels 
picking  up  small  bits  of  food  from  waves  so  boisterous  that  a  man 
would  be  lost  to  sight  in  them.  "Observe,"  says  Coues  ('Key,'  5th  Ed., 
p.  185),  "an  Eagle  soaring  aloft  until  he  seems  to  us  but  a  speck  in 
the  blue  expanse.  He  is  far-sighted;  and  scanning  the  earth  below, 
descries  an  object  much  smaller  than  himself,  which  would  be  in- 
visible to  us  at  that  distance.  He  prepares  to  pounce  upon  his  quarry; 
in  the  moment  required  for  the  deadly  plunge,  he  becomes  near-sighted, 
sHzes  his  victim  with  unerring  aim,  and  sees  well  how  to  complete  the 
bloody  work  begun.  A  Hummingbird  darts  so  quickly  that  our  eyes 
cannot  follow  him,  yet  instantaneously  settles  as  light  as  a  feather 
upon  a  tiny  twig.  How  far  off  it  was,  when  first  perceived,  we  do  not 
know;  but  in  the  intervening  fraction  of  a  second  the  twig  has  rushed 
into  the  focus  of  distinct  vision,  from  many  yards  away.  A  Woodcock 
tears  through  the  thickest  cover  as  if  it  were  clear  space,  avoiding 
every  obstacle.  The  only  things  to  the  accurate  perception  of  which 
birds'  eyes  appear  not  to  have  accommodated  themselves  are  tele- 


INTELLIGENCE  111 

graph  wires  and  lighthouses;  thousands  of  birds  are  annually  hurled 
against  these  objects  to  their  destruction." 

A  probable  sense  of  direction  has  already  been  considered  in  the 
chapter  on  'Migration/ 

Intelligence. — It  is  the  human  side  of  bird-life  which  in  recent  years 
has  most  attracted  bird  students  and  has  been  most  emphasized  by 
popular  writers.  With  the  bird's  already  pronounced  human-like 
traits  to  build  on,  it  has  required  only  imagination,  unrestrained  by 
scientific  method  or  analysis,  to  make  of  the  bird  a  creature  of  marvel- 
ous mental  endowment,  whose  reasoning  powers,  within  the  limits  of 
its  normal  activities,  are  equal  if  not  superior  to  those  of  man. 

Such  treatment  finds  favor  with  those  whose  love  of  birds  exceeds 
their  knowledge  of  ornithology,  but  it  is  strongly  resented  by  others 
who,  yielding  nothing  in  their  appreciation  of  the  birds'  claims  to  our 
attention,  would  still  have  them  regarded  as  birds  rather  than  as  feath- 
ered human  beings.  But  in  attempting  to  administer  a  corrective,  the 
critics  of  the  ultra-human  point  of  view  have  given  an  overdose.  They 
not  only  deny  the  bird  ability  to  reason,  but  assert  that  all  its  mental 
activities  are  wholly  instinctive;  in  short,  that  the  bird  is  a  feathered 
automaton. 

It  is  not  possible  here  to  discuss  this  question  in  the  light  of  all  the 
available  evidence,  but  only  to  record  my  own  views  as  they  are  based 
mainly  on  personal  observations.  These  lead  me  to  believe  that  neither 
point  of  view  is  wholly  right  nor  wholly  wrong;  in  other  words,  that 
there  is  a  measure  of  truth  in  both  contentions.  In  each  case,  however, 
it  would  appear  that  a  fundamental  error  is  made  in  speaking  of  the 
"mind  of  birds"  collectively,  or  as  a  unit.  We  would  not  attempt  thus 
to  consider  the  mind  of  mammals,  and  while  there  is  not,  it  is  true,  so 
wide  a  range  of  mental  development  in  birds  as  there  is  in  mammals, 
the  difference  between  the  least  intelligent  and  the  most  intelligent 
is  far  too  great  for  us  to  discuss  the  mind  of  the  Class  Aves  without 
distinction  as  to  species  and  even  individuals. 

For  example,  a  prolonged,  intimate  study  of  Pelicans  seems  to  em- 
phasize the  low  order  of  their  intelligence.  Perfectly  as  they  are  adapted 
to  their  own  environment,  they  exhibit,  when  confronted  by  new  con- 
ditions, what,  judged  by  human  standards,  can  only  be  called  stupidity. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Blue  Jays,  Crows,  Jackdaws,  and  others  of 
their  near  kin,  often  exhibit  so  high  a  degree  of  intelligence  that  the 
bird-lover,  unmindful  of  exact  definitions,  is  tempted  to  assert  that 
they  show  ability  to  reason. 

The  Herons  of  Cuthbert  Rookery  were  alarmed  into  hurried  flight 
by  the  firing  of  a  gun  a  mile  and  a  half  away,  but  the  Crows  which  were 
with  them  paid  no  attention  to  the  report.  The  Herons'  experience 
with  firearms  has  developed  an  unreasoning  fear,  while  Crows  show 
the  nicest  judgment  in  estimating  the  range  of  a  gun. 

The  Herons  of  this  rookery  permitted  the  Crows  to  rob  them  of  their 
eggs  by  the  hundred  without  the  slightest  indication  of  protest  or 


112  INTELLIGENCE 

resentment,  but  Kingbirds  attack  every  Crow  which  ventures  near  their 
nest,  often  pursuing  them  for  several  hundred  yards. 

Similar  instances,  illustrating  the  wide  range  of  intelligence  among 
birds  of  different  species,  might  be  multiplied  endlessly,  but  any  consider- 
ation of  the  subject  renders  this  variation  so  evident  that  it  is  assuredly 
unnecessary  to  present  further  proof. 

Variation  in  intelligence  is  not  confined  to  these  differences  between 
species,  but  within  narrower  limits  is  shown  by  the  individual.  To  those 
who  study  birds  as  individuals  rather  than  as  species,  this  statement 
will  seem  superfluous,  but  advocates  of  automatic  bird-life  would  have 
us  believe  that,  in  the  same  species,  one  bird  is  essentially  the  duplicate 
of  another.  Birds  which  nest,  closely  associated  in  colonies,  where  a 
certain  standard  of  behavior  is  developed  by  similarity  of  environment 
and  imitation,  show  less  individuality  than  those  species  of  more  sol- 
itary habits ;  but  it  requires  only  intimate  experience  with  representatives 
of  either  class  to  convince  one  that  pronounced  characteristics  are  often 
shown  by  certain  individuals,  and  indeed  one  rarely  finds  in  the  latter 
group  two  birds  which  act  exactly  alike.  It  is  the  range  of  intelligence 
among  the  individuals  which,  in  the  end,  determines  the  degree  of 
success  of  the  species.  It  is  among  the  Passerine  birds  that  we  shall  find 
birds  possessing  the  highest  intelligence,  and  the  Passeres  are  the  birds 
of  the  day,  the  dominant  group  in  the  Class  Aves,  outnumbering  the 
members  of  all  other  orders  combined. 

Admitting  then  that  some  species  of  birds  exhibit  barely  a  glimmer 
of  intelligence,  and  are  indeed  very  near  to  being  feathered  automata, 
are  there  not  at  the  other  end  of  the  scale  birds  which  possess  the  power 
to  reason? 

By  reason,  accepting  Lloyd  Morgan's  definition,  is  meant  the  "pro- 
cess of  drawing  a  logical  inference,"  the  ability  "to  think  the  therefore" 
We  can  of  course  determine  the  bird's  mental  status  only  on  the  basis 
of  its  actions.  Birds'  notes,  so  far  as  we  understand  them,  express  only 
primary  emotions.  If  birds  then  can  draw  an  inference,  we  can  be 
aware  of  it  only  through  its  effect  on  their  behavior.  Those  direct 
responses  to  conditions  which  lead  to  change  of  action,  or  of  habit, 
as  where  a  bird  becomes  shy  through  persecution  or  tame  through  pro- 
tection, are  nofyto  be  attributed  to  reason,  as  the  term  is  here  used,  but 
are  unreasoning  exhibitions  prompted  by  sense  associations  which 
occasion  no  sequence  of  thought  on  the  part  of  the  bird,  no  drawing  of 
conclusions  or  performance  of  acts  made  with  such  indubitable  reference 
to  other  following,  dependent  acts,  that  it  is  evident  the  latter  were  con- 
ceived of  as  the  logical  consequence  of  the  former.  The  bird,  with  truly 
wonderful  quickness,  learns  to  associate  a  certain  thing  with  danger, 
another  thing  with  safety.  The  Pelicans  of  Pelican  Island,  Florida, 
for  the  first  time  in  their  known  history,  failed  to  return  to  their  island 
because  a  sign  had  been  erected  on  it.  This  illustrates  the  keenness  of 
the  birds'  perception,  but  it  also  demonstrates  their  inability  to  infer 
that  a  piece  of  board  was  harmless. 


STATUS  OF  THE  SPECIES  113 

A  pair  of  Blue  Jays,  after  an  absence  of  nearly  two  hours,  imme- 
diately returned  to  their  nest  and  fed  their  young,  their  suspicions  com- 
pletely allayed  by  the  presence  of  a  mounted  Jay  in  the  nest  tree.  •  Here 
was  a  response  so  quick  and  satisfactory  that  it  might  be  considered 
evidence  of  the  bird's  ability  to  draw  an  inference,  but  the  bird's  failure 
to  distinguish  a  poorly  mounted,  discarded  museum  specimen  of  its 
own  kind,  and  later  of  an  Owl,  from  the  living  bird,  indicates  its  inabil- 
ity to  reason.  (See  "Camps  and  Cruises,"  pp.  5-14.) 

Using  the  word  reason,  therefore,  as  psychologists  commonly  define 
it,  I  may  say  at  once  that  I  have  seen  no  conclusive  evidence  of  reason- 
ing power  in  my  study  of  birds.  But  in  place  of  this  characteristic 
of  the  human  mind,  one  finds  in  birds,  certain  other  senses  and  faculties 
so  much  more  highly  developed  than  they  are  in  man  that  we  doubt- 
less have  but  a  faint  conception  of  their  value.  Birds  exhibit  a  truly 
surprising  power  of  memory — implying  aleo  association  of  experiences 
— while  in  their  hearing,  sight,  and  probable  sense  of  direction,  they 
are  incomparably  our  superiors.  In  my  judgment,  then,  it  is  to  the 
keenness  of  these  powers  rather  than  to  an  alleged  gift  of  reason  that 
the  bird  owes  its  success  in  life.  Before  their  manifestation,  reason, 
following  the  slower  channels  of  logical  inference,  may  often  well  stand 
aghast.  What  form  of  reason  would  lead  a  bird  night  after  night  on  a 
journey  of  thousands  of  miles  with  such  nice  precision  of  movement 
that  the  goal  is  reached  on  a  certain  day?  For  men,  with  only  the  bird's 
physical  equipment,  the  feat  would  be  impossible. 

In  thus  denying  the  bird's  power  to  reason,  we  add  rather  tjhan 
detract  from  the  interest  with  which  we  study  the  evidences  of  its  own 
peculiar  and  remarkable  gifts;  and  our  interest  is  intensified  by  the 
wide  range  of  variation  in  the  mental  development  among  individuals 
as  well  as  groups,  which  often  renders  it  uncertain  just  what  response 
will  follow  a  certain  stimulus. 

Nor,  in  denying  the  birds  close  association  with  us  on  the  higher 
planes  of  intelligence,  should  we  lose  our  feeling  of  kinship  with  them. 
We  have  distanced  them  in  the  race  of  mental  development;  but  that 
should  not  render  us  any  the  less  eager  to  discover  in  some  of  their 
traits  those  which  characterized  the  childhood  of  our  race. 

Status  of  the  Species. — The  measure  of  a  bird's  success  in  life  is 
determined  not  alone  by  its  powers  as  a  migrant  (if  it  be  migratory); 
its  attractiveness  when  wooing  a  mate;  its  skill  as  a  nest-builder;  its 
devotion  and  courage  as  a  parent ;  the  nature  of  its  physical  and  mental 
endowment,  or  the  degree  of  its  intelligence,  but  also  by  the  extent  of 
its  adaptability  and  the  character  of  its  temperament.  When,  there- 
fore, we  ask  why  some  birds  are  abundant  and  others  rare,  all  these 
factors  are  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  all  the  conditions  under 
which  the  bird  lives;  and  to  do  this  with  due  attention  to  the  many 
influences  involved,  is  one  of  the  ultimate  objects  of  the  study  of  orni- 
thology; for,  to  determine  the  causes  of  the  success  and  failure  of  life 
is  second  only  to  determining  the  origin  of  life  itself. 


114  STATUS   OF  THE  SPECIES 

Species  which  are  the  direct  object  of  man's  unbridled  greed,  must 
succumb  to  an  enemy  before  which  neither  swiftness  of  flight  nor  exces- 
sive wariness  avail.  Thus  the  Wild  Pigeon  and  White  Egrets,  however 
well  they  were  fitted  to  contend  with  nature,  could  not  escape  man. 

But  when  man  enters  the  bird's  life  only  indirectly,  altering  its 
environment  without  actually  killing  the  bird  itself,  the  species  in 
undiminished  numbers  is  left  to  face  the  problem;  and  its  ability  to 
adjust  itself  to  new  conditions  is  now  put  to  a  vital  and  immediate  test. 

The  Pileated  and  Ivory-billed  Woodpeckers  have  decreased  with 
the  forests;  but  the  Crow  and  the  Robin,  both  naturally  forest-inhabit- 
ing species,  have  more  than  held  their  own.  Both,  in  different  ways, 
have  adapted  themselves  to  the  new  order  of  things;  the  Crow  meets  the 
distinctly  hostile  if  not  actively  aggressive  attitude  of  man  by  wariness 
and  more  than  average  intelligence;  the  Robin,  through  its  fearless- 
ness, has  won  man's  friendship  and  protection.  Near  his  dwellings  its 
natural  enemies  have  been  reduced  in  number,  and  the  normal  food 
supply  greatly  augmented  by  fruits  of  various  kinds,  a  more  accessible 
supply  of  worms  on  close-cropped  lawns,  and  various  insects  which 
also  thrive  on  man's  bounty. 

The  introduction  into  this  country  of  the  House  or  English  Sparrow 
has,  from  a  biological  point  of  view,  been  an  overwhelming  success. 
Not  only  did  the  bird  fill  an  unoccupied  place  in  our  cities,  but  when 
brought  into  competition  with  native  species,  its  hardiness,  general 
adaptability,  pugnacity  and  continuous  presence  have  all  been  in  its 
favor.  When  the  migratory  Bluebirds  or  Purple  Martins  returned,  they 
often  found  the  Sparrows  in  possession  of  their  nesting-boxes,  and  the 
decrease  in  the  numbers  of  both  these  species  is  unquestionably  to  be 
attributed  to  their  inability  to  compete  with  the  Sparrow. 

In  the  changes  wrought  by  man,  directly  or  indirectly,  we  may 
find  many  similar  illustrations  of  sudden  alterations  in  the  bird's 
environment,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  met  demonstrates  what 
is  meant  by  adaptability.  In  nature,  equally  great  changes  may  occur, 
but  they  take  place  more  slowly,  and  the  adjustment  between  them  and 
the  bird,  while  not  the  less  essential,  is  not  so  severe  and  sudden  a  tax 
on  the  bird's  resources. 

But  aside  from  these  external  influences,  which  may  remain  un- 
changed and  hence  inactive  for  long  periods  of  time,  there  are  certain 
internal  influences  which  are  constantly  potent.  Chief  among  these  is 
temperament  as  it  is  expressed  in  sociability  or  desire  for  solitude.  It 
is  obvious  that  only  birds  of  social,  or  at  least  peaceable,  disposition 
could  live  in  such  close  juxtaposition  as  do  colonial  birds,  like  Gannets, 
Murres,  Flamingoes,  Cliff  Swallows  and  many  others,  where  nests  or 
nesting  birds  almost  touch  one  another.  Such  social  species  are  usually 
represented  by  numerous  individuals,  while  on  the  other  hand  the 
relative  abundance  of  solitary  species  is  related  to  the  extent  of  the 
area  over  which  they  claim  guardianship  while  nesting,  to  the  exclusion 
only  of  other  birds  of  their  own  kind.  Hence,  Hawks  and  Owls,  for 


STATUS  OF  THE  SPECIES  115 

example,  which  resent  the  intrusion  of  other  individuals  of  the  species 
into  their  nesting  area,  are  comparatively  rare;  while  Robins  and  Chip- 
ping Sparrows,  which,  though  not  colonial,  often  nest  near  others  of 
their  kind,  are  comparatively  abundant.  The  abundance  of  a  species 
is,  therefore,  doubtless  more  dependent  upon  the  number  of  nests 
which,  under  favorable  conditions  of  environment,  constitute  the  normal 
number  for  a  given  area,  than  upon  the  supply  of  food  in  that  area. 

On  this  subject,  Brewster  ("Birds  of  the  Cambridge  Region,"  pp.  62, 
63)  remarks,  "In  my  opinion  the  desire  for  exclusive  possession  so  con- 
spicuously shown  by  the  male,  and  often  by  him  alone,  is  usually 
fche  direct  result  of  sexual  jealousy.  This,  as  is  natural,  makes  him  intol- 
erant, during  the  breeding  season,  of  the  near  presence  of  rival  males. 
If  his  concern  were  chiefly  in  respect  to  the  food  supply,  it  would  be 
equally  manifested  at  every  season  and  towards  all  birds  who  subsist 
on  the  same  food  that  he  and  his  mate  require,  which  is  certainly  not 
the  case." 

When  in  possession  of  all  the  essential  facts,  we  may,  therefore, 
in  many  instances,  present  more  or  less  conclusive  reasons  for  the 
success  or  failure  of  a  species;  but  there  will  remain  many  others  which 
are  apparently  inexplicable.  Species  will  be  observed,  practically  alike 
in  structure  and  habits,  some  of  which  in  incalculable  numbers  flood 
the  land,  while  others  are  represented  by  but  a  few  individuals  scattered 
here  and  there  in  small  colonies  or  concentrated  in  a  narrow  area. 

All  other  explanations  failing,  such  cases  tempt  the  belief  that 
species  as  well  as  individuals  have  a  life,  that  some  full  of  the  vigor 
of  youth  are  advancing,  while  others  past  their  prime  are  declining; 
that  some  in  short  are  dominant,  and  others  decadent.  Dominant 
species  are  possessed  of  the  vitality  which  admits  of  adaptiveness  and 
power  to  overcome  unfavorable  conditions  to  which  decadent  species 
would  succumb. 

Thus  we  may  think  of  a  dominant  species  as  an  expansive  force 
which  is  preeminently  fitted  to  fill,  with  the  utmost  precision  of  ad- 
justment, its  own  place  in  nature,  and  is  also  constantly  pressing  against 
all  the  governing  influences  which  go  to  make  up  its  environment,  to 
increase  its  number  and  extend  its  range.  Up  to  a  certain  point  it  meets 
a  degree  of  success  in  proportion  to  its  mental  and  physical  endowment; 
beyond  that  it  advances  or  retreats  only  after  a  struggle. 

In  February,  1895,  the  South  Atlantic  States  were  visited  by  a 
blizzard  which  practically  annihilated  the  Bluebirds  wintering  or  resi- 
dent in  them,  and  the  following  spring  the  species  was  absent  from  large 
areas,  where  the  preceding  year  it  had  been  common.  The  loss  of  a 
beautiful  bird,  so  intimately  associated  with  man,  was  deplored  as 
irreparable,  but  within  three  years  the  species  was  as  abundant  as 
ever,  so  quickly  did  the  expansive  force  of  the  species  bring  it  to  the 
limit  where  contact  with  environment  checks  further  advance. 

Less  evident,  but  in  the  end  of  greater  significance,  is  the  Bluebird's 
struggles  with  the  English  Sparrow  and  the  European  Starling,  both 
10 


116         SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

growing,  expansive  species.  The  conflict  is  not  over  food,  for  all  the 
species  are  of  different  feeding  habits,  but  over  the  nesting-site.  We 
cannot  imagine  that  the  Bluebird  will,  even  through  force  of  circum- 
stances, exhibit  the  Sparrow's  adaptability,  and,  in  default  of  a  normal 
site,  build  in  branches,  vines,  electric  light  hoods — in  short,  any  place 
which  will  hold  nest-material — nor  has  it  strength  to  compete  success- 
fully with  the  Starling. 

Let  us,  therefore,  join  forces  with  this  gen  tie- voiced  messenger  of 
sky  and  earth,  by  providing  it  with  suitable  homes  in  which  these  ene- 
mies, for  whose  presence  we  are  responsible,  shall  not  be  permitted  to 
abide. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDENT 

Habitat. — Define  the  difference  between  'Range'  and  'Habitat.'  Describe 
the  habitat  of  a  given  species.  What  are  the  more  important  factors  in 
determining  the  nature  of  a  bird's  habitat?  Can  you  mention  an  instance 
where  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  habitat  has  been  followed  by  a  change 
in  the  character  of  the  bird-life?  Give  instances  of  daily  change  in  habitat. 

Habit  and  Structure. — Name  the  principal  functions  of  the  bill,  and 

g've  illustrations  of  each.  Describe  the  feeding  habits  of  Woodpeckers,  of 
awks,  of  the  Woodcock,  of  Flycatchers,  of  Sparrows  in  relation  to  the 
character  of  their  bill.  What  birds  use  the  bill  when  climbing?  In  what  birds 
is  the  bill  adorned  by  bright  colors  or  appendages  in  the  breeding  season? 
Name  the  functions  of  the  wing.  Describe  the  flight  of  Ducks,  Quail, 
Hawks,  Vultures,  Woodpeckers,  Purple  Finches,  Swallows,  etc.  Describe 
the  relation  between  the  shape  of  their  wings  and  their  manner  of  flight. 
What  relation  exists  between  the  size  of  the  wing  and  foot?  What  North 
American  bird  was  flightless?  What  North  American  birds  use  their  wings 
as  muscial  instruments?  Which  use  them  under  water?  How  are  they  used 
in  defence?  Describe  their  use  in  sheltering  the  young. 

Name  the  functions  of  the  tail.  Which  of  our  birds  use  it  in  display? 
Which  as  a  prop?  Describe  its  relation  to  manner  of  flight. 

What  are  the  functions  of  the  feet?  Describe  the  various  means  of 
locomotion  employed  by  birds.  What  birds  use  only  the  feet  under  water? 
In  what  way  is  a  Coot's  (Fulica)  adapted  to  its  wants?  Why  is  a  Phal- 
arope's  foot  webbed?  In  what  birds  does  the  structure  of  the  foot  change 
with  season?  How  is  the  foot  held  in  flight  by  various  birds?  What  is  the 
relation  of  length  of  foot  to  length  of  neck?  (There  is  almost  no  limit  to 
the  questions  which  may  be  asked  in  regard  to  the  form  and  function  of 
birds,  and  the  student  is  urged  to  draw  largely  on  local  material  to  stimu- 
late his  powers  of  observation  in  this  direction.) 

The  Senses. — How  do  the  senses  of  birds  compare  with  those  of  man? 
Is  the  sense  of  smell  well  developed  in  birds?  Can  you  mention  any  in- 
stances illustrating  the  bird's  power  of  taste?  Its  powers  of  touch?  Is  the 
power  of  hearing  well  developed  in  birds?  Mention  several  instances.  Do 
birds  learn  quickly  the  significance  of  certain  sounds?  Mention  several 
instances  illustrating  the  bird's  power  of  sight.  Define  what  is  meant  by 
intelligence  in  birds.  Are  some  species  more  intelligent  than  others?  What 
is  the  difference  between  intelligence  and  reason?  What  is  Lloyd  Morgan's 
definition  of  "reason"?  Have  you  found  any  evidence  illustrating  the  bird's 
ability  to  reason?  Why  is  it  desirable  to  base  stories  of  bird-life  presented 
as  "true"  on  known  facts  in  their  habits? 

Status  of  the  Species. — What  are  the  most  important  factors  in  de- 
termining whether  a  bird  is  rare  or  common?  How  may  man  directly  or 
indirectly  affect  the  members  of  a  species?  Give  illustrations.  Why  does 
the  English  Sparrow  present  an  interesting  biological  problem?  How  may 


REFERENCES  117 

a  bird's  temperament  affect  its  numbers?  Give  illustrations.  When  were 
Bluebirds  destroyed  by  a,  blizzard?  How  long  before  their  numbers  reached 
normal?  What  is  the  probable  reason  of  their  sudden  increase? 

REFERENCES 

1883.  MARTIN  and  MOALE,  How  to  Dissect  a  Bird  (Macmillan). — 1884. 
COUES,  E.,  Key  to  North  American  Birds  (Dana  Estes)  rev.  ed.  1902,  Vol. 
I,  pp.  59-233  (important). — 1893-1896.  NEWTON,  A.  and  others,  A  Diction- 
ary of  Birds,  1  vol.,  1088  pp.  (Macmillan). — 1894.  MORGAN,  C.  L.,  An 
Introduction  to  Comparative  Psychology,  12mo.,  382  pp.  (Scribner's). — 
1895.  HEADLEY,  F.  W.,  The  Structure  and  Life  of  Birds,  12mo.  412  pp., 
ills.  (Macmillan). — 1898.  BEDDARD,  F.  E.,  Structure  and  Classification  of 
Birds,  8vo.,  548  pp.,  ills.  (Longmans). — 1897.  BASKET,  J.  N.,  The  Story 
of  the  Birds,  12mo.,  263  pp.,  ills.  (Appleton). — 1906.  BEEBE,  C.  W., 
The  Bird.  Its  Form  and  Function,  8vo.,  496  pp.,  ills.  (Holt). — 1910. 
PYCRAFT,  W.  P.,  A  History  of  Birds,  8vo.,  458  pp.,  ills.  (Methuen,  London) 
— 1910.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Instinct  and  Intelligence  in  Birds,  Pop.  Sci. 
Monthly,  June,  July,  and  August. — 1911.  Various  Authors,  Journ.  of 
Animal  Behavior  (Holt). 


THE  BIRDS   OF   NORTH   AMERICA 
EAST   OF   THE   NINETIETH   MERIDIAN 

KEY  TO  ORDERS  AND  FAMILIES 
1.  THE   WATER   BIRDS 


FIQ.  22. 

Order  I.  Pygopodes. — GREBES,  LOONS,  and  AUKS. 

Ducklike  birds,  but  with  the  bill  usually  pointed,  never  feathered  and 
wider  than  high;  never  with  flu  tings,  'gutters,'  or  serrations  on  its 
sides;  wings  short,  never  with  a  bright-colored  patch  or  speculum; 
tail  insignificant;  feet  placed  far  back  (most  species,  when  standing, 
usually  rest  on  their  entire  length,  thus  including  the  tarsus) ;  tarsus 
flattened  to  present  least  resistance  when  swimming;  toes  webbed  or 
lobed.  Color,  usually  blackish  above,  white  below,  the  throat  often  dark. 
Grebes  and  Loons,  when  pursued,  usually  dive ;  Auks  generally  fly. 

A.  Toes  four,  nail  fla    or  rounded. 

a.  Toes  with  lobate  webs;  tail    absent.     (Fig.   22,  a  ) 

.  .  .  Family  Colymbidce:  GREBES,  p.  138. 

b.  Toes  webbed,  tail  present.    (Fig.  22,  b.) 

Family  Gaviidae:  LOONS,  p.  142. 

B.  Toes  three,  webbed,  nails  sharply  pointed ;  tail  present. 

(Fig.  22,  c).  .  .  .  Family  Alcidce:  AUKS,  MURRES, 
and  PUFFINS,  p.  145. 

X 


Order   II.    Longipennes.  —  JAEGERS,    GULLS, 

and  TERNS. 

Birds  generally  seen  on  the  wing,  usually 
over  or  near  water.  Bill  strong,  thick; 
hooked  in  the  Gulls  and  Jaegers,  sharply 
pointed  in  the  Terns;  bladelike  in  the  Skim- 
mers; often  in  part  yellow  or  red;  wings 

(118) 


FIG.  23. 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


119 


very  long  and  pointed,   the  outer  feathers  being  much  the  longest; 
toes  webbed.     Adult  Gulls  and  Terns  are  usually  pearl-gray  above, 
white  below ;  Jaegers  and  most  young  Gulls  are  dark. 
A.  Bill  hooked  and  hawklike. 

a.  Bill  with  a  naillike  hook,  its  base  with  a  scaly  shield;  plumage 
dark;  central  tail-feathers  longest.  (Fig.  23,  a).  .  .  .  Family 
Stercorariidce:  SKUAS  and  JAEGERS,  p.  150. 

6.  Hook  continuous  with  bill,  no  scaly  shield,  tail-feathers  usually 
of  about  equal  length  (Fig.  23,  6)  ....  Subfamily  Larince: 
GULLS,  p.  152. 


Fio.24. 


FIG.  25. 


B.  Bill  not  hooked. 

a.  Bill  straight,  usually  slender  and  sharply  pointed;  tail  usually 

more  or  less  forked.  .  .  .  Subfamily  Sternina:  TERNS  (Fig.  24), 

p.  162. 
6.  Bill   thin  and   bladelike,  the  lower  mandible  longer  than  the 

upper  (Fig.  25).  .  .  .  Family  Rynchopidce:  SKIMMERS,  p.  172. 


FIG.  26. 

Order  III.    Tubinares. — ALBATROSSES,  PETRELS,  and  FULMARS. 

Gray,  sooty,  or  black  and  white  sea-birds;  living,  except  when  nesting, 
well  off  shore;  flying  low,  often  skimming  the  waves.  Nostril-openings 
tubelike;  bill  hawklike,  its  'hook'  often  prominent;  front-toes  webbed, 
hind-toe  small  or  absent ;  wings  long  and  pointed ;  tail  short. 

A.  Size  very  large,  nostril-tubes  separated,  on  sides  of  bill  (Fig.  26,  a). 

.  .  .  Family  Diomedeidce:  ALBATROSSES,  p.  172. 

B.  Size  smaller,  nostril-tubes  joined  on  top  of  bill  (Fig.  26,  6).  ... 

Family  Procellariidce:  PETRELS,  FULMARS,  SHEARWATERS,  p.  173. 


120 


KEY  TO   FAMILIES 


Fia.  28. 


Fia.  31. 


J 

3 


FIQ.  29. 


FIG.  32. 


Order  IV.   Steganopodes. — GANNETS,  CORMORANTS,  PELICANS,  etc. 

Large  birds,  two  feet  or  more  in  length,  differing  widely  in  appearance 
and  habits;  in  external  structure  agreeing  in  having  all  four  toes  con- 
nected by  webs  (Fig.  29),  though  in  the  Fregatidce  and  Phaethontidce 
this  character  is  poorly  developed. 

A.  Bill  unhooked,  more  or  less  sharply  pointed  (Figs.  27,  28,  30). 
a.  Chin   feathered,    adult    with    very    long    central    tail-feathers; 

maritime;   general   appearance  ternlike;  rarely  enters  United 
States.  .  .  Family  Phaethontidce:  TROPIC  BIRDS  (Fig.  28),  p.  178. 
6.  Chin  bare;  central  tail-feathers  not  greatly  lengthened. 

61.  Sea-birds    with    thick   necks    and    stout    bills,    central   tail- 

feathers  without  transverse  flutings.  .  .  .  Family  Sulidce: 
GANNETS    (Fig.  27),  p.  179. 

62.  In  whole   or  part  black  or  blackish;  fresh-water  or  coast 

birds,  with    straight,  slender    bills    (Fig.  30),  central    tail- 
feathers  fluted.  .  .  .  Family  Anhingidce:  DARTERS,  p.  181. 

B.  Bill  hooked  (Figs.  31,  32). 
a.  Lores  bare,  tail  not  forked. 

a1.  Bill  over  12-00,  with  a  large  pouch.    .  .  .  Family  Pelicanidce: 

PELICANS,  p.  183. 

a2.  Bill  under  4'00  (Fig.  31),  no  large  pouch;  black  or  blackish 

birds.  .  .  .  Family  Phalacrocoracidce:  CORMORANTS,  p.  182. 

6.  Lores    feathered;    tail    deeply    forked    (Fig.  32).  f  t  . 

Fregatida;  MAN-O'-WAR-BIRDS,  p.  185, 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


121 


Order  V.   Anseres. — DUCKS,    GEESE,   and   SWANS. 

Toes  four;  tarsus  rounded  not  flattened  as  in  the  Grebes;  tail  well 
developed;  bill  rounded  and  with  tooth-like  projections,  or  flattened 
and  with  fluted  ridges.  Unlike  the  Grebes,  most  Ducks  when  pursued 
fly  rather  than  dive. 


1.  Bill,  long,  narrow  and  rounded,  with  tooth-like  projections  (Fig, 

33).  .  .  .  Subfamily  Mergina:  MERGANSERS,  p.  187. 

2.  Bill  more  or  less  flattened  and  ducklike. 
A.  Lores  feathered. 

a.  True  Ducks;  tarsus  shorter  than  the  middle-toe  without 
nail;  scales  on  its  front  transverse  more  or  less  square 
(Fig.  34,  a,  6). 

a1.  Hind-toe  without  a  flap  or  lobe   (Fig.  34,  a) ....  Sub- 
family Anatina:  RIVER  DUCKS,  p.  190. 

a2.  Hind-toe  lobed   (Fig.  34,  6).  .  .  .  Subfamily   Fuligulina: 
SEA  and  BAY  DUCKS,  p.  198. 


FIG.  34 

6.  Tarsus  generally  longer  than  middle-toe,  without  nail;  scales 
on   its   front   rounded.  .  .  .  Subfamily   Anserince:  GEESE, 
p.  210. 
B.  Lores  bare.  .  .  .  Subfamily  Cygnince:  SWANS,  p.  215. 


122 


KEY  TO   FAMILIES 


Order  VI.     Odontoglossse. — 

FLAMINGOES. 

Long-legged,  long-necked, 
red  or  pink  -  and  -  white 
birds;  bill  bent  downward, 
with  lateral  ridges  (Fig. 
35);  toes  four,  front  ones 
webbed.  With  the  charac- 
ters of  the  Order 

F  a  m  i  ly  Phocnicopteridce: 
FLAMINGOES,  p.  216. 


FIG.  35. 


Order  VII.  Herodiones. — HERONS,    STORKS,    IBISES,  etc. 

Long-legged,  wading  birds  usually  found  along  shores,  on  muddy  flats 
or  in  marshes.  Herons  and  Bitterns  fly  with  a  fold  in  the  neck;  Ibises 
and  Spoonbills  with  the  neck  straight.  Toes  four,  slightly  or  not 
wobbed,  all  on  the  same  level;  lores  bare. 


FIG.  38. 

A.  Bill  straight  and  sharply  pointed;  inner  border  of  middle  toe- 

nail  with  a  comblike  edge  (Fig.  36);  neck  curved  in  flight.  .  .    . 
Family  Ardeidce:  HERONS,    EGRETS,   BITTERNS,  p.  219. 

B.  Bill  not  sharply  pointed,  cylindrical  or  flattened   (Figs.  37,  38); 

no  comb  on  toe-nail;  neck  straight  in  flight. 

a.  Bill  rounded,  more  or  less  curved  downward. 

a1.  Size  large,  tarsus  over  5'00;  whole  head  bare  in  adult.  .  .  . 

Family  Ciconiida:  STORKS  and  WOOD  IBISES,  p.  219. 
a2.  Size  smaller,   tarsus  under  5*00;   face  bare    (Fig.  37).   .  .  . 

Family  Ibididce:  IBISES,  p.  218. 

b.  Bill  flattened  and  much  broadened   at   the  end  (Fig.  38),  our 

species  pink.  .  .  .  Family  Plataleidce;  SPOONBILLS,  p.  217. 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


123 


FIG.  39 


Order  VIII.  Paludicolse. — CRANES,  RAILS,  GALLINULES,  etc. 

Neck  extended  in  flight;  toes  four  without  webs  (except  in  lobate  Coot, 
Fig.  39,  e)  or  a  comb  on  toe-nail;  hind-toe  generally  small  and  higher 
than  the  front  one;  or  if  on  the  same  level  (Gallinules  and  Coots  only), 
the  bill  is  then  comparatively  short  (Fig.  39,  d,  e)  and  the  forehead 
bare;  lores  feathered  or  (Cranes)  with  hairlike  bristles. 


FIG.  41. 


A.  Smaller,  bill  under  3'00  (Fig.  39).  .   .  .  Family  Rallidce:  RAILS, 

GALLINULES,  COOTS,  p.  230. 

B.  Larger,  bill  over  3 '00  (Figs.  40,  41). 

a.  Tarsus  over  6'00  (Fig.  40.).  .  .  Family  Gruidce:  CRANES,  p.  229. 
6.  Tarsus  under  6'OQ  (Fig.  41).  .  .  .  Family  Aramidaz:  COURLANS, 
J.  230, 


KEY   TO  FAMILIES 


Order  IX.  Limieolse. — PHALAROPES,  SNIPES,  PLOVERS,  etc. 

Long-legged,  often  slender-billed  'Shore-birds,'  usually  less  than  a 
foot  in  length,  which  frequently  utter  piping  whistles  in  flight  or  as 
they  take  wing;  toes  four  or  (Plovers)  three;  the  hind-toe,  when  present, 
less  than  half  the  length  of  the  inner,  and  always  elevated;  bill  soft; 
nostrils  opening  through  slits  or  grooves;  wings  long  and  pointed, 
tertials  much  elongated. 


FIG.  43. 

1.  Tarsus  over  3*50;  noisy,  conspicuous,  black  and  white  or  black, 

and     white     and     brown     birds.  .  .  .  Family     Recuvirostridce: 
AVOCETS  (Fig.  12)  and  STILTS,  p.  241. 

2.  Tarsus  under  3'50. 

A.  Toes  lobate  (Fig.  43  a).  .  .  .  Family  Phalaropodida:  PHALAR- 

OPES, p.  239. 

B.  Toes  not  lobate  (Fig.  43,  b,  c,  d,  e}. 

a.  Front  of  tarsus  with  square,  transverse  scales  (Fig.  43,  b,  c); 

toes  four  except  in  the  Sanderling. 

a1.  Whole  lower  back  white,  a  black  band  across  the  rump; 
bill  short,  stout  and  slightly  recurved.  .  .  .  Family 
Aphrizida:  SURF  BIRDS  and  TURNSTONES,  p.  268. 

b1.  Whole  lower  back  not  white;  bill  a  probe,  softer,  pro- 
portionately longer,  not  recurved  (Fig.  42,  a,  6)  .  .  . 
Family  Scolopacidce:  SNIPES,  SANDPIPERS,  etc.,  p.  242. 

b.  Front  of  tarsus  with  rounded  scales;  toes  three   (except  in 

Black-bellied  Plover).    (Fig.  43,  d,  e.) 
b1.  Bill  under  2'00  (Fig.  42,  c,  d) Family  Charadriida:: 

PLOVERS,  p.  263. 
6s.  Bill     over     2'00.  .  .  ,  Family     Hcematopodidce:  OYSTER- 

CATCHEIIS,  p.  2Q$. 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


125 


II.  THE  LAND   BIRDS 

Order  X.  Gallinge.  —  TURKEYS,  GROUSS,  BOB-WHITES,  etc. 
Terrestrial,  scratching  birds  of  henlike  form; 
bill  stout  and  short,  its  culmen  rounded  (Fig. 
44);  wings  short  and  rounded,  the  primaries 
stiffened  and  producing  a  whirring  sound  in 
flight;  tail  variable,  feet  strong,  hind-toe  short, 
elevated. 

A.  Smaller  than  a  Turkey. 

a.  Tarsus  unfeathered.  .  .  .  Family  Odon- 

tophoridce:     BOB  -  WHITES    and    NEW  -pTO   44 

WORLD  QUAILS,  p.  269. 

6.  Tarsus  more  or  less  feathered    .  .  .  Family  Tetraonidce:  GROUSE. 
PTARMIGANS,  etc.,  p.  272. 

B.  Size  of  a  Turkey.  .  .  .  Family  Meleagrida:  TURKEYS,  p.  278. 


Order  XI.  Columbse.  —  PIGEONS  and  DOVES. 

Toes  four,  all  on  the  same  level  ;  the  hind-toe  about 
as  long  as  the  shortest  front  one;  bill  (Fig. 
slender,  deeply  grooved,  the  nostrils  opening  in  a 
soft,  fleshy  membrane. 

Characters    those    of    the    Order.  .  .  .  Family 
Columbidos:  PIGEONS  and  DOVES,  p.  281 


FIG.  46. 


Order  XII.  Raptores. — VULTURES,  HAWKS,  and  OWLS. 

Generally  large  birds  with  hooked  bill;  feet  strong  with  long  curved 
nails.    (Fig.  46.) 

A.  Eyes   set   in   a   feathered   disk    (Figs.  47,  48),    tarsus   generally 

feathered ;  plumage  soft  and  fluffy. 

a.  Middle-toe   with    a    comblike    edge.    .   .  .    Family   Aluconidce. 
BARN  OWLS,  p.  308. 


FIG.  48. 


126 


KEY  TO   FAMILIES 


FIQ.  49. 


Ficu  50. 


b.  Middle-toe  without  a  comblike  edge.    .  .  .   Family   Strigid(E> 

p.  309. 
B.  Eyes  not  set  in  a  feathered   disk,  tarsus  largely  bare;  plumage 

firm  and  close. 
a.  Front  of  tarsus  with  square  scales. 

a1.  Bill  not  strongly  hooked;  toe-nails  comparatively  weak; 
nostrils  large,  piercing  the  bill;  head  and  more  or  less  of 
neck  bare  (Fig.  49).  .  .  .  Family  Cathartidce:  AMERICAN 
VULTURES,  p.  286. 

a2.  Bill  strongly  hooked  (Fig.  50);  hind-toe  generally  as  long  as 
or  longer  than   the  shortest   front  one;    claws  large;   head 
not  bare.  .  .  .  Family  Buteonida:  HAWKS,  EAGLES,  KITES, 
p.  287. 
&.  Front  of  tarsus  with  rounded  scales. 

b1.  Soles  of  feet  thickly  set  with  sharp  spicules  (Fig.  20).  .  .  . 

Family  Pandionida:  OSPREYS,  p.  307. 

62.  Soles  of  feet  without  spicules.  .  .  .  Family  Falconida: 
FALCONS,  CARACARAS,  etc.,  p.  303. 


Order  XIII.  Psittaci.— PARROTS, 

PAROQUETS,  etc. 
Toes  four,  two  in  front,  two 
behind;  bill  strong,  hooked, 
with  a  cere;  lower  mandible 
scoop-shaped  (Fig.  51).  .  .  . 
Family  Psittacida:  PA«ROTS, 
PAROQUETS,  p.  317. 


Fio.  52. 


KING- 


F_G. 53. 


Order    XIV.      Coccyges.  —  CUCKOOS, 

FISHERS,  etc. 

Toes  four,  the  middle  and  the  outer  ones 
joined  for  half  their  length  (Fig.  52)  or 
two  in  front  and  two  behind  (Fig.  53);  bill 
without  a  cere;  tail-feathers  not  stiff  and 
pointed. 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


127 


A.  Middle  and  outer  toes  joined  for  half  their  length  (Fig.  52).  .  .  £ 

Family  Alcedinidce:  KINGFISHERS,  p.  320. 

B.  Two  toes  in  front  and  two  behind  (Fig.  53).  .  .  .  Family  Cucul* 

ida:  CUCKOOS,  p.  318. 


FIG.  54. 


Order  XV.  Pici. — WOODPECKERS. 

Climbing  birds  with  stout,  pointed  bills,  bristly  nostrils,  pointed, 
stiffened  tail-feathers;  strong  feet  and  nails;  toes  four,  two  in  front, 
two  behind,  or  three,  two  in  front,  one  behind  (Fig.  54).  Prevailing 
colors  black  and  white,  the  male  usually  with  red  on  the  head. 

Characters  those  of  the  Order.  .  .  .  Family  Picidce:  WOODPECKERS, 
p.  322. 


FIG.  56. 


FIQ.  55. 


Order  XVI.  Machrochires. — GOATSUCKERS,  SWIFTS,  and  HUMMINGBIRDS. 
An  obsolete  group  to  which,  for  the  present,  the  A.  O.  U.  continues 
to  refer  our  American  Goatsuckers,  Swifts,  and  Hummingbirds  with 
more  obvious  external  characters  as  below. 

A.  Size  comparatively  large,  plumage  soft,  variegated  black,  brown, 

and  buff;  middle-toe  with  a  comblike  edge  (Fig.  55).  .  .  . 
Family  Caprimulgida:  NIGHTHAWKS,  WHIP-POOR-WILLS,  etc.. 
p.  331. 

B.  Size   medium,    plumage   close,    firm,    sooty   black;   tips   of   tail- 

feathers  with  spines  (Fig.  56).  .  .  .  Family  Micropodidce: 
SWIFTS,  p.  334. 

C.  Size  very  small,  upperparts  shining  green;  bill  long  and  slender 

(Fig.  57).  .  .  .  Family  Trochilida:  HUMMINGBIRDS,  p.  335. 


128 


KEY  TO   FAMILIES 


Order  XVTI.  Passeres. — Perching  Birds:  FLYCATCHERS, 
BLACKBIRDS,  JAYS,  ORIOLES,  SPARROWS,  FINCHES, 
SWALLOWS,  VIREOS,  WARBLERS,  WRENS,  THRUSHES, 
etc. 

Toes  four,  without  webs,  all  on  the  same  level;  hind- 
toe  as  large  as  the  middle  one,  its  nail  generally 
longer  than  that  of  the  middle  one;  tail  of  twelve 
feathers.  (Fig.  58.) 

[The  following  synoptical 
table  of  the  characters 
of  the  twenty  families 
which  we  have  in  this 
order  seems  more  satis- 
factory than  an  artifi- 


FIG.  58. 
Family  1.  Tyrannidce. — FLYCATCHERS  (Fig.  59). 

Bill  wider  than  high  at  the  base, 
slightly  hooked  at  the  tip ;  base  with 
conspicuous  bristles ;  wings  longer  than 
the  tail,  the  second  to  fourth  prima- 
ries longest,  the  first  but  little  shorter 
and  generally  equal  to  the  fifth  or 
sixth;  back  of  tarsus  rounded,  like 
the  front;  plumage  generally  olive- 
green  or  grayish;  tail,  except  in  the 
Kingbird,  without  white  spots,  p.  338. 


FIG.  59. 

Family    2.    A laudida.  —  LARKS 

(Fig.  60). 

Bill  rather  stout  and  rounded; 
nostrils  with  bristly  tufts;  nail  FIG.  60. 

of  hind-toe  much  lengthened,  as 

long  as  the  middle-toe  without  nail;  back  of  the  tarsus  rounded  like  the 
front,  p.  347. 


FIG.  61. 


Family  3.  C oroides. — CROWS  and  JAYS  (Fig.  61). 

Large  birds,  over  lO'OO  in  length;  bill  stout,  the  nostrils  concealed  by  tufts 
of  bristly  feathers;  fourth  to  fifth  primary  the  longest,  the  first  about  half 
as  long;  outer  tail-feathers  shortest;  feet  and  legs  stout,  p.  350. 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


129 


Family  4.  Sturnidce. — STAB- 
LINGS (Fig.  62). 
Bill  flattened,  wider  than 
high  at  the  base ;  tail  short 
and  square;  wings  long 
and  pointed,  second  pri- 
mary longest,  the  first 
very  small,  less  than  half 
an  inch  in  length,  p.  355. 


FIG.  62. 


Family  5.  Icterida. — BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  etc.  (Fig  63). 

Length  7'00-17'00;  base  of  the  bill,  between  the  nostrils,  extending  back- 
ward and  dividing  the  feathers  of  the  forehead;  nostrils  not  concealed  by 
bristles;  first  three  primaries  of  about  equal  length;  outer  tail-feathers 
generally  shortest,  p.  357. 


Family  6.  Fringillida. —  SPAR- 
ROWS, FINCHES,  GROS- 
BEAKS, etc.  (Fig.  64). 
Length  4'75-9'00,  generally 
under  8'00;  bill  short,  stout, 
and  conical,  admirably  fitted 
to  crush  seeds;  third  and 
fourth  primaries  generally 
about  the  same  length,  the 
first  never  more  than  half  an 
inch  shorter  than  the  longest, 
p.  369. 


FIG.  64. 


Family  7.  Tangarida. — TANAGERS  (Fig.  65). 

Length  about  7'00;  the  males  of  our  species  mostly 
red;  bill  finchlike,  but  less  conical,  somewhat  swollen, 
the  outline  of  the  upper  mandible  curved,  its  sides 
with  a  slight  but  generally  evident  'tooth'  near  the 
middle;  tail-feathers  of  equal  length,  p.  413. 


130 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


Family  8.  Hirundinida. — SWALLOWS  (Fig.  66). 
Bill  short  and  flattened,  much  wider 
than  high  at  the  base;  no  bristles  at 
the  base  of  the  bill;  wings  long  and 
pointed,  tips,  when  closed,  generally 
reaching  beyond  the  end  of  the  tail; 
first  primary  the  longest;  outer  tail- 
feathers  longest;  feet  small,  tarsus  short, 
round  in  front,  narrower  and  sharper 
in  the  back,  p.  415. 


FIG.  66. 


FIG.  68. 


Family  9.     Bombycillidce.  —  WAX- 
WINGS  (Fig.  67). 

Plumage  generally  soft,  brownish 
gray  or  grayish  brown;  a  black 
band  across  the  forehead  and 
through  the  eyes ;  tail  tipped  with 
yellow;  bill  short,  notched  at  the 
tip;  head  conspicuously  crested, 
p.  420. 


FIG.  67. 

Family  10.  Laniida.  —  SHKIKES  (Fig.  68). 

Grayish   birds,   8'00-9'00   in   length,    most  of  the 
tail-feathers   tipped   with  white;  bill  hooked  and  ••Jr,^ 

hawklike,  p.  422.  >^ 

' 

Family  11.   Vireondice.  —  VIREOS  (Fig.  69). 

Small  birds,  5'00-7'00  in  length,  with  generally  olive-green  backs;  tail- 

feathers  without  white  spofs;  bill  rather 
stout,  higher  than  broad  n/  the  bas^, 
the  tip  of  the  upper 
mandible  notched  and 
hooked,  bristles  at  the 
base  of  the  bill  barely 
evident;  tarsi  scaled, 
round  in  front,  nar- 
rower and  sharper 
behind  ;  toes  united  at 
the  base,  p.  424.  FIG.  G9. 

Family    12.    Mniotiltidce.  —  V/OOD    WAR- 

BLERS (Fig.  70). 

Small  birds,  length  generally  under 
6'00,  but  in  four  species  6'50-7\50, 
with,  as  a  rule,  brightly  colored  jjkim- 
age,  olive-green  or  yellow  being  the 
most  frequent;  bill  various,  never 
notched  at  the  tip,  usually  slender  and 
sharply  pointed,  without  conspicuous 
bristles,  but  sometimes  flattened  and 
broader  than  high  at  the  base,  when 
the  bristles  are  evident  (thus  resem- 
bling the  bill  of  a  true  Flycatcher,  but 
the  back  of  the  tarsus  is  always  thin 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


131 


and  narrow,  and  never  rounded  as  in  front) ;  rarely  the  bill  is  heavier, 
more  thrushlike  or  finchlike;  second  or  third  primary  longest,  the  first 
little  if  any  shorter;  tail  generally  square,  sometimes  rounded,  the  outer 
feathers  frequently  blotched  with  white,  p.  430. 

Family  13.    Motacillidce. —  WAGTAILS 

and  PIPITS  (Fig.  71). 
No  bristles  over  the  nostrils;  bill 
slender,  much  as  in  the  preceding; 
hind  toe-nail  much  lengthened,  as 
long  as  or  longer  than  the  toe; 
first  three  primaries  of  equal  length, 
p.  470. 


FIG.  71. 


Family  14.  Mimidce. — THRASHEES, 
MOCKINGBIRDS,  and  CATBIRDS 
(Fig.  72,  a,  6). 

Length  8'00-12-QO;  tarsus  .scaled;  tail 
rounded,  the  outer  feathers  at  least 
half  an  inch  shorter  than  the  middle 
ones,  third  to  fifth  primary  longest, 
the  first  about  half  as  long,  p.  472. 

Family  15.   Troglodytidce. — WRENS  (Fig. 

"72,  c,  d). 

Length  4 '00-6 '00;  bill  moderate,  the 
upper  mandible  slightly  curved,  no 
bristles  at  its  base;  third  to  fourth 
primary  longest,  first  about  half  as 
long;  tail  short  and  rounded;  brown 
or  brownish  birds  with  indistinctly 
barred  wings  and  tail,  p.  475. 


\ 


FIG.  72. 

.'  Family  16.  Certhiidce. — CREEPERS  (Fig.  73). 
Bill  slender  and  much  curved ;  tail-feathers 
pointed  and  slightly  stiffened,  p.  481.  . 


FIG.  73. 


Family  17.    Sittidce. — NUTHATCHES  (Fig.  74, 

a,  6). 

Bill  rather  long  and  slender,  the  end  of 
the  lower  mandible  slanting  slightly  up- 
ward; wings  long  and  pointed,  the  third 
or  fourth  primary  the  longest,  the  first 
very  small,  not  an  inch  in  length;  tail  short 
and  square,  the  outer  feathers  blotched 
with  white,  p.  482. 

Family  18.  Paridce. — TITMICE  (Fig.  74,  6). 
Length  4'50-6'50;   bill   short,  stout,   and 
rounded,  less  than  half  an  inch  in  lerrgth; 
11 


FIG.  74. 


132 


KEY  TO  FAMILIES 


Fia.  75. 

Family  20.  Turdida. — 
THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS, 
etc.  (Fig.  76). 

Length  over  5*50;  bill  mod- 
erate, the  tip  of  the  upper 
mandible  notched ;  tarsus 
smooth,  the  scales,  if  any, 
fused  and  indistinct;  tail 
square;  wings  long  and 
pointed,  3 '75  or  over,  third 
primary  the  longest,  the  first 
very  short,  less  than  one  inch 
in  length,  p.  491. 


fourth  or  fifth  primary  longest,  first 
very  short,  not  more  than  one-third  as 
long;  tail  rather  long,  dull,  ashy  gray 
without  white  blotches,  p.  485. 

Family    19.    Sylviidce.  —  KINGLETS    and 

GNATCATCHERS  (Fig.  75). 
Length  3 '50-5 '00;  bill  slender,  resem- 
bling that  of    some  Warblers,  but  the 
first  primary  is  very  short,  only  about 
one-third  as  long  as  the  longest,  p.  488. 


Fio.  76. 


A   FIELD   KEY  TO   OUR 
COMMONER  EASTERN   LAND   BIRDS 

The  following  is  a  field  key  to  those  birds  which,  either  because  of 
their  abundance  or  conspicuous  colors,  most  frequently  attract  our 
attention.  With  the  object  of  making  it  as  brief,  and  consequently  as 
simple,  as  possible,  I  have  omitted  species  which  can  be  referred  to 
their  respective  families  without  difficulty — for  example,  Hawks,  Owls, 
Woodpeckers,  and  Swallows.  It  is  designed  simply  as  an  aid  to  the 
first  steps  of  the  beginner,  who  will  soon  graduate  from  it  to  the  more 
detailed  keys  in  the  body  of  the  book.  Like  the  field  keys  to  Finches 
and  Sparrows  and  Warblers,  it  is  based  largely  upon  adult  males. 

First  Group. — With  yellow  or  orange  in  the  plumage. 
Second  Group. — With  red  in  the  plumage. 
Third  Group. — With  blue  in  the  plumage. 

Fourth  Group. — Plumage  conspicuously  black,  or  black  and  white. 
Fifth  Group. — Without  either  yellow,  orange,  red,  or  blue  in  the  plumage; 
not  conspicuously  black,  or  black  and  white. 

First  Group. — With  yellow  or  orange  in  the  plumage 

I.  Throat  yellow. 

1.  Throat  and  breast  pure  yellow,  without  streaks  or  spots. 

A.  Length  5*00;  cap,  wings,  and  tail  black;  back  yellow;  song  canary- 

like,  sometimes  uttered  on  the  wing;  flight  undulating,  frequently 
accompanied  by  the  notes  chic-o-ree,  per-chic-o-ree. 

529.  GOLDFINCH. 

B.  Length  5*50;  lower  belly  and  wing-bars  white;  back  olive-green; 

frequents  the  upper  branches,  generally  in  woodland;  actions  delib- 
erate; song  loud  and  musical,  uttered  slowly,  often  with  pauses: 
"See  me?  I'm  here;  where  are  you?" 

628.  YELLOW-THROATED  VIREO. 

C.  Length  5' 25;  cheeks  and  forehead  black  bordered  by  ashy;  upper 

parts  olive-green;  no  wing-bars;  haunts  thickets  and  undergrowth; 
movements  nervous  and  active ;  call-note,  pit  or  chack;  song,  a  vigor- 
ous, rapid  witch-e-wee-o,  wi'ch-e-wee-o,  witch-e-wee-o. 

681.  MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT 

D.  Length  7'25;   upperparts  olive-green;  no  wing-bars;  a  white  line 

before  the  eye;  haunts  thickets  and  undergrowth;  song,  a  striking 
mixture  of  whistles,  chucks,  and  caws,  sometimes  uttered  on  the 
wing 683.  YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT. 

2.  Underparts  streaked  or  spotted. 

A.  Underparts    streaked    with    rufous-brown;    length    5*00;    general 

appearance  of  a  yellow  bird ;  haunts  shrubbery  of  lawns,  orchards, 
second  growths,  and  particularly  willows  near  water;  song,  rather 
loud,  wee,  chee-chee-chee,  cher-wee,  or  chee-chee-chee-chee,  why-o. 

652.  YELLOW  WARBLER. 

B.  Breast  yellow,   with  a  conspicuous  black  crescent;  length   10'QO; 

fields  and  meadows,  largely  terrestrial ;  flight  quail-like,  outer  white 
tail-feathers  showing  when  on  the  wing;  song,  a  loud,  musical 
whistle 501.  MEADOWLARK. 

(133) 


134  FIELD  KEY 

II.  Throat  not  yellow. 
1.  Throat  white. 

A.  With  yellow  on  the  sides. 

a.  Length  5'50;  rump  yellow;  breast  streaked  or  spotted  with  black; 
tail-feathers  marked  with  white;  note,  a  characteristic  tchip; 
Sept.  to  May,  usually  rare  or  local  in  winter. 

655.  MYRTLE  WARBLER. 

6.  Length  5'00;  no  streaks  on  underparts  or  white  in  the  tail;  yellow 
extending  along  the  whole  sides;  back  olive-green,  iris  white; 
haunts  thickets;  call,  an  emphatic  "Who  are  you,  eh?" 

631.  WHITE-EYED  VIREO. 

c.  Length  5*25;  tail  and  wings  banded  with  yellow,  showing  conspicu- 
ously in  flight;  haunts  woodland;  movements  active,  much  in  the 
air,  tail  frequently  spread 687.  REDSTART. 

B.  No  yellow  on  sides. 

a.  Length  6*75;  a  yellow  line  from  the  bill  to  the  eye;  crown  black, 
with  a  white  stripe  through  its  center;  haunts  in  and  about 
thickets  and  bushy  woodlands;  song,  a  high,  clear,  musical 

whistle ;   call-note,   chink 558.  WHITE-THROATED   SPARROW. 

6.  Length  4'00;  a  yellow  or  yellow  and  orange  crown-patch,  bordered 
by  black;  flits  restlessly  about  outer  limbs  of  trees  and  bushes; 
note,  a  fine  ti-ti;  Oct.  to  Apl. .  .748.  GOLDEN-CROWNED  KINGLET. 
2*  Throat  not  white. 

A.  Throat  vinaceous;  length  12'00;  a  black  breast-patch;  belly  white, 

spotted  with  black;  rump  white,  showing  conspicuously  in  flight; 
linings  of  wings  yellow;  call-note,  a  loud  kee-yer  .  .  412.  FLICKER. 

B.  Throat  and  head  black;  length  7*50;  breast,  belly,  and  lower  back 

deep  orange;  an  active  inhabitant  of  fruit  and  shade  trees;  song,  a 
loud,    ringing   whistle 507.  BALTIMORE    ORIOLE. 

C.  Throat  and  upper  breast  ashy;  length  9*00;  crested;  belly  yellow; 

tail-feathers  largely  pale  rufous;  haunts  upper  branches  in  wood- 
land; note,  a  loud  questioning,  or  grating  whistle. 

452.  CRESTED  FLYCATCHER. 
Z>.  Grayish  brown;  length  7*00;  crested;  tip  of  tail  yellow. 

619.  CEDAR  WAXWINQ. 

Second  Group. — With  red  in  the  plumage 

I.  With  red  on  the  underparts. 

A.  Throat  red. 

a.  Length  7'00;  wings  and  tail  black;  rest  of  plumage  bright  scarlet; 

call-note,  chip-chirr 608.  SCARLET  TAN AGE R 

b.  Length  6'00;  dull,  pinkish  red,  wings  and  tail  brownish;  frequently 

seen  feeding  on  buds  or  blossoms;  call-note,  a  sharp  chink,  often 
'uttered  during  flight;  song,  a  sweet,  flowing  warble. 

517.  PURPLE  FINCH. 

c.  Length  6' 00;  dull  red  or  green  tinged  with  red;  mandibles  crossed; 

generally  seen  in  flocks  feeding  on  pine-cones. .  .521.  AM.  CROSSBILL 

d.  Length  5' 00;   a  red   crown-cap;   back  streaked   black  and   brown; 

breast  rosy;  feeds    n  seeds  or  catkins;  Nov.  to  Mch . .  528.  REDPOLL. 

B.  Throat  black. 

a.  Length  8' 00;  breast  rose-red,  rest  of  plumage  black  and  white;  song 
loud  and  musical ;  call-note,  peek .  .  595.  ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK. 

6.  Length  8' 00;  a  conspicuous  crest;  region  about  the  base  of  the  bill 
black;  rest  of  the  plumage  and  bill  red;  song,  a  clear  whistle. 

593.  CARDINAL. 

c.  Length  5*50;  wings  and  tail  banded  with  orange-red,  showing  con- 
spicuously in  flight;  movements  active;  much  in  the  air;  tail  fre- 
quently spread;  haunts  woodland 687.  REDSTART. 


FIELD   KEY  135 

II.  No  red  on  the  underparts. 

A.  Length  9'00;  black;  shoulders  red;  haunts  marshes;  migrates  in  flocks. 

498.  RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRD. 

B.  Length  5*25;  crown-cap  red;  chin  black;  rest  of  underparts  streaked 

with  blackish;  feeds  on  seeds  and  catkins;  Nov.  to  Mch. 

528.  REDPOLL  (Im.). 

C.  Length  4' 00;  underparts  whitish;   back  olive-green;   a  ruby  crown- 

patch;  eye-ring  white;  movements  restless,  wings  flitted  nervously; 
call-note,  cack;  song  remarkably  loud  and  musical ;  Sept.  and  Oct. ; 
Apl.  and  May 749.  RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET. 

Third  Group. — With  blue  in  the  plumage 

A.  Length  11  '50;  a  conspicuous  crest;  upperparts  dull  blue;  underparts 

whitish;  a  black  patch  on  the  breast     477.  BLUE  JAY. 

B.  Length  7'00;  upperparts  bright  blue;  breast  cinnamon-rufous. 

766.  BLUEBIRD. 

C.  Length    5*50;    entire    plumage    indigo-blue.  .598.  INDIGO  BUNTING. 

Fourth  Group. — Plumage  conspicuously  black,  or  black 
and  white 

I.  Rteck  and  white  birds. 

A.  Throat  black. 

a.  Length  over  6 '00. 

a1.  Entire  underparts  black;  nape  buffy;  rump  white;  a  musical 
dweller  of  fields  and  meadows;  frequently  sings  on  the  wing. 

494.  BOBOLINK. 

a2.  Breast  rose-red;  rest  of  the  plumage  black  and  white;  song  rapid, 
loud,  and  musical;  call-note,  p&ek;  a  tree  dweller  in  rather  open 
woodland 595.  ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK. 

a3.  Sides  rufous;  rest  of  the  plumage  black  and  white;  call-note, 
chewink  or  towhee;  inhabits  the  undergrowth  .  .  587.  TOWHEE. 

b.  Length  under  6*00. 

61.  Crown  black;  cheeks  white;  back  ashy;  unstreaked;  call,  chick-a- 
dee,  or  a  musical,  double-noted  whistle    .  .  .  735.  CHICKADEE. 
b2.  Conspicuously  streaked  with  black  and  white;  a  tree  creeper. 

636.  BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER. 

B.  Underparts  white  or  whitish. 

a.  Length  8*00;  upperparts  grayish  slate-color;  tail  tipped  with  white; 
a  bird  of  the  air,  catching  its  insect  food  on  the  wing,  and  occasion- 
ally sallying  forth  from  its  exposed  perch  in  pursuit  of  a  passing 
Crow;  note,  an  unmusical,  steely  chatter  .  .  .  444.  KINGBIRD. 

6.  Length  5' 75;  crown  black;  back  bluish  gray;  a  tree  creeper;  call-note, 
yank,  yank 727.  WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH. 

c.  Length  6*50;  upper  parts  washed  with  rusty;  generally  seen  in  flocks; 

terrestrial;  Nov.-Mch.  .  .  , 534.  SNOW  BUNTING 

II.  No  white  in  the  plumage. 

A.  Length  19'00;  jet-black  .      . 488.  AM.  CROW. 

B.  Length  12'00;  black  with  metallic  reflections;  iris  yellowish;  migrates 

in  flocks;  nests  usually  in  colonies  in  coniferous  trees;  voice  cracked 
and  reedy;  tail  "keeled"  in  short  flights;  a  walker. 

511.  PURPLE  GRACKLE.    5116.  BRONZED  GRACKLE. 

C.  Length  9*50;  shoulders  red;  haunts  marshes;  call,  kong-quer-ree. 

498.  RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRD. 

D.  Length  7'50;  head  and  neck  coffee-brown;  frequently  seen    on  the 

ground  near  cattle 495.  COWBIRD. 


136  FIELD  KEY 

Fifth  Group. — Without  either  yellow,  orange,  red,  or  blue  in  the 
plumage;  not  conspicuously  black,  or  black  and  white 

I.  Underparts  all  one  color,  without  streaks  or  spots. 
1.  Back  without  streaks  or  spots. 
A.  Underparts  white  or  whitish. 
a.  Length  under  7 '50. 

a1.  Back  olive,  olive-green,  or  slaty  fuscous. 

a2.  No  white  line  over  the  eye;  flycatchers,  capturing  their  prey  on 
the  wing  and  returning  to  their  perch,  where  they  sit  quietly 
until  making  a  fresh  sally. 

a3.  Crown  blackish;  frequently  found  nesting  under  bridges  or 
about  buildings;  tail  wagged  nervously;  note,  pewit-phcebe. 

456.  PHCEBE. 

a4.  Wing-bars  whitish ;  haunts  orchards,  lawns,  and  open  wood- 
land;   note,  chebec,  chebec  .   .  .  467.    LEAST  FLYCATCHER. 
a5.  Haunts  woodlands ;  generally  frequents  the  upper  branches ; 

note,  a  plaintive  pee-a-wee 461.  WOOD  PEWEE. 

b2.  A  white  line  over  the  eye,  or  wing-bars  white ;  gleaners ;  patiently 
exploring  the  foliage  for  food  or  flitting  about  the  outer 
branches. 

&3.  White  line  over  the  eye  bordered  by  a  narrow  black  one; 
cap  gray;  iris  red;  song,  a  rambling  recitative:  "You  see  it 
— you  know  it — do  you  hear  me?"  etc. 

624.  RED-EYED  VIREO. 

fc4.  White  line  over  the  eye  not  bordered  by  black;  prefers  the 
upper  branches  of  rows  of  elms  and  other  shade  trees ;  song 
a  rich,  unbroken  warble  with  an  alto  undertone. 

627.  WARBLING  VIREO. 

65.  No  white  line  over  the  eye;  eye-ring  and  wing-bars  white; 
length  4*00;  a  tiny,  unsuspicious  bird;  flits  about  the  outer 
branches  of  trees  and  shrubs;  wings  twitched  nervously; 
note,  each;  song,  a  remarkably  loud,  musical  whistle. 

749.  RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET. 
61.  Back  not  olive-green,  or  slaty  fuscous. 
62.  Back  gray  or  bluish  gray. 

63.  Crown  black;  cheeks  white;  a  tree  creeper;  note,  yank,  yank. 

727.  WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH. 

64.  A  gray,  crested  bird;  forehead  black;  no  white  in  the  tail; 

note,  a  whistled  peto,  peto,  or  hoarse  de-de-de-de. 

731.  TUFTED  TIT. 

c2.  Back  cinnamon-brown;  length  4'75;  a  nervous,  restless,  excit- 
able bird;  tail  carried  erect;  song,  sweet,  rapid  and  rippling, 

delivered  with  abandon 721.  HOUSE  WREN. 

6.  Length  over  7 '50. 

61.  Upperparts  grayish  slate-color;  a  white  band  at  the  end  of  the 

tail ;  a  concealed  orange-red  crest ;  a  bird  of  the  air,  catching  its 
insect  food  on  the  wing,  and  occasionally  sallying  forth  from 
its  exposed  perch  in  pursuit  of  a  passing  Crow;  note,  an  un- 
musical, steely  chatter 444.  KINGBIRD. 

62.  Length  12'00;  slim,  brownish  birds  with  long  tails;  flight  short 

and  noiseless ;  perch  in  a  tree,  not  in  an  exposed  position ;  note 
tut-tut,  cluck-cluck,  and  cow-cow. 

387.  YELLOW-BILLED  CUCKOO.   388.  BLACK-BILLED  CUCKOO. 
B.  Underparts  not  white. 

a.  Slate-color;  cap  and  tail  black;  inhabits  the  lower  growth;  call-note, 
nasal;  song  highly  musical  and  varied;  length  8' 50. 

704.  CATBIRD. 

6.  Grayish  brown;  conspicuously  crested;  a  black  line  through  the 
eye;  tail  tipped  with  yellow;  generally  seen  in  small  flocks;  note 
thin  and  weak;  length  7'00 619.  CEDAR  WAXWING. 


FIELD   KEY  137 

c.  Underparts  cream-buff;  a  conspicuous  whitish  line  over  the  eye; 
upperparts  rufous-brown;  movements  active;  tail  carried  erect; 
haunts  lower  growth;  notes  loud  and  striking;  length  5 '50. 

718.  CAROLINA  WREN. 
2.  Back  streaked. 

A.  Crown  rufous  or  chestnut  without  streaks. 

a.  Length  5'25;  bill  black;  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye;  a  familiar 

bird  of  lawns  and  dooryards;  song,  a  monotonous  chippy- 
chippy-chippy 560.  CHIPPING  SPARROW. 

b.  Length  5' 50;  bill  reddish  brown,  back  rufous,  or  rufous-brown; 

wing-bars  and  eye-ring  whitish;  haunts  dry,  bushy  fields  and 
pastures;  song,  a  musical,  plaintive  cher-wee,  cher-wee,  cher-wee, 
cheeo,  dee-dee-dee-dee 563.  FIELD  SPARROW. 

c.  Length  5 '50;  forehead  black;  crown  and  wings  chestnut-rufous; 

flanks  pale  grayish  brown;  haunts  marshes;  song,  a  rapidly 
repeated  weet-weet-weet,  etc 584.  SWAMP  SPARROW. 

B.  Crown  not  rufous  or  chestnut. 

a.  Length  6' 75;  crown,  blackish  with  a  central  whitish  stripe;  throat 

white;  breast  gray;  a  yellow  spot  before  the  eye;  haunts  in  and 
about  thickets  and  bushy  woodlands;  song,  a  high,  clear,  musical 
whistle;  call-note,  chink  .  .  .  558.  WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW. 

b.  Length    5*50;    crown   finely   streaked;    a    tree    climber,    winding 

patiently  up  tree  trunks  in  search  of  food;  tail-feathers  pointed. 

726.  BROWN  CREEPER. 

c.  Length  5' 50;  bill  slender;  a  white  line  over  the  eye;  tail  carried 

erect;  haunts  reedy  marshes;  call-note  scolding;  song,  rippling. 
725.  LONG-BILLED  MARSH  WREN. 
II.  Underparts  not  all  one  color. 

1.  Underparts  white  or  whitish,  streaked  or  spotted. 

A.  Back  streaked. 

a.  Crown  streaked ;  Underparts  conspicuously  streaked. 

a1.  Outer  tail-feathers  white,  showing  conspicuously  when  the 
bird  flies;  length  6' 00;  haunts  dry  fields  and  roadsides;  song 
loud  and  musical 540.  VESPER  SPARROW. 

ft1.  Outer  tail-feathers  not  white. 

62.  Length  6'00;  plumage  with  a  rufous-brown  cast;  spots  on  the 

breast  tending  to  form  one  large  spot  in  its  center ;  haunts  on  or 
near  the  ground,  generally  in  the  vicinity  of  bushes;  call-note, 
a  characteristic  chimp;  song  musical.  .  .  .581.  SONG  SPARROW. 

63.  Length  6'00 ;  no  rufous  in  the  plumage ;  streaks  on  the  underparts 

evenly  distributed;  frequently  seen  feeding  on  buds  or  blos- 
soms; call-note,  a  sharp  chink,  often  uttered  during  flight; 
song,  a  sweet,  flowing  warble  .  .  517.  PURPLE  FINCH  (Im.). 

b.  Crown  not  streaked,  rufous-brown;  underparts  whitish  with  an 

indistinct  blackish  spot  in  the  center  of  the  breast;  Oct.  to 
Apl 559.  TREE  SPARROW. 

B.  Back  not  streaked. 

a.  Upperparts  rufous,  olive-brown,  or  cinnamon-brown. 

a1.  Bill  slender  and  thrushlike;  breast  spotted  with  blackish. 

a2.  Length  11 '00;  tail  5'00;  wing- bars  white;  upperparts,  wings, 
and  tail  uniform  rufous;  haunts  undergrowth ;  sings  from  an 
exposed  and  generally  elevated  position;  song  loud,  striking 

and  continuous 705.  BROWN  THRASHER. 

fe2.  Length  under  9'00;  tail  under  3'00;  no  wing-bars. 

63.  Breast  and  sides  heavily  marked  with  large,  round^    black 

sp  ts  ;head  and  upper  back  brighter  than  lower  back  arid  tail ; 
call-note,  a  sharp  pit  or  liquid  quirt  .  755.  WOOD  THRUSH. 

64.  Breast  with  wedge-shaped    black  spots;    sides  unspotted, 

washed  with  brownish  ashy;  tail  rufous,  brighter  than  back; 
call-note,  a  low  chuck 7596.    HERMIT  THRUSH, 


138  GREBES 

65.  Upper  breast  lightly  spotted  with  small,  wedge-shaped,  black- 
ish spots;  tail  the  same  color  as  the  back;  sides  white;  call- 
note,  a  clearly  whistled  wheeu 756.  VEERY. 

bl.  Bill  short  and  stout;  breast  and  sides  heavily  spotted  with  rufous: 
length  7 '00;  haunts  on  or  near  the  ground,  generally  in  or  about 
shrubbery;  call-note,  tseep;  song  loud,  ringing,  and  musical. 

585.  Fox  SPARROW. 

6.  Back  olive-green;  center  of  crown  pale  rufous,  bordered  by  black; 
length  6" 00;  haunts  on  or  near  the  ground  in  woodland;  a  walker; 
song,  a  ringing  teacher,  teacher,  TEACHER,  TEACHER,  TEACHER. 

674.  OVEN-BIRD. 
V.  Underparts  not  white  or  whitish. 

A.  Throat  and  upper  breast  black  or  slate-color,  very  different  from 

the  white  or  chestnut  belly. 
a.  Throat  black. 

a1.  Belly  and  rump  chestnut;  head,  wings  and  tail  black;  haunta 
orchards,  shade  trees,  etc.;  song  highly  musical. 

506.  ORCHARD  ORIOLE. 
a2.  Belly  white;  sides  rufous;  tail  black  and  white;  haunts  under- 

growths;  call-note,  chewink  or  towhee 587.  TOWHEE. 

h.  Throat  slate-color. 

61.  Back  and  wings  slate-color;  outer  tail-feathers  and  belly  white; 
haunts  generally  on  or  near  the  ground  about  shrubbery;  Oct. 
to  Apl 567.  JUNCO. 

B.  Throat  streaked  with  black  and  white;  rest  of  underparts  rufous; 

upperparts  grayish  slate-color;  length  lO'OO 761.  ROBIN. 


I.  ORDER  PYGOPODES.  DIVING   BIRDS^ 

1.  FAMILY  COLYMBID^E.   GREBES.    (Fig.   22a.) 

The  Grebes,  or  lobe-footed  divers,  are  of  world-wide  distribution. 
Of  the  twenty-five  known  species,  six  are  North  American.  When, 
nesting,  Grebes  usually  frequent  reed^grown  ponds  or  sloughs,  but 
during  their  migrations  they  are  found  in  more  open  water  and  some 
species  pass  the  winter  well  off  the  coast. 

When  on  the  water,  Grebes  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  Ducks, 
but  where  the  Duck  would  fly  the  Grebe  usually  dives.  A  few  surface 
foot-strokes  are  the  usual  prelude  to  flight  and,  when  in  the  air,  the 
Grebe's  smaller  wings  and  shorter  tail  are  evident,  while  when  one  is 
near  enough  to  see  their  pointed  bill  no  doubt  is  left  of  their  family 
relationship. 

Grebes  are  eminently  aquatic  birds,  and  rarely  venture  far  on  land, 
where  their  slow  and  awkward  progress  is  more  or  less  assisted  by  their 
wings,  used  as  forefeet,  though  they  can  go  a  short  distance  aided 
by  feet  alone.  When  on  shore,  Grebes  either  lie  flat  on  their  breasts 
or  sit  erect  on  their  tails  and  entire  foot  or  tarsus. 

The  surprising  rapidity  with  which  Grebes  dive,  and  the  ease  with 
which,  formerly  at  least,  they  escaped  the  shot  of  the  fowler,  won  for 
them  such  descriptive  names  as  'Hell-diver/  'Water- witch/  etc.; 
but  the  cartridges  of  the  modern  breech-loader  do  not  give  the  warning 
of  the  discarded  flint-lock  or  percussion  cap,  and  to  "dive  at  the  flash" 


GREBES  139 

is  now  an  obsolete  expression.  In  diving,  Grebes  spring  partly  from  the 
water  and  plunge  downward,  headfirst,  or  sink  quietly  backward, 
leaving  scarce  a  ripple  behind.  Returning,  they  may  pop  suddenly 
from  beneath  the  surface,  or  rise  slowly  and  expose  only  the  bill  above 
the  water,  a  habit  which  accounts  for  many  apparently  mysterious  dis- 
appearances. When  under  water,  Grebes  progress  usually  by  aid  of  the 
feet.  With  other  diving  birds,  they  control  their  specific  gravity  by 
inhaling  or  exhaling  air,  and  it  has  lately  been  suggested  (Townsend, 
"Labrador  Spring,"  p.  191)  that,  by  compressing  their  feathers  and  expell- 
ing the  air  between  them,  the  birds  become  less  buoyant  when  diving. 

Grebes'  nests  are  usually  rafts  or  islands  of  water-soaked  vegetation. 
They  lay  from  three  to  nine  dull  white  eggs,  which  they  generally  cover 
with  the  nest-material  before  leaving.  The  young  are  born  covered  with 
down,  which,  in  most  species,  has  a  boldly  striped  pattern.  They  swim 
soon  after  hatching,  using  the  back  of  the  parent  as  a  resting-place. 

Grebes  feed  chiefly  on  fish,  but  eat  also  various  small  forms  of  aquatic 
life  and  some  vegetable  matter.  Their  stomachs  usually  contain  feathers, 
often  in  astonishing  numbers.  I  have  found  331  body  feathers  of  the 
adult  Western  Grebe  in  the  stomach  of  a  young  bird  of  this  species  not 
more  than  three  days  old.  This  feather-eating  habit  has  not,  I  believe, 
ever  been  explained.  The  close-plumed,  satiny  breasts  of  Grebes  have 
long  been  used  for  turbans,  muffs,  capes,  etc.,  and  their  slaughter  for 
commercial  purposes,  added  to  the  shrinkage  in  the  area  of  their  haunts, 
due  to  draining  and  land  Declamation,  has  greatly  reduced  their  numbers. 

KEY    TO    THE    SPECIES 

A.  Depth  of  bill  at  nostril  over  "35. 

a.  Wing  over   6'00     2.  HOLBCELL'S  GREBE. 

b.  Wing  under  6'00 6.  PIED-BILLED  GREBE. 

B.  Depth  <*tf  bill  at  nostril  less  than  '35 3.  HORNED  GREBE. 

1.  JEchmophorus  occidentalis  (Lawr.).  WESTERN  GREBE.  Neck  long 
and  slender;  no  seasonal  difference  in  plumage.  Ads. — Crown  and  hindneck 
black;  back  brownish  gray;  underparts  satiny  white;  inner- web  of  wing- 
quills  more  or  less  white.  L.,  26'00;  W.,  7'50;  B.,  2'60. 

Range. — W.  N.  A.  Breeds  from  B.  C.,  s.  Sask.,  and  s.  Man.  s.  to  n. 
Calif.,  Utah,  and  n.  N.  D.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.  s.  to  cen.  Mex.,  casual 
e.  to  Nebr.,  Kans.,  Wise.,  Minn.,  and  Que. 

Nest,  in  colonies  of  the  stems  and  leaves  of  aquatic  plants;  an  attached 
but  floating  raft,  or  an  island.  Eggs,  3-5,  pale  bluish  overlaid  with  chalky 
white,  2'39  x  1.55.  Date,  Devil's  Lake,  N.  D.,  June  1. 

The  long,  slender  neck  gives  to  this  species  a  singularly  stately 
and  swanlike  appearance.  It  is  an  exquisitely  graceful  creature,  and 
there  is  to  me  more  beauty  in  the  satiny  white  and  shining  black  of 
its  neck  and  head  than  in  the  ornate  breeding  costumes  of  some  other 
Grebes.  While  preening  their  plumage  they  often  lie  on  one  side  in  the 
water,  when  the  light  flashes  from  their  glistening  breasts  as  it  would 
from  a  mirror.  Their  call  is  a  loud,  double-toned,  grating,  whistle 
c-r-r-ee,  c-r-r-ee — which  can  be  clearly  heard  when  the  bird  is  out  of 


140  GREBES 

sight  on  the  open  waters  of  the  lake.  They  nest  in  colonies  often  con- 
taining hundreds  of  pairs,  and  I  have  known  them  voluntarily  to  spend 
much  time  away  from  their  nests,  leaving  the  eggs  uncovered.  I  have 
also  seen  the  bird  while  standing  nearly  erect  in  the  nest  place  some 
covering  over  the  eggs  before  sliding  into  the  water  at  my  approach. 
Thousands  of  these  birds  have  been  killed  for  their  breasts  by  millinery 
collectors. 

1902.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Among  the  Water-Fowl,  15-28.— 1908.  CHAPMAN, 
F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  302,  330,  348. 

2.  Colymbus  holboellii  (Reinh.).    HOLBCELL'S  GREBE.    Ads.  in  sum- 
mer.—  Top   of  head,   small   crest,   and  back  of  neck,   glossy  black ;   back 
blackish;  throat  and  sides  of  head  silvery  white;  front  and  sides  of  neck 
rufous,  changing  gradually  over  breast  into  the  silvery  white  belly;  sides 
tinged  with  rufous.    Ads.  in  winter.  —  Upperparts  blackish  brown;  throat 
and  underparts  whitish;  front  and  sides  of  neck  pale  rufous.    Im. — Upper- 
parts  blackish;  throat  and  underparts  silvery  white;  neck  and  sides  grayish. 
L.,  19-00;  W.,  7-50;  Tar.,  2'20;  B.,  1'90. 

Range. — N.  N.  A.  and  e.  Asia.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie, 
and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  n.  Wash.,  n.  Mont.,  and  sw.  Minn.;  winters  from  s. 
B.  C.,  s.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  and  Maine  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  Colo.,  the  Ohio  Valley, 
and  N.  C.;  casual  in  Ga.  and  Greenland. 

Washington,  uncommon  W.  V.,  Sept.  30-Mch.  or  Apl.  Long  Island,  W. 
V.,  Nov.  11-Apl.  7.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct.-Dec.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V. 
and  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  occasional  in  winter. 

Nest,  of  water-soaked,  decaying  vegetation,  an  island  or  floating  among 
rushes  in  a  slough,  generally  attached  to  its  surroundings.  Eggs,  3-8,  dull 
white,  more  or  less  soiled,  2'25  x  1'35.  Date,  Grant  Co.,  Minn.,  May  28. 

Although  this  large  Grebe  breeds  in  reed-grown  lake  borders,  at 
other  seasons  it  frequents  large  bodies  of  open  water,  and  in  winter 
resorts  to  the  sea,  where  I  have  seen  it  fifty  miles  from  land.  So  far  as 
my  experience  goes  it  thoroughly  covers  its  eggs,  even  when  frightened 
from  the  nest,  and  although  making  every  effort  to  avoid  being  seen, 
remains  near  its  home,  uttering  a  sharp  explosive  cluck  of  protest. 
Brewster  describes  its  call  as  deliberately  uttered  and  exceedingly 
loud  and  harsh,  not  unlike  the  voice  of  an  angry  Crow,  but  with  much 
greater  volume. 

1903.   SIM,  R.  J.,  Wilson  Bull.,  67-74,  (habits  in  captivity). 

3.  Colymbus  auritus  Linn.     HORNED  GREBB.     Ads.    in  summer. — 
Top  of  head,  hindneck,  and  throat,  glossy  blackish;   lores  pale   chestnut; 
stripe,  and  plumes  behind  eye,  buffy  ochraceous,  deeper  posteriorly;  back 
and  wings  blackish;  secondaries  white;  foreneck,  upper  breast  and  sides 
chestnut;  lower  breast  and  belly  white.     Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — Upper- 
parts   grayish    black;    underparts    silvery   white,   sometimes  washed  with 
grayish  on  the  throat  and  breast;  white  of  cheeks  nearly  meeting  on  hind- 
neck.    L.,  13'50;  W.,  5-40;  Tar.,  1'75;  B.,  '90. 

Remarks. — Differs  from  P.  poa^ceps,  in  more  pointed  bill,  more  white 
in  wing,  and,  in  winter,  has  no  brown  below. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  the  lower  Yukon,  n. 
Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  sw.  Ungava,  and  Magdalen  Islands,  s.  to  s.  B. 
C.,  n.  Utah,  n.  Nebr.,  cen.  Minn.,  s.  Ont.,  and  ne.  Maine;  winters  from  s. 
B.  C.,  s.  Ont.,  and  Maine  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  the  Gulf  coast,  and  Fla.;  casual  in 
Greenland. 


GREBES  141 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Aug.  20-Apl.  28.  Long  Island,  common 
W.  V.,  OcL  15-May  15.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Oct.-Dec.;  Mch.  Cam- 
bridge, T.  V.  uncommon  in  fall,  very  rare  in  spring.  N.  Ohio,  not  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  4-May  6;  Oct.  1-Nov.  25;  occasional  in  winter.  Glen  Ellyn, 
rare,  Mch.  31-Sept.  6.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.  Apl.  13. 

Nest,  of  water-soaked,  decaying  vegetation,  an  island  or  raft-floating 
among  rushes  in  a  slough,  generally  attached  to  its  surroundings.  Eggs,  2-7, 
dull  white,  more  or  less  soiled,  1'74  x  1'15.  Date,  Grant  Co.,  Minn.,  May  28. 

This  species  and  the  next  are  probably  frequently  mistaken  for  each 
other  in  life,  and  the  same  common  names  are  in  some  instances  appli- 
cable to  both.  In  breeding  costume  it  is  easily  identifiable,  but  in  the 
winter  it  is  a  grayish  bird.  In  flight  the  white  margin  to  its  secondaries  is 
clearly  displayed.  It  then  suggests  a  Gallinule,  but  is  smaller  and  paler. 
Ernest  Seton  writes  of  a  captive  individual:  "When  ordinarily  swim- 
ming, the  feet  strike  out  alternately,  and  the  progression  is  steady;  but 
sometimes  both  feet  struck  together,  and  then  the  movement  was  by 
great  bounds,  and  was  evidently  calculated  to  force  the  bird  over  an 
expanse  of  very  weedy  water,  or  through  any  tangle  of  weeds  or  rushes 
in  which  it  might  have  found  itself.  When  lifted  out  of  the  water,  the 
feet  worked  so  fast  as  to  be  lost  to  the.  eye  in  a  mere  haze  of  many 
shadowy  feet  with  one  attachment.  When  placed  on  the  ground,  it 
was  perfectly  helpless."  ("Birds  of  Manitoba,"  p.  466.)  H.  K.  Job 
writes  of  a  pair  of  Horned  Grebes  which  alighted  in  a  brook  and  could 
not  fly  out  "because  with  their  small  wings  they  require  a  lot  of  room  to 
flutter  and  patter  over  the  water  in  getting  started."  ("Sport  of  Bird 
Study,"  p.  272.)  The  same  author  writes  of  the  notes  of  this  species  as 
"a  quick  chatter  ending  with  several  prolonged  notes  I  can  only  describe 
as  yells."  ("Among  the  Water-Fowl,"  p.  33.) 

4.  Colymbus  nigricollis  calif ornicus  (Heerm.).  EARED  GREBE. 
Smaller  than  C.  auritus,  bill  wider  than  high  at  base;  adult  blacker  above, 
foreneck  black,  not  chestnut;  in  winter,  cheeks  grayer.  L.,  12*50;  W.,  £'20; 
1-70;  B., '80. 

Range. — W.  N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  Great  Slave  Lake,  and 
Man.  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  n.  Ariz.,  n.  Nebr.,  and  n.  Iowa.;  winters  from  cen. 
Calif,  to  Cape  San  Lucas  and  Guatemala;  e.  to  Kans.  in  migration;  casual 
in  Mo.,  Ind.,  and  Ont. 

Nest,  in  colonies,  of  water-soaked  vegetation,  an  island  or  floating  raft, 
when  usually  attached.  Eggs,  3-9,  dull  white  more  or  less  soiled,  1'73  x  1*19. 
Date,  Meckling,  N.  D.,  May  27. 

The  Eared  Grebe  barely  comes  within  our  limits.  It  nests  in  colonies 
often  containing  hundreds  of  birds.  They  cover  their  eggs,  even  when 
frightened  from  the  nest,  and  Job  observed  some  slipping  back  to  com- 
plete the  work.  Eggs  from  which  Job  removed  the  covering  placed  on 
them  by  the  bird,  were  soon  eaten  by  a  Franklin's  Gull,  evidence  that 
the  birds  cover  their  egg  to  prevent  their  being  seen.  Experience  on 
Crane  Lake,  Saskatchewan,  suggests  that  the  call  of  this  bird  resem- 
bles that  of  the  Pied-billed  Grebe. 

6.  Podilymbus  podiceps  (Linn.).  PIED-BILLED  GREBE.  (Fig.  22a.) 
Ads.  in  summer. — Upperparts  glossy,  brownish  black;  throat  black;  upper 


142  LOONS 

1  reast,  front  and  sides  of  neck,  and  sides  of  body,  washed  with  brownish 
and  indistinctly  mottled  with  blackish;  lower  breast  and  belly  white;  a 
black  band  across  bill.  Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — Much  like  the  above,  but 
throat  white  and  no  black  band  on  bill.  L.,  13 '50;  W.,  5' 10;  Tar.,  T45- 
B.,  '85. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin, 
Que.,  and  N.  B.,  s.  to  Chile  and  Argentina,  but  often  rare  or  local;  winters 
from  Wash.,  Tex.,  Miss.,  and  Potomac  Valley  southward. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Aug.  27- Apl.  24.  Long  Island,  probably 
P.  R.,  rare,  most  common  in  Sept.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  6-Apl.  20; 
Sept.  3-Oct.  28;  a  few  summer.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  common  in  fall,  formerly 
bred  in  one  locality;  Apl.  6-Nov.  10.  N.  Ohio,  often  common  T.  V.,  rare  S. 
R.  Apl.  1-May  10;  Sept.  1-Oct.  25.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  Mch. 
20-Nov.  4.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  2-Nov.  9. 

Nest,  of  water-soaked,  decaying  vegetation,  sometimes  built  up  from 
the  bottom  in  shallow  water,  sometimes  floating  among  rushes  in  a  slough, 
when  it  is  generally  attached  to  its  surroundings.  Eggs,  4-8,  dull  white, 
more  or  less  soiled  or  stained,  l'74xl'19.  Date,  Cambridge,  Apl.  23;  Seneca 
River  Marshes,  N.  Y.,  June  3;  Winnebago,  111.,  May  13;  se.  Minn.,  May  15. 

Any  Grebe  found  breeding  in  the  eastern  United  States  will  prob- 
ably prove  to  be  this  species  which,  generally  speaking,  is  the  best  known 
of  our  Grebes.  From  the  Ea¥ed  Grebe,  with  which  it  shares  various 
names  indicative  of  its  natatorial  powers,  it  may  be  known  by  its  brown 
breast,  and  the  absence  of  a  white  wing-patch.  Its  notes,  as  I  have 
heard  them  in  the  Montezuma  marshes,  are  very  loud  and  sonorous  with 
a  cwckoolike  quality,  and  may  be  written  cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow- 
cow-cow-cow-uh,  cow-uh,  cow-uh-cow-uh.  These  notes  vary  in  number, 
and  are  sometimes  followed  by  prolonged  wailing  cows  or  uhs,  almost 
human  in  their  expressiveness  of  pain  and  fear.  This  is  apparently 
the  love  song  of  the  male  in  which  his  mate  sometimes  joins  with  a  cuk- 
cuk-cuk — followed  by  a  slower  ughj  ugh,  unh.  ("Bird  Studies  with  a 
Camera/'  p.  70.) 

On  Heron  Lake,  Minnesota,  in  early  October,  I  have  seen  Pied- 
billed  Grebes  in  close-massed  flocks,  containing  a  hundred  or  more 
birds,  cruising  about  in  open  water. 

2.  FAMILY   GAVIID^J.  LOONS.    (Fig.  226.) 

A  family  containing  only  five  species,  inhabiting  the  northern  half 
of  the  Northern  Hemj^ghere.  The  Loons  are  scarcely  less  aquatic  than 
the  Grebes,  and  are  their  equals  as  divers  and  swimmers.  When  nest- 
ing, they  inhabit  fresh-water  lakes  "and  ponds,  but  during  the  winter 
are  maritime,  often  living  fifty  miles  or  more  from  land.  They  migrate 
by  day  (and  doubtless  also  by  night),  and  are  strong  fliers.  Being  larger 
than  Ducks,  and  smaller  or  with  shorter  necks  than  Geese,  they  should 
not  be  mistaken  for  either.  They  visit  the  land  rarely,  when  their 
clumsy  progress  is  assisted  by  the  use  of  bill  and  wings.  The  nest  is 
usually  a  mere  depression  on  a  mud-lump,  or  so  near  the  shore  that 
the  bird  can  slide  quickly  into  and  under  the  water,  to  come  to  the 
surface  some  distance  away.  Two  eggs  are  laid  and  the  young  are 


LOONS  143 

praecocial.    Loons  feed  chiefly  on  fish,  which  they  procure  by  diving, 
progressing  when  under  water  usually  by  aid  of  the  feet  alone. 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

1.  Throat  black  or  gray. 

A.  Throat  black. 

a.  Head  black 7.  LOON. 

b.  Head  ashy 9.  BLACK-THROATED  LOON. 

B.  Throat  gray,  foreneck  chestnut 11.  RED-THROATED  LOON. 

2.  Throat  not  black  or  gray. 

A.  Throat  white  or  whitish;  back  fuscous,  margined  with  grayish. 

a.  Wing  over  13'00;  base  of  bill  to  anterior  end  of  nostril  '75  or  over. 

7.  LOON  (Im.). 

6.  Wing  under  13'00;  base  of  bill  to  anterior  end  of  nostril  less  than  '75. 

9.  BLACK-THROATED  LOON  (Im.). 

B.  Throat  white  or  whitish;  back  fuscous,  spotted  with  white. 

11.  RED-THROATED  LOON  (Im.). 

7.  Gavia  immer  (Brunn.).  LOON.  (Fig.  226.)  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Upperparts,  wings,  tail,  and  neck  black  with  bluish  or  greenish  reflections; 
spaces  on  the  throat  and  sides  of  neck  streaked  with  white;  back  and  wings 
spotted  and  barred  with  white;  breast  and  belly  white;  sides  and  a  band  at 
base  of  under  tail-coverts  black  spotted  with  white.  Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — 
Upperparts,  wings  and  tail  blackish  margined  with  grayish,  not  spotted 
with  white;  underparts  white;  throat  sometimes  washed  with  grayish. 
L.,  32-00;  W.,  14'00;  Tar.,  3'40;  B.,  2*80. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  in  Am.  from  Kotzebue 
Sound,  Banks  Land,  Barrow  Strait,  and  n.  Greenland  s.  to  n.  Calif.,  n. 
Iowa,  n.  111.  (at  least  formerly),  n.  Ind.,  n.  Ohio,  n.  N.  Y.,  Pa.  (casually),  N. 
H.,  Mass,  (rarely),  and  N.  S.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
s.  New  England  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  the  Gulf  coast,  and  Fla. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Sept. -June.  Long  Island,  common  W. 
V.,  Aug.  10-May  31.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  and  Oct.  Cambridge, 
rare  T.  V.,  Apl.  to  early  May;  Sept. -Nov.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  T.  V., 
Mch.  17- Apl.  30;  Oct.  15-30.  Glen  Ellyn,  irregular,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  2 
-June  17.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  1-Noy.  9. 

Nest,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground  within  a  few  feet  of  the  water, 
sometimes  on  a  mud  lump  or  muskrat  house.  Eggs,  2,  grayish  olive-brown, 
thinly  spotted  with  blackish,  3-50  x  2-20.  Date,  Upton,  Maine,  June  15; 
Mitchell's  Bay,  Ont.,  May  31;  Pewaukee,  Wise.,  May  7;  se.  Minn., 
May  12. 

This  wild  inhabitant  of  our  northern  lakes  and  ponds  possesses  all 
the  characteristic  traits  of  the  Divers.  Its  remarkable  notes  are  thus 
described  by  J.  H.  Langille: 

'  'Beginning  on  the  fifth  note  of  the  scale,  the  voice  slides  through 
the  eighth  to  the  third  of  the  scale  above  in  loud,  clear,  sonorous  tones, 
which  on  a  dismal  evening  before  a  thunderstorm,  the  lightning  already 
playing  along  the  inky  sky,  are  anything  but  musical.  He  has  also 
another  rather  soft  and  pleasing  utterance,  sounding  like  who-who- 
who-who,  the  syllables  being  so  rapidly  pronounced  as  to  sound  almost 
like  a  shake  of  the  voice — a  sort  of  weird  laughter." 

Loons  may  be  seen  migrating  by  day  singly  or  in  small  companies, 
generally  at  a  considerable  height.  Their  flight  is  strong,  rapid  and 
direct.  They  winter  in  large  numbers  some  distance  off  the  Coast. 


144  LOONS 

I  have  seen  several  thousand  in  a  day  (March  9,  1907)  east  of  Hatteras 
when  sailing  from  New  York  to  Florida. 

1899.    MEAD,  J.  C.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.,  I,  21-24  (habits). 

The  YELLOW-BILLED  LOON  (8  Gavia  adamsi)  of  northwest  Alaska  and 
northern  Siberia  is  of  accidental  occurrence  in  Greenland.  It  closely 
resembles  G.  immer  but  has  the  bill  yellow. 

9.  Gavia  arctica  (Linn.} . — BLACK-THROATED  LOON.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Throat,  foreneck,  back,  wings,  and  tail  black,  with  purplish  and  bluish 
reflections;  a  band  of  white  streaks  on  throat;  sides  of  neck,  back,  and  wings 
streaked,  barred,  or  spotted  with  white;  top  of  head  and  nape  gray;  breast 
and  belly  white;  a  blackish  band  at  the  base  of  the  under  tail-coverts.  Ads. 
in  winter  and  Im. — Similar  in  color  to  U.  immer,  not  spotted  above  [with 
white.  L.,  27-00;  W.,  ll'OO;  Tar.,  2'60;  B.,  2'00. 

Remarks. — Immature  and  winter  birds  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
corresponding  stage  of  immer  by  their  small  size;  from  stellata  by  grayish 
margins  instead  of  white  spots,  bars,  or  margins  on  the  upperparts. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  Kotzebue  Sound, 
Alaska,  w.  along  n.  coast  of  Siberia,  on  islands  north  of  Europe,  and  from 
Cumberland  Sound  south  to  Ungava;  winters  in  the  s.  Canadian  Provinces; 
casually  s.  to  Colo.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  n.  Ohio,  and  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 

Long  Island,  A.  V.,  one  record.    N.  Ohio,  casual  on  Lake  Erie  in  winter. 

Nest,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground  within  a  few  feet  of  the  water. 
Eggs,  2,  grayish  olive-brown,  spotted  or  scrawled  with  blackish,  3'20  x  2*10. 
Date,  St.  Michael's,  Alaska,  June  6. 

This  species  is  a  very  rare  winter  visitant  to  the  northern  border 
of  the  United  States.  The  most  southern  record  of  its  occurrence  is 
April  29,  1893,  Sandpoint  lighthouse,  Long  Island  Sound.  (Dutcher, 
Auk,  X,  p.  265.) 

11.  Gavia  stellata  (Pont.).  RED-THROATED  LOON.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Back,  wings,  and  tail  fuscous,  more  or  less  spotted  with  white;  head  and 
neck  ashy  gray;  foreneck  chestnut',  back  of  the  neck  black,  streaked  with 
white;  breast  and  belly  white;  longer  under  tail-coverts  and  band  at  the  base 
of  shorter  ones  fuscous.  Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — Similar  to  G.  immer,  but 
back  spotted  with  white.  L.,  25'00;  W.,  ll'OO;  Tar.,  2'60;  B.,  2'00. 

Range. — N  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  In  Am.  breeds  from  cen.  Keewatin, 
cen.  Que.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  F.  and  n. ;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.  to  s.  Calif.,  and 
from  Maine,  and  the  Great  Lakes  to  Fla. ;  casual  in  interior  to  Mont., 
Mo.,  Nebr.,  and  Ariz.;  breeds  also  throughout  Arctic  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
winters  s.  to  the  Mediterranean  and  s.  China. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.,  Oct.  20  to  spring.  Long  Island,  common  T.  V., 
Sept.  14-Dec.  30;  Mch.  30-May  11.  Ossining,  casual  T.  V.  Cambridge, 
one  instance,  Oct.  N.  Ohio,  casual  on  Lake  Erie,  in  winter.  Glen  Ellyn,  very 
rare  T.  V.  spring  only,  Apl.  14-17.  SE.  Minn.,  rare  W.  R. 

Nest,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground  within  a  few  feet  of  the  water. 
Eggs,  2,  grayish  olive-brown,  sometimes  tinged  with  green  and  spotted 
with  blackish,  2-80  x  1-75.  Date,  Resolution  Is.,  H.  B.,  June  9;  Iceland, 
May  23. 

In  the  United  States  we  know  this  bird  only  as  a  winter  visitant 
when  it  occurs  along  our  coasts,  and,  less  commonly,  on  the  larger 
bodies  of  water  inland.  At  this  season  it  resembles  the  Loon  in  habita. 
Nelson  describes  its  notes  as  a  harsh  gr-r-ga,  gw,  gr-r-ga,  gr-r. 


PLATE  IX 


GANNET   (flying  over),   MURRES,  PUFFINS,  AND  RAZOR-BILLED  AUKS 
From  a  photograph  made  on  Bird  Rock,  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  July  24,  1898. 


AUKS,  MURRES,  AND  PUFFINS  145 

3.  FAMILY  ALCID^.  AUKS,  MURRES,  AND  PUFFINS.    (Fig.  22c.) 

Twenty-four  of  the  twenty-five  species  contained  in  this  family 
are  North  American,  and  all  are  confined  to  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  Only  seven  species  are  found  in  the  North 
Atlantic,  where  none  nests  south  of  Maine.  They  are,  without  excep- 
tion, maritime  birds,  visiting  our  bays  and  harbors  at  certain  seasons, 
but  passing  much  of  their  lives  on  the  open  sea.  They  go  ashore,  as  a  rule, 
only  to  nest,  when  they  gather  on  islets,  often  rocky  and  difficult  of 
access,  in  vast  numbers.  Puffins  stand  on  the  toes  and  run  about 
freely,  but  the  other  species  rest,  like  Grebes,  on  the  whole  foot  and 
tail,  and  their  progress  is  more  awkward.  Unlike  the  Grebes  and  Loons, 
they  use  their  wings  rather  than  their  feet  when  swimming  under  water. 
In  the  air,  their  flight  is  direct  and  rapid,  suggesting,  in  some  instances, 
that  of  a  Duck,  but  the  shorter  neck  should  prevent  confusion  here. 

The  Alcidce  feed  on  fish,  Crustacea,  sand-eels,  and  other  forms  of 
sea  life. 

1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  152-190.  (Apple- 
ton's). — 1902.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Among  the  Water-Fowl,  50-96.  (Doubleday). — 
1905.  Wild  Wings,  153-170.  (Houghton,  Mifflin.) 

KEY    TO    THE     SPECIES 

I.  Bill  under  '75     34.  DOVEKIE. 

II.  Bill  over '75.  * 

1.  Depth  of  bill  at  nostril  over  '60. 

A.  Bill  yellowish,  depth  at  nostril  over  TOO. 

13.  PUFFIN.  13a.  LAEGE-BILLED  PUFFIN. 

B.  Bill  black,  depth  at  nostril  under  TOO  .  .  32.  RAZOR-BILLED  AUK. 
2    Depth  of  bill  at  nostril  under  "60. 

A.  Wing-coverts  white  or  tipped  with  white. 

a.  Greater  wing-coverts  entirely  white    .  .  28.   MANDT'S  GUILLEMOT. 

b.  Basal  half  of  greater  wing-coverts  black.  .  27.  BLACK  GUILLEMOT. 

B.  No  white  on  wing-coverts. 

a.  Bill  over  1'60     30.   MURRE. 

6.  Bill  under  1'60 31.  BRUNNICH'S  MURRE. 

13.  Fratercula  arctica  arctica  (Linn.).  PUFFIN.  (Fig.  22,  c).  Ads. — 
Upperparts,  wings,  tail  and  foreneck  blackish,  browner  on  the  head  and 
foreneck;  nape  with  a  narrow  grayish  collar;  sides  of  the  head  and  throat 
white,  sometimes  washed  with  grayish;  breast  and  belly  white.  (Breeding 
birds  have  the  bill  larger  and  brighter,  and  a  horny  spine  over  the  eye.)  L., 
13-00;  W.,  6'10;  Tar.,  1'05;  B.,  1'85;  depth  of  B.  at  base  (in  winter),  T50. 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  n.  Atlantic.  Breeds  in  N.  Am.,  from 
Ungava  s.  to  Bay  of  Fundy  and  Maine;  winters  s.  to  Mass.,  casually  to 
L.  I.  and  Delaware  Bay. 

Long  Island,  A.  V.  in  winter. 

Nest,  in  a  burrow  in  the  ground  or  in  crevices  among  rocks.  Egg, 
1,  dull  white,  sometimes  with  obscure  markings,  2'49  x  1'68.  Date,  Bird 
Rock,  Que.,  May  26;  Cape  Whittle,  Lab.,  June  11. 

One  has  only  to  see  a  Puffin  to  realize  why  it  is  commonly  known  as 
'Sea  Parrot;'  and  when  the  bird  on  outstretched,  short,  rounded  wings 
hovers  for  a  moment  before  alighting,  it  bears  the  strongest  resemblance 


146  AUKS,  MURRES,  AND   PUFFINS 

to  a  Japanese  bird-kite.  In  flight  the  Puffin's  wings  move  more  rapidly 
than  those  of  the  Murre  and  Razorbill,  and  unlike  those  birds  it  stands 
only  on  its  toes,  and  can  run  about  easily  and  rapidly. 

While  Murres  and  Razorbills  usually  resort  to  rocky  islets  whose 
ledges  and  crannies  afford  nesting-sites,  Puffins  may  use  low-lying,  flat 
islands  in  the  turf  of  which  they  excavate  their  burrows.  It  was  a 
surprising  experience,  in  crossing  an  apparently  deserted  bit  of  ground 
on  the  Fame  Islands,  to  have  at  nearly  every  step  dozens  of  Puffins 
burst  from  the  earth  at  my  feet.  The  only  note  I  have  heard  from  a 
Puffin  is  a  hoarse  grunt  or  groan.  Puffins  can  inflict  serious  wounds 
with  their  powerful  bill,  which  they  use  ferociously. 

1883.  BREWSTEB,  W.,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XXII,  407  (habits). 

13a.  F.  a.  naumanni  (Norton).  LARGE-BILLED  PUFFIN.  Similar  to 
the  preceding,  but  larger.  W.,  6'80-7'4q;  B.,  2'00-2'30  (B.,  B.,  and  R.). 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  Arctic  Ocean,  from  n.  and  w.  Greenland 
to  Nova  Zembla. 

The  TUFTED  PUFFIN  (12  Lunda  cirrhata)  inhabits  the  North  Pacific 
from  California  to  Alaska.  The  specimen  figured  by  Audubon  was  said  by 
him  to  have  been  procured  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  River,  Maine. 
It  has  also  been  recorded  from  Greenland. 

The  ANCIENT  MURRELET  (21  Synthliboramphus  antiquus)  of  the  North 
Pacific  has  been  once  recorded  from  Wisconsin. 

27.  Cepphus  grylle  (Linn.).  BLACK  GUILLEMOT.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Sooty  bla*k,  lighter  below  and  with  slight  greenish  reflections  above;  lesser 
wing-coverts  and  terminal  half  of  the  greater  wing-coverts  white,  the  basal 
half  of  the  greater  coverts  black;  linings  of  the  wings  white.  Ads.  in  winter. — 
Upperparts  gray  or  black,  the  feathers  all  more  or  less  tipped  with  white; 
wings  as  in  summer;  underparts  white.  Im. — Upperparts  as  in  winter 
adults;  underparts  white,  mottled  with  black;  wing-coverts  tipped  with 
black.  L.,  13-00;  W.,  6'25;  Tar.,  1'25;  B.,  T20. 

Range. — Coasts  of  e.  N.  Am.  and  nw.  Europe.  In  Am.  breeds  from  s. 
Greenland  and  Ungava  to  Maine;  winters  from  Cumberland  Sound  s.  to 
Cape  Cod  and  casually  to  N.  J. ;  accidental  in  Pa. 

Long  Island,  A.  V.  in  winter,  one  record. 

Nest,  in  the  crevices  and  fissures  of  cliffs  and  rocky  places.  Eggs,  2-3, 
dull  white,  sometimes  with  a  greenish  tinge,  more  or  less  heavily  spotted 
with  clear  and  obscure  dark  chocolate  markings,  more  numerous,  and 
sometimes  confluent  at  the  larger  end.  2' 18  x  1'40.  Date,  Grand  Menan, 
N.  B.,  June  14. 

Whether  in  black  summer  or  grayish  winter  plumage,  the  Guille- 
mot's white  wing-coverts  on  a  black  wing  are  a  conspicuous  and 
unmistakable  identification  mark,  whether  the  bird  is  swimming  or 
flying. 

Guillemots  (in  England  this  name  is  %plied  to  the  Murre,  Lomvia) 
are  not  usually  found  in  the  great  colonies  of  Murres  and  Puffins,  but 
nest  apart  by  themselves.  They  stand  on  the  whole  foot  of  tarsus  and 
often  sit  or  lie  comfortably  on  their  lower  parts.  When  approached  they 
emit  a  high,  squealing  whistle,  opening  wide  their  coral-lined  mouths. 
They  feed  their  young  largely  on  sand-eels,  and  it  is  a  common  sight 
to  see  them  with  a  number  of  these  fish  hanging  from  the  sides  of  their 


AUKS,  MURRES,  AND  PUFFINS  147 

bill,  flying  low  over  the  water  to  the  base  of  the  breeding-cliff,  then 
rising  abruptly  to  the  nest  in  the  rocks  above. 

28.  Cepphus  mandti  (Mandt).  MANDT'S  GUILLEMOT.  Resembles 
the  preceding,  but  the  bases  of  the  greater  wing-coverts  are  white  instead 
of  black. 

Range. — Arctic  regions  of  both  continents.  Breeds  on  Arctic  islands 
s.  to  n.  Hudson  Bay  and  mainland  of  Siberia;  winters  in  Arctic  Ocean 
and  casually  s.  to  Norton  Sound  and  Lake  Ontario;  n.  in  migration  to 
lat.  84°. 

Nest,  in  crevices  and  fissures  of  cliffs  and  rocky  places.  Eggs,  2-3,  not 
distinguishable  from  those  of  C.  grylle,  2*34  x  1*15. 

A  more  northern  species  than  the  preceding,  which  it  doubtless 
resembles  in  habits. 

30.  Uria  troille  troille  (Linn.).  MURRE.  Ads.  in  summer. — Upper- 
parts,  wings,  tail  and  neck  all  around,  dark  sooty  brown,  blacker  on  back, 
wings  and  tail;  tips  of  secondaries,  breast  and  belly  white,  sides  more  or 
less  streaked  with  blackish.  Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — Upperparts,  wings, 
and  tail  much  as  in  summer;  underparts  white,  throat  more  or  less  washed 
with  sooty  brown,  flanks  sometimes  streaked  with  brownish,  and  feathers 
of  belly  more  or  less  lightly  margined  with  blackish.  L.,  16'00;  W.,  8*00; 
Tar.,  1'40;  B.,  1'75;  depth  of  B.  at  nostril,  '50. 

Remarks. — Some  specimens  have  a  white  ring  around  the  eye  and  a 
white  stripe  behind  it.  They  have  been  named  U.  ringvia  (Briinn.),  but 
are  generally  believed  to  represent  merely  an  individual  variation.  The 
case  is  unusual. 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  N.  Atlantic.  Breeds  in  N.  Am.  from  s. 
Greenland  and  s.  Ungava  s.  to  N.F.  and  Magdalen  Islands;  winters  s. 
to  Maine. 

Nests  in  communities,  side  by  side  on  the  bare  ledges  of  rocky  cliffs. 
Egg,  1,  pyriform,  pale  blue  or  greenish  blue  to  whitish  or  buffy,  singularly 
spotted,  scrawled,  or  streaked  with  shades  of  chocolate,  rarely  unmarked, 
3'25  x  2'00.  Date,  Bird  Rock,  Que.,  May  15. 

When  on  the  water,  Murres  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  Ducks, 
but  may  be  distinguished  by  their  short,  thick  necks  and  pointed  bill. 
Unlike  the  Razor-bill,  they  do  not  swim  with  upturned  tail.  When 
nesting,  probably  no  other  birds  are  more  closely  associated  than 
Murres.  They  often  gather  on  favorable  ledges  of  rocky  islets  in  such 
numbers  that  a  newcomer  finds  an  alighting  place  with  difficulty, 
while  the  place  vacated  by  a  departing  bird  is  immediately  filled  by 
pressure  from  all  sides.  Nevertheless  the  birds  lay  their  single  egg  on 
the  bare  rock,  and  under  these  apparently  unfavorable  conditions 
rear  their  young.  Long-continued  studies  of  Murres  on  the  coast  of 
Yorkshire  warrant  the  belief  that,  although  the  eggs  of  no*  two  Murres 
(or  Guillemot  as  it  is  termed  in  England)  are  alike,  those  of  the  same 
individual  more  or  less  closely  agree,  and  that  the  same  bird  lays  year 
after  year  on  the  same  ledge. 

Murres  perch  on  the  entire  foot  or  tarsus,  and  when  undisturbed 
usually  turn  their  back  to  the  sea  and  hold  their  egg  between  their  legs 
with  its  point  outward.    When  alarmed  they  face  about,  bob  and  bow 
and  utter  their  bass-voiced  murre. 
12 


148  AUKS,  MURRES,  AND  PUFFINS 

81.  Uria  lomvia  lomvia  (Linn.}.  BRUNNICH'S  MURRE.  Ads.  in 
summer.  —  Upperparts,  wings  and  tail  sooty  black;  foreneck  somewhat 
browner;  tips  of  secondaries,  breast  and  belly  white;  base  of  upper  mandible 
greenish,  rounded  outward  beyond  edge  of  lower  mandible.  L.,  16'50 
W.,  8-40;  Tar.,  T30;  B.,  1'25;  depth  of  B.  at  nostril  '47. 

Remarks. — Adults  are  to  be  distinguished  from  adults  of  U.  t.  troile  by  the 
darker  color  of  the  head,  which  in  lomvia  is  darker  than  the  throat,  by  the 
size  of  the  bill  and  thickening  of  its  cutting  edge  at  the  base.  Winter  and 
immature  birds  can  be  distinguished  from  those  of  U.  t.  troile  only  by  the  size 
of  the  bill,  which,  as  the  measurements  show,  is  longer  in  that  species. 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  the  n.  Atlantic.  Breeds  from  s.  Ellesmere 
Land  and  n.  Greenland  to  n.  Hudson  Bay  and  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  resident 
in  Greenland  and  Hudson  Bay;  s.  casually  in  winter  on  Atlantic  coast  from 
Maine  to  S.  C.,  and  in  interior  to  n.  Ohio,  cen.  Ind.,  and  cen.  Iowa. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  several,  Dec.  1896.  Long  Island,  W.  V.  Nov.  22- 
Mch.  24.  Ossining,  A.  V.  Cambridge,  two  records,  Nov.,  Dec.  N.  Ohio, 
casual  on  Lake  Erie  in  winter. 

Nests  in  communities,  side  by  side  on  the  bare  ledges  of  rocky  cliffs.  Egg, 
1,  not  distinguishable  from  that  of  U.  t.  troile.  Date,  Bird  Rock,  Que.,  June  17. 

Brtinnich's  Murre  often  nests  in  the  same  colonies  with  the  Common 
Murre,  which  it  resembles  in  habits,  and  from  which,  at  close  range, 
it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  shorter,  heavier  bill  and  swollen,  whitish 
margin  of  the  base  of  the  mandible.  The  downy  young  of  the  two  species 
can  be  distinguished  by  the  somewhat  hairy,  gray-streaked  back  of 
troile  as  compared  with  the  more  downy,  brown  mottled  back  of  lomvia. 
Both  utter  the  characteristic  screech  of  young  Murres  while  young 
Razor-bills  whistle.  This  species  sometimes  invades  the  interior  in 
numbers. 

1905.  FLEMING,  J.  H.,  Proc.  4th  Int.  Orn.  Cong.,  528-543. — 1910. 
EATON,  E.  H.,  Birds  of  New  York,  108,  109. 

32.  Alca  torda  Linn.  RAZOR-BILLED  AUK.  Ads.  in  summer. — Upper- 
parts,  wings  and  tail  sooty  black;  foreneck  somewhat  browner;  tips  of 
econdaries,  a  line  from  eye  to  bill,  breast,  and  belly  white;  bill  black, 
crossed  by  a  white  band.  Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  with  sides  and  front 
of  neck  white.  Im. — Similar  to  ad.  in  winter,  but  with  bill  smaller  and  with- 
out white  bar.  L.,  16'50;  W.,  7'90;  Tar.,  1'35;  B.,  T25. 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  the  n.  Atlantic.  Breeds  on  American 
side  of  s.  Greenland  to  N.  F.  and  N.  B. ;  winters  from  N.  B.  and  Ont.  to  L.  I. 
and  casually  to  N.  C. 

Long  Island,  W.  V.,  Nov.  2-Feb.  6. 

Nest,  in  the  crevices  and  fissures  of  cliffs  and  rocky  places  Eggs,  1-2, 
pale  bluish  white  or  buffy,  thickly  spotted  and  speckled  with  chocolate 
markings  most  numerous  and  sometimes  confluent  at  the  larger  end,  3*00  x 
1'90.  Date,  Bird  Rock,  Que.,  May  24. 

"When  brooding,  it  crouches  along,  not  across,  the  egg,  its  mate 
often  standing  near;  and  both  sexes  incubate,  though  the  male  may 
be  seen  bringing  food  to  the  sitting  female.  .  .  .  The  young  flutter 
from  the  rocks  to  the  sea,  or  are  taken  by  the  neck  and  carried  down 
by  the  parents.  They  are  at  first  very  loath  to  follow  the  old  bird  in 
diving,  and  remain  crying  plaintively  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  Razor-bill  utters  a  peculiar  grunting  or  groaning,  especially  when 
sitting.  On  the  water  it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Guillemot, 
[=Murre]  at  a  distance,  by  its  upturned  tail."  (Saunders.) 


AUKS,  MURRES,  AND   PUFFINS 


149 


33.  Plautus  impennis  (Linn.).  GREAT  AUK.  Upper-parts  fuscous- 
black,  a  large  white  spot  before  the  eye ;  secondaries  tipped  with  white ;  sides 
of  the  neck  and  throat  seal-brown,  rest  of  the  underparts  silvery  white.  L., 
28-00-30-00;  W.,  5'75;  B.,  3'15-3'50;  greatest  depth  of  B.,  1'50  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Formerly  coasts  and  islands  of  the  n.  Atlantic,  from  near  the 
Arctic  Circle  s.  to  Mass,  and  Ireland,  and  probably  s.  casually  to  S.  C. 
and  Fla. ;  now  extinct. 

Egg,  1,  pyriform-ovate,  pale  olive  buffy,  variously  marked  with  brown 
and  black,  4' 67  x  2 '91  (Ridgw.). 

The  Great  Auk  was  flightless.    Like 
other  birds  of  this  family,  it  frequented 
certain  localities  in  large  numbers  each 
year  to  breed.    Early  voyagers  and  fisher- 
men  visited  its   nesting-grounds,   killing 
the  helpless  birds  in  enormous  numbers 
for    their    flesh,    feathers    and    oil.    The 
result  was  extinction,  and  no  living  Great 
Auk  has  been  observed 
since      1842.       About 
seventy  specimens  are 
known  to  be  preserved 
in  collections. 

In  1902,  two  humeri 
of  the  Great  Auk,  both 
from  the  left  side,  were 
found  in  a  shell-mound 
at  Ormond,  Fla.  (Hay, 
Auk,  XIX,  p.  255), 
where  their  discovery 
gives  new  meaning  to 
Catesby's  statements 
that  the  "Penguin" 
was  a  winter  visitant 


FIG.  77.    Great  Auk.    Note  the  short  wings  of  a 
flightless  bird.    (Much  reduced.) 


to  South  Carolina. 
1888.    LUCAS,  F.  A.,  Auk,  V,  278-283.— 1887-8,  Rep.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus., 
493-529.— 1891.    Ibid.,  709-728  (history).— 1893.    NEWTON,  A.,  Dictionary 
of  Birds  (history,  bibliography). 

34.  Alle  alle  (Linn.).  DOVEKIE.  Ads.  in  summer.  —  Upperparts, 
T.ings  and  tail  sooty  black;  sides  and  front  of  neck  and  upper  breast  some- 
y  hat  browner;  secondaries  tipped  and  scapulars  streaked  with  white; 
lower  breast  and  belly  white.  Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — Similar,  but  throat 
\vliiter  or  washed  with  dusky,  and  sometimes  a  gray  collar  on  nape.  L.. 
800;  W.,  4-50;  Tar.,  "70;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  the  n.  Atlantic.  Breeds  from  Kane 
Basin  and  Baffin  Bay  east  to  Franz  Josef  Land;  winters  from  s.  Greenland 
s.  to  L.  L,  and  casually  to  Delaware  Bay  and  N.  C.;  accidental  near 
Melville  Island,  and  in  Wise.,  Mich.,  Ont.,  and  Bermuda. 

Long  Island,  Nov.  18-Mch.  24.  Ossining,  A.  V.  Cambridge,  irregular 
T.  V.,  late  fall  or  winter. 

Nest,  on  the  ledges  and  in  the  crevices  of  rocky  cliffs.  Egg,  1,  pale, 
bluish  white,  1'85  x  T27.  Date,  Disco  Bay,  Greenland,  June  28. 

"On  the  approach  of  a  vessel  this  bird  has  a  peculiar  way  of  splash- 


150  JAEGERS  AND  SKUAS 

ing  along  the  surface  of  the  water,  as  if  unable  to  fly,  and  then  diving 
through  the  crest  of  an  advancing  wave;  it  swims  rather  deep  and 
very  much 'by  the  stern.'  .  .  ."  (Saunders). 

"Its  wings  are  small,  but  they  are  moved  almost  as  rapidly  as  a 
Hummingbird's,  and  propel  the  bird  through  the  air  with  great  rapid- 
ity. This  bird  is  an  expert  diver  too,  and,  though  awkward  on  land, 
swims  with  ease  and  grace.  .  .  ."  (Chamberlain). 

1900-02.   FIGGINS,  J.  D.,  Abst.  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.,  61-88  (use  of,  for  food). 


II.  ORDER   LONGIPENNES.   LONG-WINGED    SWIMMERS 

4.  FAMILY  STERCORARIID^E.  JAEGERS  AND  SKUAS.  (Fig.  23a.) 

Three  of  the  seven  known  members  of  this  family  are  birds  of  Ant- 
arctic seas;  the  remaining  four  nest  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere,  but  at  other  seasons  are  widely  distributed.  Except 
when  nesting,  they  are  maritime,  but  at  times  are  found  on  large  bodies 
of  water  inland. 

The  Jaegers  are  the  pirates  among  birds  of  the  high  seas.  With 
strong  and  dashing  flight,  they  successfully  pursue  Gulls  and  Terns, 
forcing  them  to  disgorge  their  prey.  They  carry  their  predaceous 
habits  to  their  nesting-grounds  on  the  tundras,  where  they  feed  upon 
the  young  of  other  birds  and  even  upon  mice  and  lemmings. 

K*EY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

A.  Bill  over  1*35;  tarsus  over  1*70;  middle  tail-feathers  never  pointed. 

a.  Bill  over  1'90 35.  SKUA. 

b.  Bill  under  1'90 36.  POMARINE  JAEGER. 

B.  Bill    under    1*35;   tarsus    under    1'70;    middle    tail-feathers    generally 

pointed. 

a.  Scaly  shield  on  the  bill  longer  than  the  distance  from  its  end  to  the  tip 

of  the  bill 37.  PARASITIC  JAEGER. 

b.  Scaly  shield  on  the  bill  shorter  than  the  distance  from  its  end  to  the  tip 

of  the  bill 38.  LONG-TAILED  JAEGER, 

35.  Megalestris   skua  (Brunn.).    SKUA.   Ads. — Upperparts,  tail,    and 
wings  dark,  dirty  brown;  shafts  of  the  wing  and  tail-feathers  white,  except 
at  the  tip ;  outer  wing-feathers  with  inner  vanes  white  at  the  base ;  under- 
parts  somewhat  lighter;  neck  more  or  less  streaked  with  whitish.    Int. — 
"Similar  to  adult,  but  more  distinctly  streaked  with  yellowish,  especially 
on  the  head  and  neck."    L.,  22'00;  W.,  15'91;  Tar.,  2'63;  B.,  2'06  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  the  n.  Atlantic.  Breeds  on  Lady  Franklin 
Island  (Hudson  Strait),  in  Iceland,  ori  the  Faroe  arid  Shetland  islands; 
winters  on  fishing  banks  off  N.  F.  and  N.  S.;  casually  to  L.  I.,  in  Europe  s. 
to  Gibraltar. 

Long  Island,  one  record. 

Nest,  of  grass,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2,  pale  olive-brown  or  greenish 
gray  spotted  with  chocolate,  2' 80  x  1'90.  Date,  Greenland,  May  5. 

36.  Stercorarius    pomarinus    (Temm.}.    POMARINE    JAEGER.     Ads. 
light  phase. — Very  similar  in  color  to  corresponding  phase  of  S.  parasiticus, 


JAEGERS  AND  SKUAS  151 

but  with  the  upperparts  darker,  nearly  black.  Ads.  dark  phase  and  1m. — • 
Similar  in  color  to  corresponding  stages  of  S.  parasiticus.  L.,  22*00;  W., 
13-50;  T.,  Ad.,  8'00;  Im.,  5'40;  Tar.,  2'00;  B.,  1'55. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  two  following  by 
its  larger  size  and  the  rounded  ends  of  its  central  tail-feathers. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  Melville  Island  and 
cen.  Greenland  s.  to  n.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  Melville  Peninsula,  and  Baffin 
Land,  and  also  on  Arctic  islands  of  E.  Hemisphere;  winters  off  Atlantic 
coast,  s.  to  N.  J.;  common  fall  migrant  on  coast  of  Calif.;  winters  s.  to 
Galapagos,  Peru,  Africa,  and  Australia;  accidental  in  Nebr. 

"Long  Island,  regular  from  June  15-Oct.  30  (Butcher).  Ossining,  A.  V. 
N.  Ohio,  casual  on  Lake  Erie. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-3,  deep  olive-drab  sparingly  spotted 
with  slate  color,  and  light  and  dark  raw-umber  markings  and  black  dots, 
chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  where  confluent,  2'25  x  1*70  (Brewer).  Date, 
Cape  Lisburne,  Alaska,  June  10. 

37.  Stercorarius  parasiticus  (Linn.).  PARASITIC  JAEGER  (Fig.  23a). 
Ads.  light  phase. — Back,  wings  and  tail  slaty  fuscous;  top  of  head  and  lores 
nearly  Mack;  sides  of  head  and  back  of  neck  straw-yellow,  this  color  some- 
times spreading  down  sides  of  neck  and  on  throat;  breast  and  belly  white; 
sides  of  breast,  flanks,  lower  belly,  and  crissum  slaty  fuscous;  tarsi  and  feet 
(in  dried  specimens)  black;  middle  tail-feathers  pointed  and  extending 
about  3 '00  beyond  the  others.  Ads.,  dark  phase. — Entire  plumage  dark,  slaty 
brown,  darker  on  top  of  head;  underparts  slightly  lighter;  sometimes 
a  trace  of  straw-yellow  on  sides  and  back  of  neck;  tarsi,  feet  and  tail  as  in 
preceding.  Im.,  light  phase. — Upperparts,  wings  and  tail  fuscous;  feathers  of 
back,  neck  and  head  more  or  less  bordered,  tipped  or  barred  with  buffy; 
hindneck  and  head  sometimes  buffy,  streaked  or  barred  with  fuscous,  and 
varying  from  this  color  to  plain  fuscous;  longer,  lateral  upper  tail-coverts 
barred  with  buffy;  tail  buffy,  whitish  at  base;  urfler  wing-coverts  barred 
with  buffy;  underparts  white,  washed  with  buffy,  and  irregularly  barred 
with  sooty  fuscous;  these  bars  sometimes  very  numerous  when  the  under- 
parts look  as  if  washed  with  sooty  fuscous ;  again,  they  may  be  less  numerous 
and  confined  to  breast  and  sides,  leaving  the  belly  white;  central  tail-feathers 
pointed,  projecting  more  or  less  beyond  rest.  Im.,  dark  phase. — Sooty  fus- 
cous feathers,  particularly  on  underparts,  more  or  less  marked 'with  ochrace- 
ous-buff.  L.,  17-00;  W.,  13'00;  T.,  Ad.,  8'60;  Im.,  6'40;  B.,  1'15. 

Remarks. — This  species  closely  resembles  S.  longicaudus.  Adults  of  both 
species,  whether  in  the  dark  or  light  phase  of  plumage,  may  always  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  the  difference  in  the  length  of  their  central 
tail-feathers,  in  addition  to  the  characters  given  in  the  key.  Young  birds 
can  not  be  distinguished  by  color,  but  may  be  identified  by  the  differences  in 
relative  proportions  of  the  bill.  Eaton  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in 
parasiticus  the  shafts  of  all  the  primaries  are  white,  while  in  longicaudus 
only  the  outer  two  or  three  are  white,  the  rest  being  abruptly  brownish. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  Melville 
Island,  and  n.  Greenland  s.  to  Aleutian  Islands,  cen.  Mackenzie  (Great 
Slave  Lake),  and  cen.  Keewatin,  and  on  Arctic  islands  of  Siberia  and  of  n. 
Europe  s.  to  Scotland;  winters  from  the  Aleutian  Islands  s.  to  Calif.,  from 
New  England  coast  s.  to  Brazil,  in  Australia,  and  from  coast  of  Europe  s. 
to  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  casual  in  interior  to  the  Great  Lakes,  Mo.,  Kans.  and 
Colo. 

Long  Island,  regular,  Apl.  30;  Aug.  6-Nov.  9.  N.  Ohio,  casual  on  Lake 
Erie. 

Nest,  on  the  moors  or  tundras,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground  scantily 
lined  with  grasses,  etc.,  or  on  rocks  by  the  sea.  Eggs,  2-4,  light  olive-brown, 
with  frequently  a  strong  greenish  tinge  and  chocolate  markings,  more 
numerous  and  sometimes  confluent  at  the  larger  end,  2'25  x  1'65.  Date, 
Iceland,  May  23;  Bering  Island,  Kamchatka,  May  29. 


152  GULLS 

38.  Stercorarius  longicaudus  VieilL  LONG-TAILED  JAEGER.  Ads. 
light  phase. — Back,  wings  and  tail  slaty  fuscous;  top  of  head  and  lores 
nearly  black;  sides  of  head,  back  and  sides  of  neck  straw-yellow;  throat 
sometimes  washed  with  same  color;  underparts  white;  sides,  lower  belly, 
and  crissum  slaty  fuscous;  central  tail-feathers  extending  about  7'00  beyond 
the  others,  the  projecting  ends  narrow  and  pointed.  (No  dark  phase  of 
this  species  has  been  described.)  Im. — Similar  in  plumage  to  im.  of  S. 
parasiticus,  but  differing  otherwise  as  pointed  out  under  that  species.  L.t 
21-00;  W.,  12-50;  T.,  Ad.,  12'00.,  Im.,  5'50;  B.,  1'08. 

Range. — N.  part  of  the  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  on  Arctic  islands  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  coasts  of  Kotzebue  and  Norton  sounds,  n.  Mackenzie, 
and  n.  Hudson  Bay  to  n.  Greenland;  winters  s.  to  Gibraltar  and  Japan; 
not  rare  in  migration  off  New  England;  casual  on  the  Pacific  coast  s.  to 
Calif .;  accidental  in  Man.,  Iowa,  111.,  and  Fla. 

Long  Island,  casual,  Oct. 

Nest,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground,  sometimes  scantily  lined  with 
grasses.  Eggs,  2-3,  similar  in  color  to  those  of  the  preceding,  2' 10  x  1'50. 
Date,  Southern  Greenland,  June  1. 

5.  FAMILY  LARID^E.  GULLS  AND  TERNS.   (Figs.  236,  24.) 

This  family  contains  about  100  species,  divided  equally  between 
subfamily  Larince  (Gulls)  and  subfamily  Sternirux  (Terns).  They  are 
distributed  throughout  the  world.  Some  forty  species  inhabit  North 
America.  With  few  exceptions,  they  agree  in  possessing  the  marked 
characters  of  their  respective  subfamilies,  under  which  they  may  be 
more  conveniently  treated. 

Subfamily  Larince.  Gulls.   (Fig.  236.) 

The  fifty  odd  members  of  this  subfamily  are  distributed  throughout 
the  world;  twenty-five  of  them  have  been  recorded  from  North  America, 
where  the  greater  number  nest  north  of  the  United  States;  in  Eastern 
North  America,  the  Laughing  Gull  being  the  only  species  which  nests 
south  of  latitude  41°. 

Franklin's  Gull  is  a  bird  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  many  of 
the  maritime  species  nest  on  the  islands  of  inland  lakes,  where,  indeed, 
they  may  be  represented  throughout  the  year;  but,  as  a  family,  Gulls 
are  true  birds  of  the  sea  and  its  bays.  They  throng  our  harbors  from 
early  fall  to  late  spring,  and  during  this  season  are  ever  in  attendance 
on  coast-wise  craft,  and  are  not  wanting  in  mid-ocean. 

Gulls  average  larger  and  stockier  than  Terns,  and  have  less  pointed, 
broader  wings,  and,  as  a  rule,  square  tails.  They  procure  their  food 
largely  by  picking  it  from  the  surface  of  the  water  with  their  strong, 
hooked  bills,  not  by  plunging  or  darting,  as  do  the  Terns.  They  are 
among  nature's  scavengers  of  the  water,  and  perform  a  service  of  great 
value  to  man  by  devouring  various  forms  of  aquatic  animals  which, 
in  dying,  come  to  the  surface.  .They  also  aid  in  freeing  the  waters  of 
our  harbors  from  the  garbage  which  inevitably  finds  its  way  there. 
Although  feeding  thus  on  offal,  most  Gulls  are  highly  predaceous  and 


PLATE  X 


I 
Bt 


Bonaparte's  Gull. 


GULLS  AND  PETRELS 
Herring  Gull. 


Wilson's  Petrel. 


GULLS  153 

feed  upon  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  other  birds  among  which  they  nest, 
rarely,  however,  preying  on  their  own  species. 

Gulls  are  buoyant  swimmers,  and,  unlike  Terns,  rest  and  roost  on 
the  water,  often  gathering  in  close-massed  "beds."  They  nest  in  colonies 
on  islands.  The  young  are  born  covered  with  down  of  mottled  pattern, 
and  though  they  may  leave  the  nest  in  their  natal  dress,  are  dependent 
on  their  parents  until  they  acquire  the  power  of  flight.  The  voices 
of  Gulls  possess  a  certain,  indescribable  human  quality  which  adds 
in  no  small  degree  to  the  impression  created  when  storms  rule  and 
these  wild  cries  are  heard  above  the  tumult  of  wind  and  wave. 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

I.  Wing  over  15'00. 

1.  Back  dark  slaty  black 47.  BLACK-BACKED  GULL. 

2.  Back  not  dark  slaty  black. 

A.  Back  pearl-gray. 

a.  Outer  primaries  marked  with  black  ....  51.  HERRING  GULL. 

b.  No  black  on  primaries. 
b1.  Bill  under  2'00. 

bz.  Primaries  light  pearl-gray,  fading  gradually  into  white  at 
their  tips 43.  ICELAND  GULL. 

/;3  Primaries  pearl  gray,  tipped  with  white,  and  with  well-de- 
fined gray  spaces  on  the  outer  webs  of  the  outer  two 
primaries  and  on  both  webs  of  the  third  and  fourth 

primaries 45.  KUMLIEN'S  GULL. 

c1.  Bill  over  2'00 42.  GLAUCOUS  GULL. 

B.  Back  grayish,  whitish,  or  brownish,  or  mottled  or  spotted  with 

grayish  or  brownish. 

a.  Tail  black  or  blackish,  with  or  without  irregular  white  markings. 
a1.  Wing  over  17' 50;  depth  of  bill  at  nostril  over  '70. 

47.  BLACK-BACKED  GULL  (Im.). 
a2.  Wing  under  17*50;  depth  of  bill  at  nostril  under  '70. 

51.  HERRING  GULL  (Im.). 

b.  Tail  white  or  whitish  or  grayish  brown,  with  or  without  black 

markings. 

ft1.  Bill  under  2'00 43.  ICELAND  GULL  (Im.). 

b\  Bill  over  2'00 ,  .  42.  GLAUCOUS  GULL  (Im.). 

II.  Wing  under  15'GO. 
1.  Tail  white. 

A.  Head  and  throat  slaty  black. 

a.  Outer  primary  black  or  mostly  black. 

a1.  Outer  primary  entirely  black 58.  LAUGHING  GULL. 

a2.  Inner  half  of  inner  web  of  first  primary  white. 

62.  SABINE'S  GULL. 

b.  Outer  primary  mostly  white. 

61.  Tip  of  first  primary  white 59.  FRANKLIN'S  GULL. 

62.  Tip  of  first  primary  black 60.  BONAPARTE'S  GULL. 

B.  Head  white,  sometimes  washed  with  pearl-gray. 

a.  Wings  white 39.  IVORY  GULL. 

6.  Primaries  with  more  or  less  black. 
61.  Wing  over  ll'OO. 

62.  Hind- toe  very  small,  without  a  nail ....  40.  KITTIWAKE. 

63.  Hind-toe  normal,  with  a  nail  .  .  .  54.  RING-BILLED  GULL. 
c1-    Wing  under  ll'OO     ......  61.  Ross's  GULI,. 


154 


GULLS 


2.  Tail  marked  with  black. 

A.  Wing  over  13'25. 

a.  Primaries  mostly  white 39.  IVORY  GULL   (Im.) 

b.  Primaries  black  or  mostly  black  .  .  54.  RING-BILLED  GULL  (Im.). 

B.  Wing  under  13'25. 

a.  Hind- toe  very  small,  without  a  nail  ....  40.  KITTIWAKE  (Im.), 

b.  Hind-toe  normal,  with  a  nail. 

b1.  Tarsus  1'50  or  over 58.  LAUGHING  GULL  (Im.), 

c1.  Tarsus  under  1*50. 

c2.  Secondaries  pearl  color,  tail  square. 

60.  BONAPARTE'S  GULL  (Im.), 
c3.  Secondaries  mostly  white,  tail  rounded. 

61.  Ross's  GULL  (Im.) 


FIQ.  78.  First  primaries  of  adult  Gulls,  seen  from  below:  (a)  Herring  Gull;  (6)  Ring- 
billed  Gull;  (c)  Laughing  Gull;  (d)  Franklin's  Gull;  (e)  Bonaparte's  Gull. 

39.  Pagophila  alba  (Gunn.).  IVORY  GULL.  Ads. — Entire  plumage 
pure  white;  bill  yellow,  feet  black.  Im. — Similar  to  ad.,  but  wing  and  tail- 
feathers,  and  sometimes  wing-coverts,  with  a  black  spot  at  their  tips.  L., 
17-00;  W.,  13'25;  T.,  5*50;  B.,  1'35. 

Range. — Arctic  seas.    Breeds  in  high  Arctic  latitudes  from  Melville 


GULLS  155 

Island  and  n.  Baffin  Land  to  n.  Greenland,  and  on  Arctic  islands  of  E. 
Hemisphere;  winters  in  the  Arctic  regions  and  casually  s.  to  B.  C.,  Lake 
Ont.,  and  L.  I.;  in  Europe,  s.  to  France. 

Long  Island,  A.  V.,  one  record,  Jan. 

Nest,  of  grass,  moss,  and  feathers  on  rocky  cliffs.  Eggs,  light  yellowish 
olive,  marked  with  small  blotches  of  brown  and  larger  cloudings  of  lilac, 
2'45  x  1-70  (Brewer).  Date,  Prince  Patrick's  Island,  Arctic-Ocean,  June  18. 

"The  Ivory  Gulls  appear  to  spend  most  of  the  time  amid  the  pack- 
ice,  often  at  a  long  distance  from  land"  (Chamberlain). 

40.  Rissa  tridactyla  tridactyla  (Linn.).  KITTIWAKE.  Ads.  in  sum- 
mer.— Head,  neck,  tail  and  underparts  pure  white;  back  and  wings  pearl- 
gray;  outer  web  of  first  primary  and  3 '00  of  the  ends  of  first  and  second 
primaries  black;  third  to  fifth  primaries  black  at  ends  and  with  white  tips; 
hind-toe  very  small,  a  mere  knob  without  a  nail;  bill  yellowish,  feet  black. 
Ads.  in  winter. — Similar  to  above,  but  top  of  head  and  back  of  neck  washed 
with  pearl-gray,  and  a  dark  spot  about  eye.  Im. — Similar  to  winter  adults, 
but  with  the  back  of  the  neck,  lesser  wing-coverts,  and  part  of  the  tertials 
black;  tail,  except  outer  pair  of  feathers,  with  a  black  band  at  its  tip;  four 
outer  primaries  black,  except  the  inner  half  or  more  of  their  inner  webs; 
fifth  and  sixth  tipped  with  black  and  white;  bill  black,  feet  yellowish. 
L.,  16-00;  W.,  12-00;  T.,  4'50;  B.,  1'30. 

Remarks. — This  species  can  always  be  distinguished  by  the  small  size 
of  the  hind-toe. 

Range. — Arctic  regions.  Breeds  from  Wellington  Channel  and  n. 
Greenland,  s.  to  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  from  Arctic  islands  of  Europe 
and  w.  Siberia  to  s.  France;  winters  from  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  s.  to  N.  J., 
and  casually  to  Va.,  Bermuda,  and  the  Great  Lakes;  accidental  in  Mo., 
Colo.,  and  Wyo. 

Long  Island,  common  W.  V.,  Nov.  4-Feb.  27. 

Nest,  of  grass,  moss,  and  seaweed  in  colonies  on  the  ledges  of  rocky  cliffs. 
Eggs,  3-5,  varying  from  shades  of  buffy  to  grayish  brown,  distinctly  and 
obscurely  marked  with  chocolate,  2'25  x  1*60.  Date,  Bird  Rock,  Que.,  May  23. 

"Our  bird  differs  but  little  in  its  habits  from  other  oceanic  Gulls. 
Feeding  chiefly  on  fish,  but  accepting  any  diet  that  drifts  within  range 
of  its  keen  sight;  drinking  salt-water  in  preference  to  fresh;  breasting 
a  gale  with  ease  and  graces-soaring  in  midair,  skimming  close  above 
the  crested  waves,  or  swooping  into  the  trough  for  a  coveted  morsel; 
resting  upon  the  rolling  billows,  and  sleeping  serenely  as  they  roll, 
with  head  tucked  snugly  under  a  wing;  wandering  in  loose  flocks, 
and  making  comrades  of  other  wanderers;  devoted  to  mate  and  young, 
and  attached  to  all  its  kin — wherever  seen  or  however  employed,  the 
Kittiwake  is  revealed  as  a  typical  gleaner  of  the  sea. 

"The  name  is  derived  from  the  bird's  singular  cry,  which  resembles 
the  syllables  kitti-aa,  kitti-aa"  (Chamberlain). 

42.  Larus  hyperboreus  Gunn.  GLAUCOUS  GULL.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Back  and  wings  pale  pearl-gray;  primaries  lightly  tinted  with  pearl,  inner 
half  of  their  inner  webs  and  tips  fading  gradually  into  white ;  rest  of  plumage 
pure  white.  Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  with  head  and  neck  lightly  streaked 
with  grayish.  Im. — Upperparts  varying  from  ashy  gray  to  white,  feathers 
widely  barred,  mottled,  or  streaked  with  buffy  or  ashy  gray;  primaries 
varying  from  pale  smoky  gray  to  pure  white;  tail  ashy  or  brownish  gray; 
underparts  varying  from  dirty  whitish  to  ashy  gray,  generally  darker  on 
belly,  sometimes  mottled  witti  bu,ffy  or  grayish.  (Birds  of  the  second  year 


156  GULLS 

are  said  to  be  pure  white.)  L.,  28*00;  W.,  17' 10;  B.,  2'35;  depth  of  B.  at 
projection  on  the  lower  mandible  "75  to  I'OO;  Tar.,  2*60. 

Range. — Arctic  regions.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  Melville  Island,  and 
n.  Greenland  s.  to  Aleutian  Islands,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Ungava,  and  on  Arc- 
tic islands  of  E.  Hemisphere;  winters  from  the  Aleutians  and  Greenland  s. 
to  Monterey,  Calif.,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  L.  I.,  and  casually  to  Bermuda, 
N.  C.,  and  Tex.;  in  Europe  and  Asia  s.  to  the  Mediterranean,  Black,  and 
Caspian  seas,  and  Japan. 

Long  Island,  rare,  W.  V.,  Jan.  2-May  1.  Cambridge,  rare  W.  V.,  Nov.- 
Apl. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  moss,  etc.,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-3,  varying  from  pale 
olive-brown  to  grayish  white,  spotted  or  speckled  with  shades  of  chocolate, 
3*10  x  2'20.  Date,  Cumberland  Sound,  June  8. 

Mr.  Chamberlain  remarks  that  this  species  combines  "with  some 
gull-like  traits  many  of  the  coarse  characteristics  of  both  Falcon  and 
Vulture." 

"Some  observers  have  reported  that  flocks  are  at  times  very  noisy, 
particularly  when  settling  for  the  night;  but  those  I  have  met  with  in 
winter  have  been  rather  silent.  Their  cry  is  harsh  and  at  times  very 
loud;  it  sounds  something  like  the  syllables  kuk-lak.  I  have  seen  it 
written  cut-leek." 

43.  Larus  leucopterus  Fdber.  ICELAND  GDLL.  Resembles  the  pre- 
ceding but  is  much  smaller;  specimens  in  Juvenal  plumage  more  frequently 
have  white  or  brownish  shafts  un tinged  with  yellow,  as  in  hyperboreus ;  others 
are  mottled  with  black  rather  than  brownish  (Dwight,  Auk,  1906,  34).  W., 
15'40-16'50;  B.,  1'65-1-QO;  depth  of  B.  at  projection  on  the  lower  mandi- 
ble, -60-70;  Tar.,  2'05-2'20  (B.,  B.,  and  R.). 

Range. — Arctic  regions.  Breeds  from  Victoria  Land  (Cambridge  Bay) 
and  Boothia  Peninsula  to  cen.  Greenland  and  e.  to  Nova  Zembla;  winters 
from  s.  Greenland  s.  to  L.  I.;  casual  on  the  Great  Lakes;  accidental  in  Nebr. 
and  Md.;  in  Europe  s.  to  the  British  Isles,  Scandinavia,  and  Baltic  Sea. 

Long  Island,  very  rare  W.  V.  Cambridge,  rare  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  casual 
on  Lake  Erie  in  winter. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  moss,  etc.,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-3,  clay-color  with 
numerous  chocolate  markings,  2  79  x  1*89.  Date,  Julianshaab,  Greenland, 
June  1. 

"It  is  not  particularly  difficult  for  the  trained  observer  to  dis- 
tinguish the  White- winged  Gulls  in  the  field  from  the  Herring  Gull; 
but  as  between  L.  hyperboreus  and  L.  leucopterus  a  positive  identification 
is  not  so  easy.  .  .  .  One  soon  gets  to  recognize  the  white-winged 
species  flying,  even  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  the  smaller  size 
of  the  Iceland  Gull  is  seen  perhaps  more  distinctly  on  the  wing  than 
when  the  bird  is  sitting.  The  bill,  when  it  can  be  seen,  is  an  excellent 
field-mark,  the  Iceland  Gull's  like  that  of  Kumlien's  Gull,  being  much 
smaller  in  proportion.  .  .  ."  (Allen,  F.  H.,  Auk,  1908,  p.  300,  status 
near  Boston.) 

45.  Larus  kumlieni  Brewst.  KUMLIEN'S  GULL.  Very  similar  in  general 
color  to  the  two  preceding  species,  but  differs  from  them  in  the  color  of 
the  primaries.  These,  instead  of  being  uniformly  pure  white  or  but  lightly 
tinted  with  gray,  are  marked  with  sharply  denned  spaces  of  ashy  gray.  The 
first  primary  is  tipped  with  white  and  marked  with  ashy  gray  on  the  outer 
web  and  shaft  part  of  the  inner  web;  the  second  primary  is  ashy  gray  on  only 


GULLS  157 

part  of  the  outer  web;  the  third  and  fourth  primaries  have  smaller  white 
tips  and  are  marked  with  ashy  gray  near  their  ends  on  both  webs.  W.,  15'50- 
IT'OO;  B.,  1*65-1*88;  depth  of  B.,  at  projection  on  the  lower  mandible, 
•60-'66;  Tar.,  2'10-2'35  (Brewster). 

Remarks. — For  a  plate  and  detailed  discussion  of  the  status  of  this  and 
related  species  see  Dwight,  Auk,  XXIII,  1906,  pp.  26-43. 

Range. — N.  Atlantic  coast  of  N.  Am.,  breeding  in  Cumberland  Sound; 
B.  in  winter  to  N.  Y.  and  Conn. 

Long  Island,  one  record,  Mch.  8. 

Nest,  on  "the  shelving  rocks  of  high  cliffs."  Eggs,  resembling  those  of 
L.  glaucescens  (Kumlien) .  Date,  Weyprecht  Islands,  Ellesmere  Land,  June 
15  (Thayer  Coll.). 

Kumlien  found  this  bird  breeding  in  considerable  numbers  near 
the  head  of  Cumberland  Gulf,  and  it  is  now  known  to  winter  south 
regularly,  if  rarely,  to  Massachusetts  and  casually  farther.  The  adult 
"when  seen  under  favorable  conditions,  is  easily  distinguished  from 
L.  hyperboreus  and  L.  leucopterus,  for  the  spots  on  the  primaries  cannot 
fail  to  be  noticed  whether  the  bird  is  sitting  or  flying"  (Allen,  F.  H., 
Auk,  1908,  pp.  296-300,  status  near  Boston). 

47.  Larus  marinus  Linn.  GREAT  BLACK-BACKED  GULL.  Ads.  in 
summer. — Back  and  wings  slaty  black;  wing-feathers  tipped  with  white; 
rest  of  plumage  white;  tail  sometimes  mottled  with  dusky.  Ads.  in  winter. — 
Similar,  but  with  head  and  neck  streaked  with  grayish.  Im. — Head  and 
nape  whitish,  streaked  with  grayish;  back  and  wings,  except  primaries, 
brownish,  the  feathers  margined  and  irregularly  marked  with  pale  buffy; 
primaries  dark  brownish  black,  inner  ones  with  small  white  tips;  tail  mot- 
tled with  black  and  white;  underparts  whitish,  more  or  less  streaked  or 
barred  with  grayish.  L.,  29'90;  W.,  18'50;  T.,  8'00;  B.,  2*50. 

Range. — Coasts  of  the  N.  Atlantic.  Breeds  from  North  Devon  Island 
and  cen.  Greenland  s.  to  N.  S.  and  to  lat.  50°  on  European  coasts;  winters 
from  s.  Greenland  s.  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  Delaware  Bay  (casually  to 
Fla.)  and  the  Canaries;  accidental  in  Bermuda. 

Long  Island,  common  W.  V.,  Nov.  3-Mch.  13.  Cambridge,  common 
W.  V.,  Dec.  1-Apl.  15. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  seaweed,  etc.,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-3,  clay-color, 
brownish  ashy  or  buffy,  rather  evenly  spotted  with  chocolate,  3'00  x  2' 15. 
Date,  Kings  Co.,  N.  S.,  May  23. 

A  more  northern  species  than  the  Herring  Gull.  Mr.  Brewster, 
who  observed  it  in  numbers  in  the  island  of  Anticosti  in  July,  writes: 

"The  Black-backs  are  exceedingly  noisy  birds,  especially  when  their 
young  are  in  danger,  as  well  as  toward  evening.  ...  I  identified 
four  distinct  cries:  a  braying  ha-ha-ha,  a  deep  keow,  keow,  a  short  bark- 
ing note,  and  a  long-drawn  groan,  very  loud  and  decidedly  impressive. 
...  At  all  times  of  the  year,  during  the  breeding  season  as  well  as 
in  winter,  it  is  by  far  the  wariest  bird  that  I  have  ever  met." 

The  SIBERIAN  GULL  (50.  Larus  af finis] — a  large  Gull  inhabiting  northern 
Asia  and  Europe — is  accidental  in  Greenland. 

51.  Larus  argentatus  Pont.  HERRING  GULL.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Back  and  wings  deep  pearl-gray;  first  primary  tipped  with  white,  then 
crossed  by  a  small  black  mark,  then  a  much  larger  white  one;  this  is  followed 
by  a  black  space;  the  black  runs  down  the  outer  web  of  the  feather  to  near 
its  base  and  the  shaft  part  of  the  inner  web  nearly  as  far,  leaving  the  inner 


158  GULLS 

two-thirds  of  the  web  below  the  black  mark  white  (Fig.  78,  a);  second 
primary  similar,  but  second  white  mark  is  a  round  spot  on  inner  web  and 
black  occupies  a  greater  space  near  tip,  but  does  not  continue  so  far  down 
on  feather;  third  to  sixth  primaries  tipped  with  white,  which  is  succeeded 
by  a  gradually  diminishing  black  band  which  extends  farther  down  on  the 
outer  web  of  the  feather  than  on  the  inner;  rest  of  plumage  pure  white. 
Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  with  head  and  neck  streaked  and  spotted  with 
grayish.  Im. — Upperparts  ashy  fuscous;  head  and  nape  more  or  less 
streaked  with  pale  buffy;  back  and  wings  margined  or  irregularly  marked 
with  same  color;  primaries  brownish  black;  tail  the  same,  sometimes  tipped 
or  margined  with  buffy ;  underparts  ashy  fuscous,  sometimes  lightly  barred 
or  streaked.  L.,  24'00;  W.,  17'50;  T.,  7'50;  B.,  2'30. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  In  Am.  breeds  from  s.  cen.  Alaska,  Melville 
Island,  s.  Ellesmere  Land,  and  Cumberland  Sound  s.  to  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Alberta, 
n.  N.  D.,  cen.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  n.  N.  Y.,  and  Maine,  and  iri  Europe  s.  to  n. 
France  and  e.  to  White  Sea;  winters  from  s.  E».  C.  s.  to  L.  Calif.,  and  w. 
Mex.,  and  from  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes  s.  to  the 
Bahamas,  Cuba,  Yucatan,  and  coast  of  Tex.,  and,  in  Europe,  to  Mediter- 
ranean and  Caspian  Seas. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.-May  10.  Long  Island  abundant  W.  V., 
Oct.-Apl.,  a  few  summer.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Sept.  21-May  9;  com- 
mon W.  V.  when  river  is  open.  Cambridge,  abundant  W.  V.,  Oct.  15-May 
8.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  on  Lake  Erie.  Glen  Ellyn,  T.  V.  chiefly  spring, 
occasional  W.  V.,  Dec.  4-Apl.  7.  SE.  Minn.,  occasional  in  summer,  Apl.  1. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  moss,  seaweed,  etc.,  on  the  ground,  but,  where  the 
birds  have  been  persistently  robbed,  it  is  more  compactly  built  and  placed 
in  trees  sometimes  fifty  feet  or  more  from  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-3,  grayish 
olive-brown,  rarely  whitish,  spotted,  blotched,  and  scrawled  with  distinct 
and  obscure  chocolate  markings,  2'85  x  T90.  Date,  Midriff  Lake,  N.  Y., 
May  3;  Isle  Royal,  Mich.,  May  20. 

This  species  is  by  far  the  most  abundant  winter  Gull  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States.  Unlike  the  more  pelagic 
species,  it  frequents  our  rivers  and  harbors,  feeding  about  piers  and 
wharves,  and  near  the  cities  where  as  a  scavenger  it  is  of  the  highest 
value.  Sometimes  one  may  see  them  'bedded'  in  flocks  on  the  water 
where  they  alight  to  rest.  It  is  generally  this  species  which  follows  in 
the  wake  of  our  coastwise  vessels,  sailing  astern,  when  the  wind  is  from 
ahead,  without  the  slightest  perceptible  movement  of  the  wings. 

1902.  MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  IX,  221-228.— 1903.  DUTCHER,  W.  and 
BAILY,  W.  L.,  Auk,  XX,  417-431  (nesting).— 1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M., 
Bird-Lore,  II,  10,  11  (value  as  scavengers). 

54.  Larus  delawarensis  Ord.  RING-BILLED  GULL.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Back  and  wings  pearl-gray;  first  primary  black,  with  a  white  spot  near 
tip,  base  of  inner  half  of  inner  web  pearl-gray  (Fig.  78,  b) ;  second  primary 
black,  basal  half  of  inner  web  pearl-gray;  on  the  third  to  sixth  primaries 
the  black  decreases  rapidly,  and  each  one  is  tipped  with  white;  rest  of  plu- 
mage pure  white;  bill  greenish  yellow  with  a  black  band  in  front  of  the  nostril. 
Ads.  in  winter. — Similar  to  above,  but  head  and  nape  streaked  with  grayish. 
Im. —  Upperparts  varying  from  ashy  fuscous,  the  feathers  margined  with 
whitish,  to  pearl-gray,  the  feathers  more  or  less  mottled,  spotted,  or,  on  head 
and  neck,  streaked  with  ashy  fuscous;  outer  primaries  black,  tail  varying 
from  pearl-gray,  more  or  less  mottled  with  blackish,  to  white,  and  crossed 
near  end  by  a  wide  band  of  black;  basal  half  of  bill  yellowish,  end  black. 
L.,  18-50;  W.,  14-00;  T.,  6'00;  B.,  1'60. 

Range. — N.  America.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  Great  Slave  Lake,  s.  Kee- 
watin,  and  s.  Ungava  s.  to  s.  Ore.,  s.  Colo.,  n.  N.  D.f  cen.  Wise.,  cen.  Ont.» 


GULLS  159 

n.  N.  Y.  (casually),  and  n.  Que.;  winters  from  B.  C.,  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
Mass.  s.  to  Bermuda,  the  Gulf  coast,  Cuba,  and  s.  Mex. 

Washington,  very  common  T.  V.,  Feb.-Apl.  5;  Oct.-Nov.;  rare  in  win- 
ter. Long  Island,  regular  T.  V.,  abundant  in  fall;  casual  in  winter  and 
summer;  Sept.  5-Nov.  12;  Mch.  27-May  15.  Ossining,  casual  T.  V.  SE. 
Minn.,  T.  V.,  Mch.  23,  Oct.  10, 

Nest,  of  grasses,  etc.,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-3,  clay-color,  buffy,  or 
whitish,  rather  evenly  spotted  with  chocolate,  2'30  x  1*65.  Date,  Stump 
Lake,  N.  D.,  May  31. 

The  coast-inhabiting  individuals  of  this  species  resemble  the  Her- 
ring Gull  in  habits,  and  are  not  easily  identifiable  from  that  species 
unless  the  two  be  seen  together,  when  the  smaller  size  of  the  Ring-bill 
is  noticeable. 

In  the  interior,  where  the  species  is  locally  common,  it  feeds  in 
part  on  insects,  which  it  catches  both  on  the  ground  and  in  the  air. 

The  SHORT-BILLED  GULL  (55.  Larus  brachyrhynchus)  of  Western  North 
America,  is  accidental  in  Quebec. 

The  MEW  GULL  (56.  Larus  canus) — a  European  species — has  been 
reported  once  from  Labrador. 

58.  Larus  atricilla  Linn.  LAUGHING  GULL.  (Fig.  23,  6).  Ads.  in 
summer. — Back  and  wings  dark  pearl-gray;  primaries  black,  inner  ones 
with  small  white  tips  (Fig.  78,  c);  whole  head  and  throat  deep  slate-color; 
rest  of  plumage,  including  nape,  pure  white,  breast  sometimes  suffused  by 
a  delicate  peach-blossom  tint;  bill  dark  reddish  brighter  at  the  tip.  Ads. 
in  winter. — Resemble  above,  but  have  the  head  and  throat  white,  crown  and 
sides  of  head  and  sometimes  nape  spotted  or  streaked  with  grayish.  Im. — 
Upperparts  light  ashy  fuscous,  the  feathers  margined  with  whitish;  pri- 
maries black;  forehead  and  underparts  white,  sometimes  washed  in  places 
with  dusky;  tail  dark  pearl-gray,  broadly  tipped  with  black.  L.,  16*50;  W.. 
12-50;  T.,  4-90;  B.,  1'65. 

Range. — Tropical  and  temperate  coasts.  Breeds  from  Maine  (rarely) 
and  Mass,  (abundantly  but  locally)  s.  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  to 
Tex.,  the  Lesser  Antilles  and  Venezuela;  winters  from  Ga.  and  Gulf  coast  s. 
to  w.  Mex.,  Chile,  and  Brazil;  casual  in  Colo.,  Nebr.,  Wise.,  Ont.,  and 
Iowa. 

Washington,  irregular  in  Sept.  Long  Island,  rare  S.  R.,  irregular  S. 
V.,  Apl.-Sept.  (Butcher). 

Nest,  of  grasses,  seaweed,  etc.,  in  grassy  marshes.  Eggs,  3-4,  varying 
from  grayish  olive-brown  to  greenish  gray,  spotted,  blotched,  and  scrawled 
with  chocolate,  2'  15  x  1'55.  Date,  Corpus  Christi,  Tex.,  Apl.  8;  Cobb's 
Is.,  Va.,  May  26;  Muskeget  Is.,  Mass.,  June  7. 

This  is  the  only  Gull  nesting  on  our  Atlantic  coast  south  of 
Maine.  It  was  formerly  abundant  and  generally  distributed  but  is 
now  found  only  locally,  the  colonies  on  Western  Egg  Rock  in  Maine 
and  Muskeget  Island,  Massachusetts,  being  the  only  ones  north  of 
southern  New  Jersey. 

When  nesting,  the  Laughing  Gull  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  salt  marshes. 
On  Cobb's  Island,  Virginia,  the  sitting  birds  were  so  conspicuous  that 
from  a  distance  they  looked  like  white  flowers  dotting  the  marsh.  The 
downy  young,  however,  are  much  darker  than  young  Terns,  the  general 
tone  of  their  plumage  resembling  that  of  the  reeds  of  which  the  nest  is 
made. 


160  GULLS 

The  resemblance  of  its  call  to  wild,  maniacal  laughter  has  won 
for  this  species  its  common  name. 

1895.    MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  X,  332-336  (habits  in  Mass.). 

59.  Lams    franklini   Rich.    FRANKLIN'S    GULL.     Ads.  in  summer. — 
Whole  head  and  throat  sooty  black,  nape,  sides  of  neck,  and  underparts, 
except  throat,  white,  generally  suffused  (in  fresh  specimens)  with  an  exquis- 
ite peach-blossom  tint;  tail  white;  back  and  wings  pearl-gray;  first  primary 
white,  outer  web  black,  except  at  the  tip,  shaft  part  of  the  inner  web  grayish 
on  basal  half  (Fig.  78,  d) ;  second  primary  white,  with  a  black  mark  on  inner 
web  and  a  black  stripe  on  outer  web  near  the  tip,  rest  of  outer  web  and  shaft 
part  of  inner  web  pearl-gray;  third  to  sixth  primaries  tipped  with  white, 
then  banded  with  gradually  diminishing  bars  of  black,  which  are  succeeded 
by  a  whitish  space,  while  the  rest  of  the  feather  is  pearl-gray;  bill  dark 
coral-red.    Ads.  in  winter. — "Similar,  but  head  and  neck  white,  the  occiput, 
with  orbital  and  auricular  regions,  grayish  dusky;  bill  and  feet  dusky,  the 
former   tipped   with   orange  reddish."     Young,  first  plumage. — "Top   and 
sides  of  the  head  (except  forehead  and  lores),  back  and  scapulars  grayish 
brown,  the  longer  scapulars  bordered  terminally  with  pale  grayish  buff; 
wing-coverts  bluish  gray  tinged  with  grayish  brown;  secondaries  dusky, 
edged  with  pale  grayish  blue  and  broadly  tipped  with  white;  primaries 
dusky,  the  inner  more  plumbeous,  all  broadly  tipped  with  white.    Central 
portion  of  the  rump  uniform  light  bluish  gray;  lateral  and  posterior  portions 
of  the  rump,  upper  tail-coverts,  entire  lower  parts,  forehead,  lores,  and 
eyelids  white.    Bill  brownish,  dusky  terminally;  feet  brown  (in  skin)."    W., 
11'25;  B.,  1'30;  depth  through  nostrils,  '35;  Tar.,  1'60  (B.,  B.,  and  R.). 

Range. — Interior  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  sw.  Sask.  and  sw.  Keewatin  to 
S.  D.,  Iowa,  and  s.  Minn.;  winters  from  Gulf  coast  of  La.  and  Tex.  to 
Peru  and  Chile. ;  accidental  in  Utah,  Ont.,  Ohio,  Va.,  and  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  etc.,  in  reedy  marshes.  Eggs,  2-3,  varying  from  dark 
chocolate  to  creamy  brown  and  sooty  white,  irregularly  marked  with  small 
spots  or  large  blotches  of  umber,  and  with  obsolete  lilac  shell  markings, 
2'12  x  1'40  (Preston).  Date,  Heron  Lake,  Minn.,  May  8. 

Many  Gulls  nest  in  the  interior,  but  of  them  all  Franklin's  has 
rarely  been  found  on  either  our  Atlantic  or  Pacific  coasts,  though  it 
reaches  the  seashore  in  its  winter  quarters. 

Pausing  in  its  billowy  flight  over  the  prairies  to  circle  about  one 
curiously;  hovering  over  the  plowman,  or  exploring  the  furrow  in  his 
wake;  eagerly  chasing  grasshoppers,  like  a  flock  of  pearl-plumaged 
hens;  gathered  in  thousands  in  the  reeds  where  it  nests  or  in  vast 
flocks  prior  to  its  fall  migration,  Franklin's  Gull  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting,  as  it  is  unexpected,  forms  of  bird-life  of  our  interior. 

1886.  PRESTON,  J.  W.,  Orn.  and  Ool.,  XI,  54,  55.— 1900.  ROBERTS, 
T.  S.,  Auk,  XVII,  272-283  (one  of  the  first  as  well  as  one  of  the  best  of 
American  bird  studies  with  a  camera). — 1902.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Among  the 
Water-Fowl,  159-165.— 1910.  Ed.  Leaflet,  No.  44,  Natl.  Assoc.  Aud.  Soc., 
Bird-Lore,  XII,  124-127. 

60.  Lams  Philadelphia  (Ord).    BONAPARTE'S  GULL.    Ads.  in  summer. 
— Whole  head  and  throat  dark,  sooty  slate-color;  nape  and  sides  of  the  neck, 
underparts,  except  throat,  and  tail  white;  back  and  wings  pearl-gray;  first 
primary,  seen  from  above,  white,  outer  web  and  tip  black   (Fig.  78,  e)\ 
second  and  third  primaries  white,  tipped  with  black;  third  to  sixth  primaries 
with  small  whitish  tips,  then  large  black  spaces,  the  rest  of  feather  white 
or  pearl-gray;  bill  black.  Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  head  and  throat  white, 
back  and  sides  of  head  washed  with  grayish.    Im. — Top  of  the  head  and 


GULLS  161 

nape  and  a  spot  on  the  auriculars  more  or  less  washed  with  grayish;  back 
varying  from  brownish  gray  to  pearl-gray;  lesser  wing-coverts  grayish 
brown,  secondaries  mostly  pearl-gray;  first  primary  with  outer  web,  tip, 
and  most  of  shaft  part  of  inner  web  black;  inner  margin  of  inner  web  at 
end  of  feather  narrowly  bordered  with  black;  second  and  third  primaries 
much  the  same,  but  with  slightly  more  black  at  ends;  tail  white,  banded 
with  black  and  narrowly  tipped  with  white;  underparts  white.  L.,  14'00; 
W.,  10-30;  T.,  4'00;  B.,  1'15. 

Range. — N.  Am.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska  and  n.  Mackenzie  s.  to  s. 
B.  C.  and  s.  Keewatin;  winters  from  Maine  to  Fla.  and  on  the  Gulf  coast  to 
Tex.  and  Yucatan,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  s.  B.  C.  s.  to  L.  Calif, 
and  w.  Mex.  (Jalisco);  in  migration  w.  to  Kotzebue  Sound  and  e.  to 
Ungava ;  casual  in  Bermuda  and  the  Bahamas. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.-May  30;  Oct.  and  Nov.  Long  Island, 
regular  W.  V.,  Nov.  18-May  11.  Ossining,  rather  rare  T.  V.,  Apl.  and  Oct. 
Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.  in  spring.  N.  Ohio,  regular  but  not  common  T.  V., 
Apl.  10-May  20;  Sept.  1-20.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  23. 

Nest,  of  sticks  lined  with  grasses,  etc.,  on  stumps,  in  bushes  or  trees  four 
to  twenty  feet  from  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-4,  grayish  olive  with  a  greenish 
tint  and  small  clove-brown  spots,  chiefly  about  the  larger  end,  1'97  x  1*40 
(B.,  B.,  and  R.).  Date,  Anderson  River,  June  6. 

"This  little  Gull  is  more  often  found  in  flocks  than  our  other  species, 
and  is  frequently  seen  flying  over  swamps  and  plowed  fields  search- 
ing for  worms  and  insects;  but  it  is  usually  met  with  on  the  lakes  and 
rivers  hunting  its  food  like  the  Herring  Gull.  It  is  far  less  wary  than 
that  species"  (Eaton). 

It  may  sometimes  be  seen  in  active,  fluttering  groups  feeding  in 
our  harbors. 

The  LITTLE  GULL  (60.1.  Larus  minutus),  a  European  species,  has  been 
taken  once  on  Long  Island,  in  September,  1887  (Dutcher,  Auk,  V,  1888, 
p.  171),  and  once  in  Maine,  July  20,  1910  (Norton,  Auk,  1910,  447),  and 
also  in  Bermuda. 

61.  Rhodostethia  rosea  (Macg.).  Ross's  GULL.  Middle  tail-feathers 
longest.  Ads.  summer. — Head,  neck  and  underparts  exquisite  rosy  shell- 
pink  ;  a  black  ring  around  the  neck ;  back  and  wings  pearl-gray,  outer  margin 
of  outer  primary  black  above  except  at  tip;  tail  white  pink  tinged.  Ads. 
in  winter. — Similar  but  without  black  collar  and  with  less  pink  (Saunders). 
Im. — No  collar,  no  pink  tint;  central  tail-feathers  tipped  with  blackish; 
crown  and  back  pearl-gray;  rump  barred;  ear-coverts  dusky,  region  around 
eye  streaked  with  dusky;  below  white;  outer  primer::,  c;  blackish,  white  on 
the  inner  webs,  increasing  to  nearly  white  inner  primr,r:.3S  and  white  second- 
aries; tertials  and  coverts,  blackish,  white  tipped.  In  a  succeeding  plumage 
the  tail  is  white  and  the  collar  evident.  L.,  13*50;  W.,  10'50;  T.,  5'25;  B. 
•75. 

Range. — Arctic  regions.  Breeds  in  delta  of  Kolyma  River  ne.  Siberia; 
migrates  to  Kamchatka,  n.  coast  of  Alaska,  Melville  Peninsula,  w.  coast  of 
Greenland,  and  Arctic  islands  of  ErT'.pe;  casual  in  England,  Faroe  Islands, 
and  Helgoland. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  of  dry  grass  and  Carices,  sometimes  with  a  few  Betula 
or  Salix  leaves,  or  of  reindeer  moss.  Eggs,  2-3,  "beautiful  deep  rich  olive- 
green  without  any  of  the  grayish  or  sandy  shade,  spotted,  especially  near 
the  large  end,  with  chocolate-brown,  1*65  x  1'22."  Date,  June  13.  (See  But- 
urlin,  Ibis,  1906,  131-139;  333-337). 

In  1905  Ross's  Gull  was  discovered  by  Buturlin  breeding  in  num- 
bers in  the  delta  of  the  Kolyma  River,  northeast  Siberia.  His  obser- 


162  TERNS 

vations  are  given  in  the  Ibis  as  above.    (See  also  a  review  of  his  paper 
in  The  Auk,  1906,  p.  348.) 

62.  Xema  sabini  (Sab.).  SABINE'S  GULL.  Ads.  in  summer. — Whole 
head  and  throat  slate-color,  bordsered  posteriorly  by  black,  back  and  sides  of 
neck,  underparts,  except  throat,  and  slightly  forked  tail  pure  white;  back 
and  wings  dark  pearl-gray;  secondaries  tipped  with  white;  first  primary 
black,  inner  half  of  inner  web,  except  at  end,  white;  second  to  fourth  pri- 
maries similar,  but  tipped  with  white ;  bill  black,  end  yellow.  Ads.  in  winter. — 
"Similar  to  the  summer  plumage,  but  the  head  and  neck  white,  except 
occiput,  nape,  and  auricular  region,  which  are  dull,  dusky  plumbeous" 
(B.,  B.,  and  R.).  Im. — Forehead  and  lores  white,  rest  of  upperparts  ashy 
brown,  feathers  slightly  tipped  with  whitish;  tail  white,  broadly  tipped  with 
blackish;  underparts  white.  L.,  14'00;  W.,  10'50;  T.,  4'50;  B.,  95. 

Range. — Arctic  regions  to  S.  Am.  Breeds  on  the  coast  of  Alaska  from 
Kuskokwim  River  to  Norton  Sound  and  in  n.  Mackenzie,  n.  Keewatin, 
and  n.  Greenland,  and  on  Arctic  islands  of  Europe  and  Asia;  in  migration 
on  both  coasts  of  U.  S.  and  casual  in  the  interior;  winters  in  Peru. 

Long  Island,  A.  V.  two  records;  July;  Oct. 

^Nest^oi  grasses,  etc.,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-5,  deep  olive  (varying 
in  intensity,  however),  rather  indistinctly  spotted  or  blotched  with  brown, 
178  x  1-26  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Hooker  Bay,  Alaska,  July  1  (Thayer  Coll.). 

This  boreal  species  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  Northern  United 
States,  there  being  but  three  records  for  Massachusetts  and  the  same 
number  for  New  York. 

Subfamily  Sternince.  Terns.  (Fig.  24.) 

The  Terns  number  some  fifty  species,  distributed  throughout  the 
world,  ten  being  found  in  North  America.  They  are  more  southern 
than  the  Gulls,  only  two  species  nesting  north  of  Maine,  in  Eastern 
North  America.  They  are  also  more  migratory,  none  wintering  on  our 
coasts  north  of  the  Carolinas. 

Terns  are  littoral,  not  pelagic,  and,  although  characteristic  of  our 
sea-coasts,  like  the  Gulls,  several  species  nest  in  the  interior,  the  Black 
Tern  breeding  only  on  bodies  of  fresh  water.  Beautiful  as  pearls, 
graceful  and  active  as  Swallows,  Terns  are  a  constant  delight  to  the  eye. 
They  capture  their  prey  of  small  fish  by  darting  toward  it  like  a  living 
arrow,  plunging  recklessly  into  the  water,  and,  in  some  cases,  swim- 
ming a  few  feet  beneath  the  surface.  When  looking  for  food  they  usually 
fly  with  the  bill  pointed  downward,  a  habit  which  will  aid  in  distin- 
guishing them  from  the  Gulls,  whose  bill  is  carried  more  nearly  in  a 
line  with  the  body. 

Terns  nest  in  colonies  on  islands  and  when  disturbed  are  much 
bolder  than  most  Gulls,  hovering  close  overhead  and  swooping  toward 
one  fearlessly.  The  young  are  born  covered  with  down,  mottled  in 
pattern  like  that  of  Gulls.  This  plumage  is  both  countershaded  and 
obliteratively  marked;  further  proof  of  its  protective  value  being 
furntehed  by  the  birds  themselves,  which,  in  obedience  to  the  warning 
note  of  their  parent,  squat  flat  and  become  almost  invisible  so  long  as 
they  remain  motionless.  Like  the  young  of  Gulls,  young  Terns  are  de- 


PLATE  XI 


Common  Terns 


TERNS  AND  SKIMMERS 


Black  Skimmers. 


Least  Terns. 
From  the  Habitat  Group  of  Cobb's  Island  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 


TERNS  163 

pendent  on  their  parents  until  they  acquire  the  power  of  flight.  During 
this  period,  the  young  of  some,  possibly  of  all,  species,  enter  the  water 
of  their  own  volition  and  swim  freely,  a  habit  in  which  the  adult  rarely, 
if  ever,  indulges. 

Subfamily  Sternince.   Terns 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

I.  Wing  under  13'00. 

1.  Entire  top  of  the  head  jet-black. 

A.  Bill  black,  or  mostly  black. 
a.  Feet  black  or  blackish. 

a1.  Underparts  black  or  blackish 77.  BLACK  TERN. 

a2.  Underparts  white;   bill   black  ....  63.  GULL-BILLED  TERN. 
a3.  Underparts  white ;  bill  black,  broadly  tipped  with  yellow. 

67.  CABOT'S  TERN. 
6.  Feet  yellowish  or  orange. 

ft1.  Outer  tail-feathers  pure  white;  outer  web  of  first  primary  black. 

72.  ROSEATE  TERN. 

bz.  Inner  web  of  outer  tail-feather  gray;  outer  web  of  first  primary 
gray 69.  FORSTER'S  TERN. 

B.  Bill  mostly  or  entirely  yellowish,  reddish,  brownish,  or  orange. 

a.  Underparts  tinged  with  grayish;  outer  web  of  outer  tail-feather 

gray;  inner  web  white. 
a1.  BUI  broadly  tipped  with  blackish;  tarsus  generally  over  *70. 

70.  COMMON  TERN. 
a2.  Bill  without  a  distinct  black  tip;  tarsus  generally  under  *70: 

71.  ARCTIC?  TERN. 

6.  Underparts    pure   white;    inner  web  of    outer  tail-feather  gray; 
outer    web    white 69.  FORSTER'S  TERN. 

2.  Entire  top  of  head  not  jet-black. 

A.  Forehead  white;  lores  black;  crown  jet-black  or  silvery. 

a.  Wing  under  8'00;  back  pearl-gray 74.  LEAST  TERN. 

6.  Wing  over  8'00;  back  grayish  brown  or  blackish. 

61.  Back  grayish  brown;  a  white  stripe  from  the  forehead  over  the 

eye 76.  BRIDLED  TERN. 

b2.  Back  blackish;  white  of  forehead  hot  reaching  over  the  eye. 

75.  SOOTY  TERN. 
63.  Crown  silvery,  rest  of  plumage  sooty 79.  NODDY. 

B.  Forehead  or  crown  white  or  grayish,  sometimes  speckled  with  black ; 

lores  not  entirely  black. 

a.  Wing  pearl-gray. 

a1.  Outer  tail-feather  entirely  pure  white. 

a2.  Bill  over  1/75,  tipped  with  yellowish .  .  67.  CABOT'S  TERN. 
a3.  Bill  under  1'75,  without  a  yellow  tip. 

72.. ROSEATE  TERN  (Im.). 
b1.  Outer  tail-feather  not  pure  white. 

b2.  Inner  web  of  outer  tail-feather  darker  than  outer  web;  outer 
web  mostly  or  entirely  white;  a  black  space  generally  on  the 
side  of  the  head  inclosing  the  eye. 

69.  FORSTER'S  TERN  (Im.).  , 

b3.  Outer  web  of  outer  tail-feather  darker  than  inner  web ;  tarsus 
over  '70 70.  COMMON  TERN  (Im.), 

64.  Outer  web  of  outer  tail-feather  darker  than  inner  web ;  tarsus^ 

under  '70 71.  ARCTIC  TERN   (Im.)/ 

65.  Tail  wholly  gray,  not  deeply  forked,  wing  under  9'00;  belly 

white  or  mottled  with  black.  .  .  .  77.  BLACK  TERN  (Inu). 

b.  Wing   blackish. 

ft1.  Underparts   blackish 75.  SOOTY  TERN  (Im.)*. 

62.  Underparts   white 76.  BRIDLED  TERN  (Im.). 

13 


164 


TERNS 


II.  Wing  over  13'00. 

A.  Wing  15'00  or  over;  outer  primary  mostly  gray.    64.  CASPIAN  TERN. 

B.  Wing  under  15'00;  inner  half  of  inner  web  of  first  primary  white. 

65.  ROYAL  TERN. 


FIG.  79.  First  primaries  of  adult  Terns,  seen  from  below:   (a)  Caspian  Tern; 
(6)  Royal  Tern;  (c)  Common  Tern;  (d)  Arctic  Tern;  (e)  Roseate  Tern. 

63.  Gelochelidon  nilotica  (Linn.}.  GULL-BILLED  TERN.  Ads.  in  sum- 
mer.— Top  of  head  and  nape  black;  back  and  wings  pale  pearl-gray;  outer 
web  of  outer  primaries  silvery;  tip  and  shaft  part  of  inner  web  darker; 
inner  part  of  inner  web,  except  for  a  narrow  margin  at  end  of  feather,  white ; 
tail  white,  slightly  forked,  the  middle  feathers  grayish;  underparts  white; 
bill  and  feet  black,  the  former  rather  short  and  stout.  Ads.  in  winter. — Sim- 
ilar to  the  above,  but  top  of  the  head  white,  auriculars  grayish,  and  a  space 
in  front  of  the  eye  blackish.  L.,  14'50;  WM  12*00;  TM  5'50;  B.,  1'40;  depth  of 
B.  at  base,  '50. 

Range. — Nearly  cosmopolitan.  Breeds  in  N.  Am.  on  coasts  of  Tex., 
La.,  N.  C.,  Va.  (formerly  to  N.  J.),  and  in  the  Bahamas;  wanders  casually 
to  Maine  arid  Ohio;  winters  in  s.  Mex.,  s.  Guatemala,  and  from  Brazil  s.  to 
Patagonia  and  Chile.  Breeds  also  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Australia,  and  winters 
s.  to  n.  Africa. 

Washington,  casual  in  autumn,  no  recent  records.  Long  Island,  A.  V. 
in  summer. 

Nest,  of  shells  and  pebbles,  on  beaches.  Eggs,  3-5,  rather  uniform  buffy 
white,  with  numerous  distinct  and  obscure  chocolate  markings,  1*80  X  1'30. 
Date,  Corpus  Christi,  Tex.,  Apl.  30;  Cobb's  Is.,  Va.,  May  30. 


TERNS  165 

The  Gull-billed  Tern  has  greatly  decreased  in  numbers  during 
recent  years,  and  it  now  breeds  only  locally  and  in  small  numbers 
from  Cobb's  Island,  Virginia,  southward.  It  is  a  less  excitable  bird 
than  the  Common  Tern,  from  which  and  its  near  allies  it  may  be  known 
by  its  short,  comparatively  heavy,  black  bill  and  short,  less-forked  tail. 
Its  notes  are  a  high,  reedy  tee-tee-tee,  sometimes  suggesting  those  of  a 
weak- voiced  katydid. 

64.  Sterna  caspia  Pallas.    CASPIAN  TERN.    Ads.  in  spring. — Top  and 
back  of  head  shining  black,  the  feathers  lengthened  to  form  a  crest;  back  of 
neck,  underparts,  and  tail  white;    back  and   wings  pearl-gray;    primaries 
dark  slaty,  silvery  on  the  outer  web  (Fig.  79,  a) ;  bill  coral-red,  darker  near 
tip;  feet  black.    Ads.  after   he  breeding  season  and  in  winter. — Similar  to  the 
above,  but  top  of  the  head  streaked  with  black.   Im. — Top  of  head  streaked 
with   black  and   white;    back  of   neck  and  underparts  white;  back,  wing- 
coverts,  and  tertials  pearl-gray,  spotted  or  barred  with  brownish  black; 
primaries  dark  slaty,  silvery  on  the  outer  web;  tail  pearl-gray,  more  or  less 
barred   with   brownish   black;   bill   orange-red;   feet   blackish   bcpwn.     L., 
21-00;  W.,  16-20;  T.,  6'00;  B.,  2'80. 

Range. — Nearly  cosmopolitan.  Breeds  in  N.  Am.  at  Great  Slave  Lake, 
Ore.,  on  islands  of  n.  Lake  Michigan,  on  coast  of  s.  Lab.,  and  also  on 
coasts  of  Tex.,  La.,  Miss.,  S.  C.,  and  (formerly)  Va.;  winters  from  coast  of 
cen.  Calif,  to  L.  Calif,  and  w.  Mex.  (Colima),  and  on  s.  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coasts;  casual  in  migration  north  to  Alaska,  James  Bay,  and  N.  F. 

Washington,  casual,  Sept.,  Oct.,  1896.  Long  Island,  uncommon  T.  V. 
Vlay  and  Sept.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  25. 

Eggs,  2-3,  grayish  white  or  buffy  white,  with  rather  small,  distinct, 
nd  obscure  chocolate  markings,  2'70  x  1'83.  Date,  Corpus  Christi,  Tex., 
Lpl.  8,  1885;  Gravel  Is.,  Wis.,  June  10. 

The  singularly  interrupted  distribution  of  this,  the  largest  of  our 
Terns,  indicates  that  it  was  once  a  far  more  abundant  bird.  It  resembles 
;he  smaller  red-billed  Terns  in  general  habits,  but  its  large  size  prevents 
t  from  being  confused  with  any  other  species  except  the  Royal  Tern. 
From  Gulls  it  may  be  known  by  its  red,  pointed  bill  and  forked  tail. 
1908.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  301  (nesting). 

65.  Sterna  maxima  Bodd.    ROYAL  TERN.   Ads.  in  spring. — Top  and 
Dack  of  head  shining  black,  feathers  lengthened  to  form  a  crest;  back  of  neck, 
underparts,  and  tail  white;  back  and  wings  pearl-gray;  inner  web  of  primaries, 
except  at  tip,  white;  outer  web,  and  shaft  part  of  inner  web  dark,  silvery 
slate-color  (Fig.  79,  b).    Ads.  after  the  breeding  season  and  in  winter. — Similar 
Dut  top  of  head  streaked  with  black  and  white.    Im. — Resembling  young  of 
S.  caspia,  but  smaller  and   with  the  inner  half  of  the  inner  web  of  the  pri- 
maries white.   L.,  19-00;  W.,  14'00;  T.,  7'00;  B.,  2'50. 

Range. — Tropical  coasts  n.  to  U.  S.  Breeds  in  W.  Indies  and  on  s. 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  n.  to  Va.  and  w.  to  Tex. ;  wanders  casually  to  Mass. ; 
not  rare  in  summer  from  San  Francisco  Bay  s.  to  w.  Mex.;  winters  from 
Monterey,  Calif,  and  Gulf  of  Mex.,  s.  to  Peru  and  Brazil,  and  on  w.  coast  of 
Africa  from  Gibraltar  to  Angola. 

Long  Island,  one  record,  Aug.  27. 

Eggs,  2-4,  more  pointed  than  those  of  the  preceding,  grayish  white, 
with  rather  small,  distinct,  and  obscure  chocolate  markings,  2'65  x  1'75. 
Date,  Corpus  Christi,  Tex.,  Apl.  8,  1885;  near  Charleston  S.  C.,  May  15. 

A  common  species  on  our  southern  coasts.  During  the  winter  it 
is  about  the  only  Tern  one  sees  in  Florida  waters.  It  is  a  strong,  active 


166  TERNS 

bird  on  the  wing,  and  a  reckless,  dashing  diver,  frequently  disappearing 
beneath  the  surface  in  catching  its  prey.  The  slow-flying  Pelicans  are 
at  its  mercy,  and  it  sometimes  deftly  robs  them  of  their  well-earned 
gains. 

67.  Sterna  sandvicensis  acuflavida  (Cabot}.  CABOT'S  TERN.  Ads.  in 
spring. — Whole  top  of  head  and  crest  black;  back  and  wings  light  pearl- 
gray;  primaries  silvery  gray;  the  shaft  part  of  the  inner  web  white  except  at 
the  tip ;  rest  of  the  plumage  white ;  feet  and  bill  black,  the  latter  with  a  con- 
spicuous yellowish  tip.  Ads.  after  breeding  season  and  in  winter. — Similar, 
but  crown  white,  sometimes  spotted  with  black;  back  of  head  and  crest  more 
or  less  streaked  with  white.  Im. — Similar,  but  back  spotted  with  blackish; 
tail  slaty  gray  and  much  shorter;  bill  slightly  if  at  all  tipped  with  yellow. 
L.,  16-00;  W.,  10-50;  T.,  5'50;  B.,  2'05. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Am.  Breeds  from  N.  C.  to  Fla.,  Tex.,  and  Mex.; 
winters  from  the  Bahamas,  Fla.,  and  La.  to  Cen.  Am.  (both  coasts),  the 
Greater  Antilles,  Colombia,  and  Brazil;  accidental  in  Ont.,  Mass.,  N.  J.,  and 
the  Lesser  Antilles. 

Eggs,  2-3,  buffy  white,  spotted,  speckled,  and  scrawled  with  distinct 
and  obscure  chocolate  markings,  2'05  x  1'40.  Date,  Tampa,  Fla.,  Apr.  10; 
coast  of  S.  C.,  second  week  in  June. 

Cabot's  Tern  was  formerly  abundant  along  the  coasts  of  Florida, 
but  it  now  breeds  only  locally.  There  is  a  small  breeding  colony  in 
Pamlico  Sound,  North  Carolina  (Pearson),  and  in  Bull's  Bay,  South 
Carolina  (Wayne) .  The  bird  winters  from  the  Florida  Keys  southward. 
Its  black,  yellow-tipped  bill  is  a  good  field  mark. 

TRUDEAU'S  TERN  (68.  Sterna  trudeaui)  is  a  South  American  species  which 
has  been  taken  once  on  Long  Island  and  once  on  the  New  Jersey  coast. 

69.  Sterna  forsteri  Nutt.  FORSTER'S  TERN.  Ads.  in  summer. — Whole 
top  of  head  black;  back  and  wings  pearl-gray;  inner  border  of  inner  web  of 
outer  primaries  white,  except  at  the  tip;  rump  and  entire  underparts  white; 
tail  light  pearl-gray,  the  outer  feather  darker  toward  the  end,  where  the 
inner  web  is  always  darker  than  the  outer;  bill  dull  orange,  the  end  third 
blackish;  feet  orange.  Ads.  in  winter. — Similar  to  the  above,  but  head  white, 
more  or  less  washed  with  grayish  or  spotted  with  black,  a  large  black  spot 
on  the  side  of  the  head  inclosing  the  eye;  bill  mostly  black;  feet  brownish. 
Im. — Similar  to  the  preceding,  but  the  back  and  wings  more  or  less  mottled 
or  washed  with  light  brownish,  and  the  tail  much  shorter.  L.,  IS'OO;  W., 
10-25;  T.,  7-00;  Tar.,  '90;  B.,  1'50. 

Range. — N.  Am.  Breeds  on  interior  lakes  of  Calif.,  s.  Ore.,  and  Nev., 
and  from  sw.  Sask.  and  Man.  s.  to  n.  Colo.,  n.  Nebr.,  ne.  Ills.,  and  s.  Ont., 
and  on  coasts  of  Tex.,  La.,  aed  Va. ;  winters  from  s.  Calif.,  Gulf  of  Mex.,  and 
S.  C.  to  s.  Guatemala;  in  migration  occurs  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  casually 
as  far  n.  as  Mass. ;  casual  in  Brazil. 

Washington,  irregular  T.  V.  Long  Island,  casual.  Glen  Ellyn,  very 
rare  T.-V.,  May.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  29- 
Aug.  21. 

Nest,  of  seaweed,  flags,  or  weeds  on  a  slight  elevation  in  grassy  marshes. 
Eggs,  3,  very  variable,  olive-gray,  or  olive  brownish  ashy,  more  rarely 
whitish  or  buff,  heavily  marked  with  chocolate,  1'80  x  1*30.  Date,  Corpus 
Christi,  Tex.,  Apr.  29;  Cobb's  Is.,  Va.,  June  1;  Swan  Lake,  Minn.,  June  13. 

Forster's  Tern,  although  so  like  the  Common  Tern  in  appearance, 
differs  materially  from  it  in  habits.  It  is  not  dependent  on  sandy 
beaches  for  a  nest-site,  but  is  a  marsh  inhabitant,  laying  on  a  platform 


TERNS  167 

nest  in  the  grasses.  I  have  never  found  it  in  large  colonies,  but  in  scat- 
tered pairs.  Its  notes  are  a  long-drawn,  reedy  cackle  and  a  tweet-tweet- 
tweet-tweet. 

70.  Sterna  himndo  Linn.  COMMON  TERN  (Fig.  24).  Ads.  in  summer. 
— Whole  top  of  head  black;  back  and  wings  pearl-gray;  inner  border  of 
inner  web  of  outer  primaries  white,  except  at  tip  (Fig.  79,  c);  throat  white; 
breast  and  belly  pale  pearl-gray;  tail  white,  the  outer  webs  of  the  outer  feathers 
gray  or  pearl-gray;  bill  red  at  the  base,  the  end  third  black;  feet  orange-red. 
Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  front  part  of  head  and  underparts  white;  bill 
mostly  black.  Im. — Similar,  but  back  more  or  less  washed  or  mottled  with 
light  brownish;  lesser  wing-coverts  slaty  gray,  and  tail  much  shorter.  L., 
IS'OO;  W.,  10-25;  T.,  5*50;  Tar.,  '75;  B.,  1'40. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere,  n.  S.  Am.,  and  Africa.  Breeds  from  Great 
Slave  Lake,  cen.  Keewatin,  and  s.  Ungava  s.  to  sw.  Sask.,  n.  N.  D.,  s. 
Wise.,  n.  Ohio,  and  N.  C.;  winters  from  Fla.  to  Brazil;  casual  in  migration 
on  Pacific  coast  from  B.  C.  to  L.  Calif.  In  E.  Hemisphere  breeds  in  Europe 
and  Asia  and  winters  in  India  and  s.  Africa. 

Washington,  irregular  T.  V.,  sometimes  common.  Long  Island,  common 
S.  R.  on  Gardiner's  Is.,  May  20-Oct.  15.,  Ossining,  casual  in  late  summer. 
Cambridge,  very  rare  T.  V.  N.  Ohio,  S.  R.  in  large  colonies  on  islands  in 
Lake  Erie,  May  5-Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  irregular,  uncommon  T.  V.  May 
15-Sept.  9.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V. 

Remarks. — The  Common  Tern  is  closely  related  to  Forster's  Tern  and 
also  to  the  Arctic  Tern.  From  the  former  it  is  to  be  distinguished  by  the 
color  of  the  long  outer  tail-feathers.  In  the  Common  Tern  the  outer  web 
of  these  feathers  is  always  darker  than  the  inner  web;  in  Forster's  Tern  the 
inner  web  is  always  darker  than  the  outer  one.  Adult  Common  Terns  have 
the  breast  and  belly  washed  with  pearl-gray,  while  in  Forster's  Tern  these 
parts  are  pure  white. 

The  Common  Tern  differs  from  the  Arctic  Tern  in  having  the  bill  tipped 
with  black  instead  of  being  entirely  red;  in  having  longer  tarsi,  and  in  the 
color  of  the  primaries. 

Nest,  a  slight  depression  in  the  sand,  scantily  lined  with  sea-weed  or 
grasses.  Eggs,  3-4,  not  distinguishable  with  certainty  from  those  of  the 
preceding,  but  averaging  paler  and  greener,  and  less  heavily  marked, 
1'60  x  1-20.  Date,  Cobb's  Is.,  Va.,  May  28;  Muskeget  Is.,  Mass.,  May  28. 

It  is  many  years  since  I  visited  my  first  breeding  colony  of  Common 
Terns  (on  Gull  Island,  L.  I.),  but  I  can  close  my  eyes  and  still  feel  the 
air  vibrate  with  the  harsh,  half-threatening,  half-pleading  chorus  of 
nearly  two  thousand  excited  voices.  There  is  a  dull,  heavy,  hopeless 
monotone,  broken  only  by  the  scream  of  some  half-maddened  bird 
who  fearlessly  darts  downward  to  protect  its  nest  at  my  feet.  A  shot 
is  fired;  there  is  a  moment  of  awe-struck  silence,  then,  with  renewed 
violence,  the  screaming  is  resumed.  Pandemonium  reigns:  tearr,  tearrr, 
swish!  the  air  is  full  of  darting,  diving,  crying  Terns.  It  was  useless  to 
attempt  to  secrete  myself.  At  no  time  during  my  stay  did  the  outcry 
cease  or  hovering  flock  disperse. 

It  was  only  after  I  had  exchanged  a  gun  for  a  camera  that  I  learned 
how  quickly  Terns  will  go  back  to  their  nest  if  one  will  conceal  oneself 
in  a  blind,  which  in  itself  may  be  conspicuous  enough,  if  it  be  motion- 
less. Then  one  learns  that  the  tearrr  note  of  alarm  and  protest  gives 
way  to  a  great  variety  of  calls  incident  to  the  activities  of  the  birds 
when  not  disturbed  j  for  example,  a  sharp  chirp  not  unlike  that  of  a 


168  TERNS 

White-throated  Sparrow,  and  a  tue,  tue,  tuey  uttered  by  a  bird  in  pur- 
suit of  another.  The  young  are  fed  on  fish  which  they  take  from  the 
bill  of  the  parent.  They  promptly  and  instinctively  squat  at  the  parent's 
warning  note  and  remain  motionless  until  touched.  They  enter  the 
water  of  their  own  volition  and  swim  freely,  while  the  parents,  which 
rarely  swim,  stand  on  the  shore  and  watch  them;  webbed  feet,  therefore, 
apparently  being  of  use  to  young  Terns  although  practically  function- 
less  in  the  adult. 

Thanks  to  the  movement  for  the  protection  of  our  birds,  Terns, 
which  fifteen  years  ago  seemed  to  be  doomed  to  extinction,  are  now 
increasing,  and  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  our  shores  may  again  be 
enlivened  by  these  beautiful,  graceful  creatures. 

1879.  BREWSTER,  WM.,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club.  IV,  13-22  (habits).— 
1895-99.  MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  XIII,  32-48,  178;  XIV,  21,  22,  278-284, 
383-390;  XVI,  168-172;  XVII,  259-266  (on  Muskeget  and  Penikese  Islands, 
Mass.) — 1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  106-127. — 
1902.  JONES,  L.,  Wilson  Bull.,  XV,  94-100.— 1906.  XVIII,  35-47  (on 
Weepeckets). 

71.  Sterna  paradisaea  Brunn.    ARCTIC  TERN.    Very  similar  in  color 
to  the  Common  Tern,  from  which  it  differs  in  having  less  gray  on  the  shaft 
part  of  the  inner  web  of  the  outer  primaries  (Fig.  79,  d) ;  in  having  the  tail 
somewhat  longer,  the  tarsi  and  bill  shorter,  while  the  latter,  in  the  adult, 
is  generally  without  a  black  tip.    L.,  15'50;  W.,  10'25;  T.,  7'50;  Tar.,  '65; 
B.,  1'30. 

Range. — Nearly  cosmopolitan.  Breeds  from  n.  Alaska,  Melville  Island, 
and  n.  Greenland,  s.  to  Commander  and  Aleutian  Islands,  n.  B.  C.,  Great 
Slave  Lake,  cen.  Keewatin,  Maine,  and  (formerly)  Mass.,  and  in  entire 
Arctic  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia;  winters  in  Antarctic  Ocean,  s.  to  lat. 
74°;  in  migration,  Pacific  coast  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  and  Atlantic  coast  s.  to  L.  i.; 
accidental  in  Colo. 

Long  Island,  one  record,  July  1. 

Nest,  as  in  preceding.  Eggs,  3-4,  not  distinguishable  with  certainty  from 
those  of  the  preceding,  T62  x  1'15.  Date,  Seal  Is.,  Maine,  June  17,  1875. 

Comparing  the  notes  of  this  bird  with  those  of  the  Common  Tern, 
Mr.  Brewster  writes:  "Their  notes  are  similar,  but  several  of  them  can 
be  distinguished.  The  usual  cry  of  S.  macrura  [  =  paradiscea]  cor- 
responds to  the  tearr  of  S.  hirundo,  but  is  shriller,  ending  in  a  rising 
inflection,  and  sounding  very  like  the  squeal  of  a  pig.  The  bird  also 
has  a  short,  harsh  note  similar  to  that  of  Forster's  Tern.  At  any  dis- 
tance within  fair  gun-range  I  could  usually  separate  it  from  Wilson's 
[  =  Common]  Tern  by  its  longer  tail,  and  by  the  uniform  and  deeper 
color  of  the  bill.  In  flight  and  habits  the  two  seemed  to  me  identical" 
(Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XXII,  1883,  p.  402). 

72.  Sterna   dougalli   Montag.     ROSEATE  TERN.     Ads.  in  summer. — 
Top  of  head  black;  back  and  wings  pearl-gray;  outer  web  of  outer  primaries 
and  shaft  part  of  the  inner  web  slaty  black  (Fig.  79,  e}\  underparts  white, 
generally  delicately  tinted  with  pinkish;  tail  pure  white;  bill  black,  the  base 
reddish;  feet  red.    Ads.  in  winter. — Similar  to  the  above,  but  front  of  the 
head  white,  more  or  less  streaked  or  spotted  with  black;  underparts  pure 
white.    Im. ,  first  plumage. — "Pileum  and  nape  pale  buffy  grayish  finely 
mottled  or  sprinkled  with  darker,  and  streaked,  especially  on  the  crown,  with 


TERNS  169 

dusky;  orbital  and  auricular  regions  dusky  blackish;  remainder  of  the  head, 
extreme  lower  part  of  the  nape,  and  entire  lowerparts  white,  the  nape  and 
sometimes  the  breast,  finely  mottled  with  buffy  gray;  back,  scapulars,  wing- 
coverts,  rump,  upper  tail-coverts,  and  tail  pale  pearl-blue,  the  back  and 
scapulars  overlaid  with  pale  buff  irregularly  mottled  with  dusky,  each 
feather  with  a  submarginal  dusky  V-shaped  mark;  primary  coverts  and 
primaries  dark  bhiish  gray  edged  with  paler,  the  inner  webs  of  the  latter 
broadly  edged  with  white;  tail-feathers,  marked  near  their  ends  much  like 
the  longer  scapulars,  their  outer  webs  rather  dark  grayish;  bill  brownish 
dusky;  feet  dusky."  L.,  15'50;  W.,  9'50;  T.,  7'50;  B.,  T50  (B.,  B.,  and  R-). 

Range. — Temperate  and  tropical  regions.  Breeds  locally  from  Sable 
Island  to  L.  I.  and  from  the  Bahamas  to  Lesser  Antilles  and  Venezuela; 
formerly  from  Maine  to  Fla. ;  rare  migrant  in  Cen.  Am. ;  winters  from  the 
Bahamas  to  Brazil;  accidental  in  Ohio;  occurs  on  the  coasts  of  a  large  part  of 
the  E.  Hemisphere. 

Long  Island,  formerly  uncommon  but  regular  S.  R.,  May  through  Sept. 
(Butcher).  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V. 

Nest,  as  in  Common  Tern.  Eggs,  3,  not  distinguishable  with  certainty 
from  those  of  S.  forsteri  or  S.  hirundo,  but  averaging  paler  and  less  heavily 
marked,  1'65  x  1'20.  Date,  Cobb's  Is.,  Va.,  May  13,  1871;  Muskeget  Is., 
Mass.,  June  7. 

This  species  is  found  in  small  numbers  associated  with  colonies 
of  Common  Terns,  apparently  making  its  nest  among  theirs.  It  is  a 
less  excitable,  wilder  bird  than  hirundo,  and  its  single  harsh  note,  cack, 
may  be  distinctly  heard  above  the  the  uproar  of  Common  Terns,  as  it 
hovers  somewhat  in  the  background,  Its  white  breast  and  long  outer 
tail-feathers  also  aid  in  distinguishing  it. 

74.  Sterna  antillarum  (Less.}.  LEAST  TERN.  Ads.  in  summer.-** 
Forehead  white,  Zores  and  crown  black;  back,  tail  and  wings  pearl-gray; 
outer  web  of  outer  primaries  and  shaft  part  of  inner  web  slaty  black ;  under- 
parts  white;  bill  yellow,  generally  tipped  with  black;  feet  orange.  Ads.  in 
winter. — Top  of  head  white,  more  or  less  spotted  with  black  f  back  of  head 
black;  bill  blackish.  Im. — Upperparts  and  tail  at  end  mottled  with  blackish 
and  buffy,  primaries  as  in  adult,  underparts  white,  bill  blackish.  L.,  9'00; 
W.,  6'90;  T.,  3'56;  B.,  I'lO. 

Range. — Tropical  and  temperate  Am.  Breeds  on  coast  of  a.  Calif,  and 
on  Gulf  coast  from  Tex.  eastward;  also  n.  to  Mo.  (formerly  to  Iowa)  and  nw. 
Nebr.,  has  occurred  in  Wise,  and  S.  D.;  breeds  also  from  the  coasts  of 
Mass.,  Va.,  N.  C.,  and  Fla.  s.  to  the  Bahamas,  W.  Indies,  British  Honduras 
and  Venezuela;  now  rare,  but  formerly  abundant  in  the  breeding  season 
from  Fla.  to  Maine,  wandering  to  Lab.  and  N.  F. ;  in  migration  occurs  on 
the  coasts  of  L.  Calif,  and  w.  Mex. ;  winters  from  the  Gulf  coast  to  Venezuela 
and  Peru. 

Washington,  casual  T.  V.;  Long  Island,  T.  V.,  formerly  abundant  S.  R., 
now  rare.  N.  Ohio,  Common  S.  R.  in  Sandusky  marshes,  May  10-Sept.  25. 
SE.  Minn.,  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.  29. 

Nest,  a  slight  depression  in  the  sand.  Eggs,  3-4,  buffy  white,  speckled  or 
spotted  with  chocolate,  1*25  x  '90.  Date,  Matanzas  Inlet,  Fla.,  May  18, 
1894;  Cobb's  Is.,  Va.,  May  28,  1886. 

The  Least  Tern  was  brought  so  near  the  verge  of  extinction  by  mil- 
liners' collectors  that  in  spite  of  protection  it  has  never  recovered  from 
the  attack.  There  is  a  small  colony  on  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  they  are 
found  breeding  locally  in  small  numbers  from  North  Carolina  south- 
ward. 

Small  size  is  always  a  good  character  in  identifying  this  species,  and 


170  TERNS 

in  breeding  plumage  its  white  forehead  and  largely  yellow  bill  are 
distinctive.  Its  call,  as  described  by  Job,  is  "a  shrill,  staccato  yip, 
yip,  yip." 

75.  Sterna  fuscata  Linn.  SOOTY  TERN.  Ads. — Forehead  and  a  line 
reaching  to  the  eye  white,  lores  and  rest  of  the  head  black;  nape,  back,  and 
wings  brownish  black,  nearly  as  dark  as  the  head;  outer  tail-feathers  white, 
brownish  on  the  end  half  of  the  inner  web;  rest  of  tail-feathers  of  the  same 
color  as  the  back;  underparts  white;  bill  and  feet  black.  Im.,  first  plumage. — 
Sooty  slate-color ;  linings  of  the  wings  and  under  tail-coverts  whitish ;  wing- 
coverts,  scapulars,  upper  tail-coverts,  and  tail-feathers  more  or  less  tipped 
with  white.  L.,  17/00;  W.,  11'50;  T.,  7'25;  B.,  175. 

Range. — Tropical  and  subtropical  coasts,  except  Pacific  coast  of  S. 
Am.  Breeds  in  Am.  from  s.  Fla.,  La.,  and  Tex.  throughout  the  Bahamas, 
W.  Indies,  and  tropical  islands  of  the  Atlantic;  wanders  n.  rarely  to  Maine; 
winters  from  La.  to  Brazil  and  the  Falkland  Islands. 

Long  Island,  one  record,  Sept.     , 

Nest,  a  slight  hollow  in  the  sand.  Egg,  one,  whitish  or  buff,  speckled  or 
spotted  with  chocolate,  2*00  x  1'45.  Date,  Tortugas,  Fla.,  May  7. 

So  far  as  I  am  aware  the  Sooty  Tern  breeds  in  the  Atlantic  States 
only  in  the  Dry  Tortugas  of  Florida,  where  about  19,000  nested  when 
Watson  made  his  important  studies  of  their  habits  in  1907.  They 
reach  the  island  the  last  week  in  April  and  remain  until  about  Septem- 
ber 1.  The  period  of  incubation  is  twenty-six  days.  The  warning  note 
is  a  shrill  e-e-e-e',  they  also  utter  a  squeaky  quack  and  a  nasal  ker-wacky- 
wak,  and  other  calls,  being  very  noisy  birds. 

Flocks  of  Terns  seen  darting  actively  and  repeatedly  into  schools 
of  small  fish  in  West  Indian  waters  are  very  apt  to  be  of  this  species. 

1903.  THOMPSON,  J.,  Bird-Lore,  V,  77-84.— 1905.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild 
Wings,  83-99. — 1908.  WATSON,  J.  B.,  Tortugas  Lab.  of  Carnegie  Inst., 
189-255.— 1908.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  192-199. 

The  BRIDLED  TERN  (76.  Sterna  ancethetus),  a  tropical  species,  has  been 
taken  once  in  Florida,  but  may  prove  to  be  a  regular  summer  visitant  to 
some  of  the  Florida  Keys.  It  resembles  the  Sooty  Tern,  but  has  the  back 
sooty  gray  and  the  white  of  the  forehead  extends  backward  over  the  eye. 

77.  Hydrochelidon  nigra  surinamensis  (Gmel.}.  BLACK  TERN.  Ads. 
in  summer. — Whole  head  and  underparts,  except  under  tail-coverts,  black; 
back,  wings,  and  tail  slate-color;  bill  and  feet  black.  Ads.  in  winter. — Fore- 
head, nape,  and  underparts  white;  back  of  the  head  black  mixed  with 
white;  back,  wings,  and  tail  deep  pearl-gray.  Im  —  Similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding, but  upperparts  more  or  less  washed  and  tipped  with  brownish; 
sides  washed  with  grayish.  L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  8'30;  T.,  3  30;  B.,  I'OO. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Am.  Breeds  from  sw.  B.  C.,  Great  Slave  Lake,  s. 
Keewatin,  and  w.  Ont.  s.  to  inland  lakes  of  Calif.,  Nev.,  Colo.,  n.  Mo.,  and 
n.  Ohio;  winters  from  Mazatlan,  Mex.,  to  Panama,  Peru,  and  Chile;  e.  coast 
of  U.  S.  in  autumn;  accidental  in  Alaska,  N.  S.,  and  N.  B.;  casual  in  the  W. 
Indies  and  Bahamas. 

Washington,  irregular  T.  V.,  Aug.  15-Sept.  22.  Long  Island,  common 
T.  V.  July  21-Sept.  14.  Ossining,  casual,  Sept.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
May  1-Sept.  1. 

Nest,  of  reeds,  grasses,  etc.,  an  islet  in  marsh  or  slough.  Eggsl  2-3,  grayish 
olive-brown,  rarely  whitish,  heavily  spotted  and  blotched  with  chocolate 
markings,  frequently  confluent  about  the  larger  end,  1'35  x  '98.  Date, 
Dodge  Co.,  Wise.,  May  28-;  se.  Minn.,  May  26. 


TERNS  171 

To  one  who  associates  all  Terns  with  sandy  beaches,  it  is  a  novel 
experience,  when  driving  over  the  prairies,  to  be  surrounded  by  an 
active  flock  of  these  birds,  darting  eagerly  here  and  there  in  pursuit  of 
the  insects  flushed  by  one's  team  from  the  grass.  When  on  their  nest- 
ing-grounds in  the  interior,  Black  Terns,  indeed,  appear  to  feed  largely 
on  insects,  but  when  migrating  southward  along  our  coasts  in  late 
summer  and  autumn,  in  habits,  and  doubtless  in  food  also,  they  more 
nearly  resemble  the  coast-breeding  members  of  their  family. 

It  is  difficult  to  recognize  in  the  silent  bird  of  this  season  the  excit- 
able, noisy  Tern  of  June,  which  with  its  frequently  repeated,  sharp  peek 
protests  loudly  against  trespass  on  its  haunts  whether  or  not  it  has 
a  nest  there. 

H.  K.  Job  found  "scores  and  scores"  of  Black  Terns  in  full  breeding 
plumage  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay  in  late  June, 
but  there  appears  to  be  no  record  of  their  breeding  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  where  they  are  rarely  seen  before  the  fall  migration. 

1908.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  324-329  (nesting). 

The  WHITE-WINGED  BLACK  TERN  (78.  Hydrochelidon  leucoptera),  an  Old 
World  species,  has  been  taken  once  in  America — at  Lake  Koshkonong,  Wise., 
July  5,  1873  (Kumlien  and  Hollister,  Bull.,  Wise.  Nat.  Soc.,  Ill,  14). 

79.  Anoiis  stolidus  (Linn.}.  NODDY.  Ads. — Top  of  head  silvery 
whitish,  lores  black;  rest  of  plumage  dark  sooty  brown;  tail  rounded,  the 
central  tail-feathers  longest.  Im. — Similar,  but  top  of  head  like  rest  of 
plumage,  silvery  whitish  appears  as  a  line  from  bill  to  above  eye.  L.,  15' 00; 
W.,  10-25;  T.,  5'90;  B.,  1'70. 

Range. — Tropical  coasts.  Breeds  on  the  Tortugas,  on  the  coast  of  La., 
and  in  the  Bahamas  and  W.  Indies;  winters  s.  to  Brazil  and  Tristan  da 
Cunha  Island. 

Nest,  of  sticks,  grasses,  etc.,  on  a  bush,  or  low  tree,  sometimes  on  the 
ground  or  in  crevices  of  rocks.  Egg,  1,  pale  buffy  white,  sparingly  marked 
with  rufous,  2'05  x  1'35.  Date,  Tortugas,  Fla.,  May  4. 

In  our  Atlantic  states  the  Noddy  is  known  to  nest  only  on  Bird 
Key  in  the  Tortugas  of  Florida,  where,  in  1907,  Watson  found  about 
seven  hundred  pairs. 

According  to  this  author,  whose  exceptionally  important  paper  on 
the  habits  of  the  Noddy  and  Sooty  Terns  should  be  read  by  every  one 
interested  in  bird  psychology,  it  arrives  late  in  April  and  remains  until 
September.  The  period  of  incubation  is  from  thirty-two  to  thirty-five 
days,  and  the  young,  according  to  Thompson,  are  dependent  upon 
their  parents  "until  they  are  over  three  months  old." 

The  Noddy's  exceptional  tameness  is  apparently  temperamental 
rather  than  the  result  of  ignorance  of  man,  since  the  Sooty  and  Bridled 
Terns,  with  which  it  often  breeds,  are  far  more  shy. 

As  the  only  Tern  with  a  rounded  tail,  the  Noddy,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, differs  widely  in  flight  from  other  members  of  its  subfamily. 
In  the  air  it  suggests  a  light-bodied  Pigeon  with  long  wings  and  tail. 
It  flies  rapidly  and  does  not  hover  over  its  nesting-ground,  as  do  the 


172  SKIMMERS 

Sooty,  Common,  and  other  fork-tailed  Terns.    Its  note  is  a  low,  reedy 
cock,  at  times  increased  to  a  rolling  guttural  k-r-r-r-r. 

References  to  papers  on  the  habits  of  this  species  will  be  found 
under  the  Sooty  Tern. 

6.  FAMILY  RYNCHOPID^E.  SKIMMERS.    (Fig.   25.) 

The  five  closely  allied  species  constituting  this  small  but  distinct 
group  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth.  Three  species  in- 
habit the  Western  Hemisphere,  of  which  one  reaches  North  America. 
Skimmers  nest  in  colonies  on  beaches.  The  black  adults  are  conspicu- 
ous when  incubating  and  correspondingly  wary;  but  the  sand-colored 
down  of  the  young  is  obviously  intended  to  picture  their  background, 
and,  like  young  Terns  and  Gulls,  they  squat  close  and  are  then  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  discover.  Skimmers  are  unique  both  in  the  form  of  the 
bill  and  in  their  manner  of  feeding.  Opening  the  mouth,  the  bladelike 
lower  mandible  is  dropped  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water;  then, 
flying  rapidly,  they  may  be  said  to  literally  "plow  the  main"  in  search 
of  their  food  of  small  aquatic  animals. 

80.  Rynchops  nigra  Linn.  BLACK  SKIMMER.  (Fig.  25.)  Ads. — Fore- 
head, sides  of  the  head,  underparts  and  tips  of  the  secondaries  white;  upper- 
parts  and  wings  black;  outer  tail-feathers  white,  inner  ones  more  or  less 
brownish;  base  of  bill  red,  end  black.  L.,  IS'OO;  W.,  14'50;  T.,  4'75;  B.,  2'60. 

Range. — Tropical  and  temperate  Am.  Breeds  from  Va.  (formerly  N.  J.) 
to  the  Gulf  coast  and  Tex.;  wanders  casually  n.  to  Bay  of  Fundy;  winters 
from  the  Gulf  coast  to  Colima,  Mex.  and  Costa  Rica;  casual  in  the  W.  Indies. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  Sept.  1858.    Long  Island,  occasional  in  summer. 

Nest,  a  slight  hollow  in  the  sand  or  shells  of  a  beach.  Eggs,  3-5,  white  or 
buffy  white,  heavily  blotched  with  chocolate,  1'80  x  1'35.  Date,  Nueces 
Co.,  Tex.,  May  15;  Cobb's  Is.,  Va.,  June  6. 

The  Black  Skimmer  breeds  in  large  colonies  from  Virginia  south- 
ward. They  make  their  nest-hollow  by  squatting  on  the  sand  and  turn- 
ing slowly  around,  boring  with  their  bodies.  They  are  exceedingly 
noisy  when  one  invades  their  haunts,  and,  calling  loudly,  charge  one 
repeatedly.  They  are  evidently  more  or  less  nocturnal,  and  while 
feeding  at  this  time  utter  their  sharp  yapt  yap,  like  a  pack  of  hounds 
on  the  trail. 

1905.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild  Wings,  120. — 1908.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps 
and  Cruises,  64-75  (nesting  in  Va.). 


III.    ORDER   TUBINARES.     TUBE -NOSED    SWIMMERS 

7.  FAMILY  DIOMEDEID.E.  ALBATROSSES.    (Fig.  26a.) 

The  Albatrosses,  numbering  seventeen  species,  are  confined  chiefly 
to  the  seas  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  Four  species  visit  our  Pacific 
coast  after  nesting  farther  south,  but  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North 


FULMARS,  SHEARWATERS,  PETRELS        173 

America  Albatrosses  are  almost  unknown,  and  there  are  but  few  records 
of  their  occurrence.  Albatrosses  are  among  the  most  tireless  and  wide- 
ranging  of  ocean  wanderers.  The  flight  of  the  Wandering  Albatross 
(Diomedea  exulans),  which  Coleridge's  "Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner" 
has  made  more  widely  known  than  all  that  naturalists  have  ever  written 
about  it,  is  thus  described  by  Professor  Hut  ton:  "With  outstretched, 
motionless  wings,  he  sails  over  the  surface  of  the  sea,  now  rising  high 
in  the  air,  now  with  a  bold  sweep,  and  wings  inclined  at  an  angle  with 
the  horizon,  descending  until  the  tip  of  the  lower  one  all  but  touches 
the  crests  of  the  waves  as  he  skims  over  them."  On  the  water  "he  is 
at  home,  breasting  the  waves  like  a  cork.  Presently  he  stretches  out 
his  neck,  and  with  great  exertion  of  his  wings  runs  along  the  top  of  the 
water  for  seventy  or  eighty  yards,  until,  at  last,  having  got  sufficient 
impetus,  he  tucks  up  his  legs,  and  is  once  more  fairly  launched  in 
the  air." 

Lucas  writes,  "The  Albatross  has  that  type  of  wing  which  best 
fulfils  the  conditions  necessary  for  an  aeroplane,  being  long  and  narrow, 
so  that,  while  a  full-grown  Wandering  Albatross  may  spread  from  ten 
to  twelve  feet*  from  tip  to  tip,  this  wing  is  not  more  than  nine  inches 
wide." 

The  YELLOW-NOSED  ALBATROSS  (83.  Thalassogeron  culminatus) ,  a 
southern  species,  is  said  to  have  been  taken  once  in  Quebec  (Chamberlain, 
Nuttall's  Manual,  2d  ed.,  II,  p.  277). 

8.  FAMILY  PROCELLARIID.E.   FULMARS,  SHEARWATERS,  AND 
PETRELS.    (Fig.    266.) 

The  about  one  hundred  known  members  of  this  family  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  seas  of  the  world.  Thirty-five  species  have  been  found 
in  North  America,  of  which  only  seven  occur  regularly  on  our  Atlantic 
coast.  Like  their  large  relatives,  the  Albatrosses,  they  are  strictly 
pelagic,  and  visit  the  land  only  to  nest.  The  strong,  swift  scaling  flight 
of  Shearwaters,  and  the  graceful  swallow-like  movements  of  the  smaller 
"Mother  Carey's  Chickens,"  are  familiar  sights  to  those  who  go  "down 
to  the  sea  in  ships."  Living  where  storms  attain  their  greatest  power, 
where  there  is  no  shelter  from  the  gale  other  than  the  troubled  sea 
itself,  Petrels  are  sometimes  carried  far  out  of  their  course  by  the  wind, 
no  less  than  seven  of  the  seventeen  species  recorded  from  North  America 
being  of  accidental  occurrence. 

The  Fulmars  (genus  Fulmarus)  nest  like  Gulls,  in  vast  numbers,  on 
islets  off  the  coasts  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific.  Compara- 
tively little  is  known  of  the  nesting-places  of  our  Shearwaters,  but  it 
is  probable  that  most  of  them  breed  in  the  southern  hemisphere  and 
migrate  northward  to  pass  their  winter  (our  summer)  off  our  coasts. 
One  of  our  Petrels  (Oceanites)  has  this  habit,  the  other  two  nest  in 
the  North  Atlantic. 

All  the  birds  of  this  group,  so  far  as  known,  lay  but  a  single  egg. 


174        FULMARS,  SHEARWATERS,  PETRELS 

The  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down,  usually  sooty  or  gray  in 
color,  and  are  reared  in  the  nest.  When  taken  from  the  nest,  both  old 
and  young  usually  disgorge  a  quantity  of  amber-colored  oil,  the  strong 
odor  of  which  always  characterizes  the  burrows  or  cavities  in  which 
most  of  these  birds  nest. 

1902.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Among  the  Water-Fowl,  97-128  (Doubleday).— 
1905.  Wild  Wings,  185-200,  (Houghton,  MifflinCo.). 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

I.  Wing  over  10'50. 

A.  Underparts  dusky 94.    SOOTY  SHEARWATER. 

B.  Underparts  white. 

a.  Bill  under  1' 50 98.  BLACK-CAPPED  PETREL. 

6.  Bill  over  1'50. 

61.  Under  tail-coverts  white 88.  CORY'S  SHEARWATER. 

62.  Under  tail-coverts  grayish  brown  .  .  89.  GREATER  SHEARWATER. 
II.  Wing   under    10*50. 

A.  Wing  over  7;25. 

a.  Depth  of  bill  at  base  over  "50 86.  FULMAR. 

b.  Depth  of  bill  at  base  under  '50. 

b1.  Upperparts  bluish  gray 99.  SCALED  PETREL. 

62.  Upperparts  sooty  black 92.  AUDUBON'S.  SHEARWATER. 

B.  Wing  under  7'25. 

a.  Upper  tail-coverts  more  or  less  white. 

a1.  Tail  forked 106.  LEACH'S  PETREL. 

b1.  Tail  square. 

62.  Webs  of  feet  marked  with  yellow;  upper  tail-coverts  not  tipped 

with  black 109.    WILSON'S  PETREL. 

63.  Webs  of  feet  without  yellow;  tail-coverts  tipped  with  black. 

104.  STORM  PETREL. 
6.  Upper  tail-coverts  grayish  or  brownish. 

&1.  Entire  underparts  brownish 101  BULWER'S  PETREL. 

b2.  Breast  grayish 110.  WHITE-BELLIED  PETREL. 

b3.  Entire  underparts  white 111.  WHITE-FACED  PETREL. 

86.  Fulmarus  glacialis  glacialis  (Linn.).  FULMAR.  (Fig.  26,  &.)  Light 
phase. — Head,  neck,  and  underparts  white  or  whitish;  back,  wings,  and  tail 
slaty  gray.  Dark  phase. — Entire  plumage  nearly  uniform  dark,  slaty  gray. 
L.,  19-00;  W.,  13-04;  B.,  1'50;  depth  of  B.  at  base,  '75. 

Range. — N.  Atlantic.  Breeds  from  n.  Greenland  to  Cumberland  Sound 
and  e.  at  least  to  Franz  Josef  Land;  ranges  n.  to  lat.  85°  and  w.  to  Melville 
Island ;  winters  s.  of  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  fishing-banks  off  N.  F.  and  to 
George  Bank  off  Mass.,  and  casually  to  N.  J. 

Nest,  on  the  ledges  of  rocky  cliffs.  Egg,  1,  dull  white,  2'85  x  2'01.  Date, 
Iceland,  May  10. 

"The  Fulmar  is  a  constant  attendant  on  whalers,  sealers,  etc. — who 
know  it  as  the  'Mollimoke' — in  order  to  obtain  fatty  substances  and 
animal  offal;  but  I  never  saw  it  take  any  while  on  the  wing,  and  it 
always  settles  on  the  water  to  feed,  like  an  Albatross.  The  pinions 
are  often  napped  slowly  in  an  owl-like  manner,  but  in  scudding  they 
are  held  very  straight — a  pecularity  by  which  it  may  easily  be  distin- 
guished from  a  Gull  at  a /distance"  (Saunders). 

The  PINTADO  PETREL  (102.  Daption  capense)  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere 
has  been  once  recorded  from  Maine  (Purdie,  "New  England  Bird-Life,"  p. 
387;  see  also  Knight's  "Birds  of  Maine,"  p.  67). 


FULMARS,  SHEARWATERS,  PETRELS        175 

88.  Puflinus    borealis    Cory.      CORY'S    SHEARWATER.      Ad. — Upper- 
parts  ashy  fuscous,  wings  and  tail  darker;  sides  of  head  and  neck  slightly 
lighter;   underparts  white,  sometimes  washed  with  grayish  on  the  breast; 
under  wing-coverts  and  under  tail-coverts  white,  the  latter  more  or  less  mot- 
tled with  grayish;  bill  yellowish.    L.,  21'00;  W.,  14'00;  Tar.,  2'20;  B.,  2'10. 

Range. — Known  only  from  off  coasts  of  Mass.,  R.  I.,  and  L.  I.  (Aug.- 
Nov.). 

Long  Island,  probably  regular  S.  R.,  Aug.  6.-Oct.  18. 
Nesting,  unknown. 

Cory's  Shearwater  is  not  uncommon  off  our  middle  Atlantic  Coast 
from  August  until  November,  but  its  entire  range  is  unknown. 

89.  Puf firms    gravis    (O'Reilly.}.      GREATER    SHEARWATER.      Ads. — 
Upperparts  fuscous,  wings  and  tail  slightly  darker;  longer  upper  tail-coverts 
tipped  with  whitish ;  underparts  white ;  belly  more  or  less  ashy  gray ;  under 
tail-coverts  ashy  gray;  bill  blackish.    L.,  20'00;  W.,  12'25;  Tar.,  2'20;  B.,  1'85. 

Range. — Atlantic  Ocean,  from  Arctic  Circle  s.  to  Cape  Horn  and  Cape 
of  Good  Hope;  occurs  off  the  e.  coast  of  N.  Am.  from  June  to  November. 
Long  Island,  irregularly  common,  June-Nov. 
Nesting,  unknown. 

"The  long,  narrow  wings  are  set  stiffly  at  right  angles  with  the 
body,  and  the  bird  frequently  glides  half  a  mile  at  a  time  without 
moving  them  perceptibly.  It  usually  follows  a  direct  course,  and  in- 
variably skims  close  over  the  waves.  I  know  of  no  other  sea-bird  whose 
movements  are  as  easy  and  graceful.  Indeed,  at  times,  especially 
during  a  gale,  its  evolutions  will  compare  in  grace  and  spirit  with  those 
of  the  Mississippi  or  Swallow-tailed  Kites"  (Brewster). 

1905.   JOB,  H.  K.f  Wild  Wings,  198  (off  Mass.). 

MANX'S  SHEARWATER  (90.  Puffinus  puffinus)  resembles  Audubon's 
Shearwater  in  color,  but  is  larger.  W.,  8'50-9'25;  B.,  1'35-1'40;  depth  of  B. 
through  base,  '40--45;  Tar.,  I'TO-l'SO"  (B.,  B.,  and  R.).  It  occurs  on  the 
European  coast  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  has  been  recorded  from  Greenland. 

92.  Puffinus  Iherminieri  Less.  AUDUBON'S  SHEARWATER.  Ads. — 
Upperparts,  wings  and  tail  dark,  sooty,  brownish  black;  underparts  white; 
sides  of  the  breast  grayish ;  a  patch  on  the  flanks  and  under  tail-coverts  sooty 
brownish  black;  inner  side  of  tarsi  yellowish,  outer  brownish;  bill  blackish. 
L.,  12-00;  W.,  8-00;  Tar.,  T60;  B.,  1'20. 

Range. — Warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  n.  rarely  to  L.  I.;  breeds  in  the 
Antilles  and  Bahamas,  but  not,  so  far  as  known,  on  our  coasts. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  two  or  three  records  but  no  specimens.  Long  Island, 
one  record,  Aug.  1. 

Nest,  in  a  hole,  in  the  rocks.  Egg,  I,  chalky  white,  2'05  x  1'40.  Date, 
Ragged  Is.,  Bahamas,  Apl.  13. 

This  small  Shearwater  is  an  abundant  West  Indian  species  which 
breeds  in  Bermuda,  the  Bahamas  and  Antilles,  and  is  doubtless  not 
uncommon  off  our  southern  coasts.  Its  flight,  low  over  the  water,  is 
strong  and  swift,  five  or  six  rapid  wing-beats  being  followed  by  a  short 
sail. 

It  is  active  about  its  nesting-ground  only  at  night  when  the  constant 
repetition  of  its  uncanny  see-saw  notes  is  an  indication  of  its  before-un- 
suspected abundance.  I  have  found  either  the  male  or  female  on  the 


176        FULMARS,  SHEARWATERS,  PETRELS 

nest,  and,  when  exposed  by  the  removal  of  protecting  rock,  they  made 
no  attempt  to  fly  but  scuttled  away  into  another  hole  or  under  the 
vegetation. 

The  ALLIED  SHEARWATER  (92.1.  Puffinus  assimilis)  of  Southern  seas,  has 
been  found  once  on  Sable  Island,  N.  S.  (Dwight,  Pr.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  XI, 
1897,69). 

95.  Puffinus  griseus  (Gmel.}.  SOOTY  SHEARWATER.  Ads. — Upper- 
parts,  wings  and  tail  dark,  sooty,  brownish  black;  underparts  somewhat 
grayer;  bill  blackish.  L.,  17'00;  W.,  12'00;  Tar,  2'10;  B.,  1'65. 

Range. — Oceans  of  S.  Hemisphere;  occurs  in  summer  on  the  Pacific 
"coast  from  s.  Alaska  to  L.  Calif,  and  on  Atlantic  Coast  from  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  to  S.  C. ;  accidental  in  Ala. ;  breeds  in  the  s.  Pacific  off  New  Zealand. 

Long  Island,  rare  in  summer. 

Nest,  in  burrows.  Egg,  1,  white,  2*60  x  1*60.  Date,  February  and  March 
(Buller). 

"Its  flight  and  habits  seem  to  be  identical  with  those  of  major,  but 
its  uniform  dark  coloring  gives  it  a  very  different  appearance.  At  a 
distance  it  looks  as  black  as  a  Crow"  (Brewster). 

98.  ^Estrelata  hasitata  (Kuhl).  BLACK-CAPPED  PETREL.  Ads. — 
Upperparts  and  wings  fuscous;  forehead  and  nape  whitish;  upper  tail- 
coverts  white;  tail  fuscous,  basally  white,  central  feathers  longest;  below 
white.  W.,  11-50;  T.,  5'25;  B.,  1-15. 

Range. — Warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Bred  formerly  in  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  straying  to  Haiti,  Fla.,  Va.,  N.  Y.  (Ulster  Co.,  Oneida  Lake 
and  L.  L),  N.  H.,  Ky.,  Ohio,  and  Ont.,  and  also  to  England  and  France; 
probably  now  extinct. 

The  SCALED  PETREL  (99.  JEstrelata  scalaris]  is  known  from  one  indivi- 
dual which  had  wandered  to  western  New  York.  Its  true  home  has  not  been 
discovered,  but  is  doubtless  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  •  (Brewster,  Auk,  III, 
1886,  300.)  Its  identity  with  JE.  gularis  has  been  suggested. 

PEALE'S  PETREL  (JEstrelata  gularis},  an  Antarctic  species,  has  been 
taken  once  in  Bermuda  (Bradlee,  Auk,  1906,  217). 

BULWER'S  PETREL  (101.  Bulweria  bulweri)  inhabits  the  north  temperate 
portions  of  the  Eastern  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans,  and  is  of  accidental 
occurrence  in  Greenland. 

104.  Thalassidroma  pelagica  (Linn.).  STORM  PETREL..  Ads. — Upper- 
parts,  wings  arid  tail  sooty  black;  underparts  slightly  browner;  upper  tail- 
coverts  white,  the  longer  ones  broadly  tipped  with  black;  under  tail-coverts 
mixed  with  whitish;  bill  and  feet  black.  L.,  5'50;  WM  4*80;  T.,  2'50;  B.,  "45. 

Range. — The  more  easterly  portions  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  s.  to  the 
Mediterranean  and  w.  coast  of  Africa.  Said  to  occur  at  times  on  the  New- 
foundland Banks  and  off  the  coast  of  N.  S.  Breeds  on  islands  off  Great 
Britain. 

Nest,  of  a  tew  bits  of  grasses  and  feathers  in  a  burrow  in  the  ground  or 
beneath  a  rock.  Egg,  1,  dull  white,  sometimes  with  a  wreath  of  minute  or 
obscure  markings  at  the  larger  end,  I'lO  x  '80.  Date,  Hebrides,  G.  B., 
May  29. 

This  is  the  common  Petrel  of  the  east  side  of  the  Atlantic.  It 
nests  in  numbers  on  the  small  islands  along  the  coast  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  is  only  a  transient  visitant  in  our  waters.  It  resembles  the  two 
following  species  in  habits. 


FULMARS,  SHEARWATERS,  PETRELS        177 

106.  Oceanodroma  leucorhoa  (VieilL).  LEACH'S  PETREL.  Ads. — 
Upperparts,  wings  and  tail  sooty  brown;  underparts  slightly  browner; 
wing-coverts  grayish  brown;  longer  upper  tail-coverts  white,  shorter  ones 
mixed  with  sooty  brownish;  tail  forked,  outer  feathers  more  than  '50  longer 
than  middle  pair;  bill  and  feet  wholly  black.  L.,  8'00;  W.,  6'20;  T.,  3'50; 
B.,  '62. 

Range. — N.  Pacific  and  N.  Atlantic  oceans.  Breeds  from  the  Aleutian 
and  Copper  Islands,  Bering  Sea,  s.  to  Sitka,  and  from  s.  Greenland  s.  to 
Maine  and  the  Hebrides;  casual  in  migration  s.  to  Va. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  several  records,  most  frequent  in  Aug.  Long  Island, 
rare  T.  V.,  May;  July- Aug.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.  in  fall. 

Nest,  of  a  few  bits  of  grasses  and  feathers  in  a  burrow  in  the  ground,  or 
beneath  a  rock.  Egg,  1,  creamy  white,  sometimes  with  a  wreath  of  minute 
or  obscure  markings  at  the  larger  end,  1'34  x  TOO.  Date,  Bird  Rock,  Que., 
May  29. 

This  is  the  only  Petrel  nesting  on  our  Atlantic  Coast,  where  from 
about  May  1  it  is  locally  abundant  on  islets  or  isolated  headlands  from 
Maine  northward.  It  digs  its  own  nesting-holes  or  uses,  sometimes  in 
common,  those  made  by  Puffins.  During  the  day  it  apparently  never 
leaves  its  nest,  on  which,  prior  to  laying,  both  birds  may  be  found, 
but  later,  only  one,  either  the  male  or  female,  incubates  or  remains 
with  the  young.  The  absent  one  of  the  pair  is  presumably  then  at  sea, 
from  which  it  returns  after  nightfall. 

On  Bkd  Rock  in  the  Magdalens,  where  not  a  Petrel  was  seen  during 
the  day,  I  was  given  the  most  surprising  evidence  of  their  activity 
during  the  night.  From  the  ground  at  my  feet  and  from  every  side  there 
issued  the  uncanny  little  song  of  birds  doubtless  sitting  at  the  mouths 
of  their  burrows.  It  was  a  distinctly  enunciated  call  of  eight  notes  with 
a  certain  crowing  quality;  such  a  call  as  might  be  uttered  by  elves  or 
brownies.  Occasionally  I  saw  a  blur  of  wings  as  a  bird  passed  between 
me  and  the  lighthouse. 

1909.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  180. 

The  HAWAIIAN  PETREL  (106.2  Oceanodroma  castro)  of  southern  oceans 
has  been  taken  in  the  District  of  Columbia  (two  specimens  Aug.  29,  1893) 
and  in  Indiana. 

109.  Oceanites  oceanicus  (Kuhl).  WILSON'S  PETREL.  Ads. — Upper- 
parts,  wings  and  tail  sooty  black;  underparts  somewhat  lighter;  under  tail- 
coverts  mixed  with  whitish,  longer  upper  tail-coverts  white,  shorter  ones 
marked  with  sooty  black;  wing-coverts  grayish,  margined  with  whitish; 
bill  and  feet  black,  toe-webs  mostly  yellow.  L.,  7'00;  W.,  5'90;  T.,  2'80: 
B.,  '50. 

Range.— S.  Polar  regions  n.  to  Lab.  and  British  Isles.  Breeds  on 
Antarctic  islands  in  Feb.;  occurs  off  American  coast  from  May-Sept.; 
accidental  on  Muskoka  Lake,  Ont. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  one  record.    Long  Island,  common  S.  R.,  May-Sept. 

Nest,  in  burrows  or  the  crevices  of  rocks.   Egg,  I,  white.   Date,  February. 

It  is  generally  known  that  some  birds  which  nest  in  the  northern 
parts  of  our  continent  in  the  winter  migrate  as  far  south  as  Patago- 
nia; but  comparatively  few  are  aware  that  during  the  summer  we 
receive  several  visitors  from  the  southern  parts  of  the  Southern  Hemis- 
sphere.  They  are  all  included  in  the  fam;1y  Procellariidoe,  and  Wil- 


178  TROPIC-BIRDS 

son's  Petrel  is  doubtless  the  most  common.  It  breeds  in  the  islands 
of  the  South  Atlantic  in  February,  and  after  the  cares  of  the  breeding 
season  are  over  migrates  northward  to  pass  its  winter  off  our  coasts. 
At  this  season  its  home  is  the  sea,  and  its  occurrence  on  land  is  gener- 
ally due  to  storms.  For  this  reason,  and  because  of  its  long  migra- 
tion, it  is  the  Petrel  most  frequently  observed  in  western  Atlantic 
waters  during  the  summer. 

Under  the  name  of  "Stormy  Petrel,"  or  "Mother  Carey's  Chicken," 
these  birds  are  familiar  to  most  people  who  have  made  sea  voyages.  On 
tireless  wing  they  follow  in  the  track  of  a  ship,  coursing  ceaselessly 
back  and  forth,  now  beneath  the  stern,  now  hovering  over  the  foam- 
flecked  wake,  reminding  one  of  white-rumped  Martins  in  their  easy, 
graceful  flight.  If  food  be  thrown  overboard,  they  are  at  once  attracted 
to  it,  and  soon  are  left  far  behind,  a  little  group  of  black,  fluttering 
forms  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  The  meal  disposed  of,  a  few  rapid 
wing-beats  bring  them  to  us,  and  again  they  resume  their  patient  beat- 
ing to  and  fro. 

1905.   JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild  Wings,  191  (off  Mass.). 

^The  WHITE-BELLIED  PETREL  (110.  Fregetta  grallaria)  is  a  tropical  species 
which  has  been  taken  once  in  North  America — at  St.  Marks,  Fla. 

The  WHITE-FACED  PETREL  (111.  Pelagodroma  marina)  inhabits  the  S. 
Atlantic  and  southern  seas.  It  is  of  accidental  occurrence  off  the  coast  of 
Massachusetts.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  any  of  our  small  Petrels  by 
its  white  underparts. 


IV.  ORDER   STEGANOPODES.     TOTIPALMATE   SWIMMERS 

9.  FAMILY  PHAETHONTID^J.  TROPIC-BIRDS.   (Fig.  28.) 

The  six  species  comprising  this  small  but  distinct  family  are  dis- 
tributed through  the  tropical  and  subtropical  seas  of  both  hemispheres, 
but  none  regularly  reach  the  United  States.  Tropic-birds  frequent  the 
high  seas.  They  fly  with  quick,  strong  beats  of  the  wing,  quite  unlike 
the  more  leisurely  stroke  of  Gulls;  and  from  Terns  they  may  be  known 
by  the  long,  willowy  tail-feathers  which  add  greatly  to  their  appear- 
ance when  in  the  air.  They  hunt  for  food  by  beating  back  and  forth 
over  the  water  and  plunging  abruptly  down  upon  it. 

Tropic-birds  lay  their  single  brownish,  purplish  egg  on  the  bare 
ground  or  rock,  in  a  burrow  or  crevice  often  some  height  above  the 
water.  Incubation  is  said  to  be  performed  by  both  parents.  When  on 
the  nest,  they  vigorously  resent  being  disturbed,  by  screaming,  biting 
and  scratching. 

112.  Phaethon   americanus    Grant.     YELLOW-BILLED    TROPIC-BIRD. 
(Fig.  28.)    Ads. — White;  a  mark  before  and  through  eye;  outer  web  of  pri- 
maries, lesser  wing-coverts,  and  tertials  black;  flanks  streaked  with  slate;  bill 
Sallow;  tail  tinged  with  salmon,  shafts  of  feathers  black.  W.f  1075;  T.,  19'00; 
.     2-00. 


GANNETS  179 

Range. — Fla.  and  Bermuda  s.  to  W.  Indies  and  Atlantic  coast  of  Cen. 
Am.,  accidental  in  w.  N.  Y.  and  N.  S. 

Nest,  in  holes  in  rocks  or  cliffs.  Egg,  1,  heavily  dotted  or  marked  with 
chestnut,  2' 10  x  T45.  Date,  Bermuda,  May  5. 

This  species  breeds  abundantly  in  the  Bermudas,  but  is  of  rare 
occurrence  on  our  coasts. 

The  RED-BILLED  TROPIC-BIRD  (113.  Phaethon  cethereus,  Fig.  28)  resembles 
the  preceding  species,  but  has  the  bill  red  and  the  upperparts  finely  barred 
with  black.  Its  range  in  the  Atlantic  is  more  southern  than  that  of  the 
Yellow-billed  Tropic-bird.  The  only  record  of  its  occurrence  in  eastern 
North  America  is  off  the  Newfoundland  Banks. 


10.  FAMILY  SULIDJE.  GANNETS.   (Figs.   27,   29.) 

The  Gannets  or  Boobies  number  eleven  species,  of  which  one  is 
northern  while  the  remaining  ten  are  distributed  throughout  the  tropi- 
cal and  subtropical  coasts  of  the  world,  five  of  them  having  been  recorded 
from  our  southern  borders.  They  are  strictly  maritime,  but  are  more 
abundant  near  the  coast  than  on  the  high  seas.  Their  flight  is  strong 
and  rapid,  the  vigorous  strokes  of  the  wing  being  interrupted  at  inter- 
vals by  a  short  sail.  They  obtain  their  food  of  fish  by  plunging  for  it 
from  the  air.  The  northern  species  is  migratory;  the  others  are  roving, 
but  all  return  with  regularity  to  their  nesting-places,  generally  on  some 
islet,  where,  during  the  breeding  season,  they  may  be  found  associated 
in  large  numbers.  The  young  are  born  naked,  but  are  soon  covered 
with  white  down.  In  common  with  other  members  of  the  Order  Stegan- 
opodes  (except  Phaethon)  they  feed  by  thrusting  their  head  down  the 
parent's  throat.  They  are  wholly  dependent  on  parental  care  until  they 
acquire  the  power  of  flight. 

115.  Sula  leucpgastra  (Bodd.}.  BOOBY.  (Fig.  27.)  Ads. — Breast  and 
belly  white,  sometimes  washed  with  grayish;  rest  of  plumage  brownish 
fuscous;  head  and  neck  sometimes  streaked  with  grayish  brown  and  white; 
bill  and  feet  yellowish.  Im. — Entire  plumage  brownish  fuscous,  lighter 
below;  bill  blackish,  feet  yellow.  L.,  30*00;  W.,  15-50;  T.,  8'00;  B.,  3'80. 

Range. — Atlantic  coasts  of  tropical  Am.,  and  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans; 
casual  on  s.  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  of  U.  S.  from  S.  C.  to  La. ;  accidental 
on  L.  I.  and  in  Mass. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  of  a  barren  islet.  Eggs,  2,  chalky  white,  2'30  x  T55. 
Date,  Cay  Verde,  Bahamas,  February. 

This  Booby  breeds  abundantly  in  Cay  Verde,  southeast  of  Ragged 
Island  in  the  Bahamas,  and  on  other  Bahaman  Keys,  but  is  known 
on  our  coasts  only  as  an  irregular  visitant,  though  off  eastern  Florida 
it  is  of  probably  more  frequent  occurrence  than  the  actual  records 
would  indicate.  Bangs  observed  it  in  numbers  off  the  coast  east  of 
Micco  on  February  12, 1895  (Auk,  XIX,  p.  395),  and  on  March  11, 1907, 
I  saw  twelve  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's  River. 

On  its  nesting-grounds  the  bird  is  exceedingly  tame  and  will  often 
14 


180  GANNETS 

strike  at  one  viciously  rather  than  take  wing.    It  feeds  on  squids  and 
fish,  which,  like  other  birds  of  its  genus,  it  catches  by  diving. 

1908.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Papers  from  Tortugas  Lab.  of  Carnegie  Inst., 
II,  141-149;  Camps  and  Cruises,  208-217  (nesting). 

The  BLUE-FACED  BOOBY  (114.  Sula  cyanops)  a  southern  species,  breeds 
as  far  north  as  the  Bahamas  and  is  of  casual  occurrence  off  southern  Florida, 
but  there  are  no  recent  records  of  its  appearance  there. 

116.  Sula  piscator  (Linn.).    RED-FOOTED  BOOBY.   Wing-quills  more  or 
less  frosty.   Ads. — White  more  or  less  tinged  with  straw;  wings  hoary  fuscous, 
their  coverts  and  inner  tertials  like  back;  face  blue,  pouch  slate,  feet  red. 
Young  birds  are  nearly  uniform  brown,  and  in  a  later  plumage  the  head, 
neck  and  underparts  are  white,  but  at  all  times  the  wing-quills  are  frosty. 
L.,  29-00;  W.,  15'00;  B.,  3'30. 

Range. — Coasts  and  islands  of  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  from  Fla. 
and  w.  Mex.  southward. 

Bangs  records  the  occurrence  of  great  numbers  of  white,  black- 
winged  Boobies,  doubtless  this  species,  off  the  east  Florida  coast, 
opposite  Micco,  on  February  12,  1905  (Auk,  XIX,  p.  395).  The  species 
is  n$t  known  to  nest  nearer  Florida  than  the  Cayman  islands  south  of 
Cuba,  but  I  have  elsewhere  given  reasons  for  believing  that  the  Booby 
recorded  by  Audubon  as  nesting  in  the  Tortugas  was  this  species  and 
not  Sula  leucogastra  (see  Papers  from  Tortugas  Lab.  of  Carnegie  Inst., 
1908,  II,  p.  144). 

117.  Sula  bassana   (Linn.).     GANNET.    (Figs.  27,  29.)    Ads.— White, 
head  and  neck  tinged  with  pale  straw-yellow;  primaries  fuscous.     Im. — 
Throat  and  upperparts,  including  wing-coverts,  dark  grayish  brown,  each 
feather  with  a  small   white   wedge-shaped   spot;   breast  and  belly  white, 
margined  with  grayish  brown.    L.,  35'00;  W.,  19'00;  T.,  9'50;  B.,  4'00. 

Range. — Coasts  of  N.  Atlantic.  Breeds  on  Bird  Rock  and  Bonavenftire 
Island  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  on  islets  off  British  Islands;  winters 
from  N.  C.  coast  s.  to  Gulf  of  Mex.,  and  on  coasts  of  n.  Africa,  Madeira, 
and  the  Canaries;  occurs  off  e.  U.  S.  in  migration;  casual  n.  to  Greenland; 
accidental  in  Ind.  and  Ont. 

Long  Island,  common  T.  VM>Mch.  23-May  9;  Oct.  5-Dec.  5. 

Nest,  of  seaweed  on  rocky  cliffs.  Egg,  1,  pale  bluish  white,  overlaid  by 
a  chalky  deposit,  more  or  less  soiled  and  stained,  3*20  x  1'90.  Date,  Bird 
Rock,  Que.,  May  5. 

The  distribution  of  this,  the  only  boreal  member  of  its  family, 
indicates  that  at  one  time  it  was  found  even  farther  north  than  it  is 
at  present,  and  that  through  a  climatic  change  the  more  northern 
birds  were  either  exterminated  or  forced  southward,  leaving  only  the 
widely  separated  existing  colonies — two  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
and  about  a  dozen  off  the  northern  shores  of  the  British  Islands. 

They  reach  their  American  nesting-grounds  early  in  April,  and  a 
month  later  are  massed  in  snowy  banks  on  the  broader  ledges  of  the 
precipitous  cliffs,  laying  or  incubating.  Where  they  are  not  frequently 
disturbed,  they  are  so  tame  that  they  can  be  touched  as  they  sit  on 
thdj*  nests.  Their  call  is  a  harsh  gor-r-r-r-rok. 

During  their  migrations  they  are  found  usually  well  off  the  coast, 


DARTERS  181 

though  I  have  seen  them  fishing  in  the  surf  at  Virginia  Beach.  They  are 
splendid  birds  and  when  on  the  wing  exhibit  a  striking  combination 
of  power  and  grace.  They  are  most  'impressive  when  diving,  as  with 
half-closed  wings,  like  great  spearheads  they  strike  the  water  with  a 
force  which  takes  them  wholly  out  of  sight  and  splashes  the  spray  ten 
feet  or  more  into  the  air. 

1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  139-145,  181, 
189. — 1908.  Camps  and  Cruises,  408. 

11.  FAMILY  ANHINGID^E.  DARTERS.   (Figs.   29,   30.) 

There  are  four  species  of  Darters,  Snakebirds  or  Water-Turkeys, 
one  each  in  Africa,  southern  Asia,  Australia,  and  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical America.  They  are  silent  birds,  generally  living  in  pairs  or 
colonies  on  bodies  of  fresh  water  with  wooded  shores.  They  select  a 
perch  over  the  water,  and  when  alarmed  sometimes  drop  into  the  ele- 
ment below  and  disappear  beneath  its  surface,  or  fly  upward  to  a  con- 
siderable height  and  circle  about  like  sailing  Hawks.  They  swim  well, 
and  when  approached  too  closely  ?  sink  quietly  backward,  frequently 
leaving  the  long,  thin  neck  and  narrow,  pointed  head  above  the  surface, 
when  one  at  once  observes  the  origin  of  the  name  "Snakebird."  They 
obtain  their  food  by  pursuing  it  under  water,  and  their  finely  serrated 
bill  assists  them  in  retaining  their  hold  upon  it.  The  young  are  born 
naked,  but  are  soon  covered  with  close,  short,  buff  down.  They  obtain 
their  food  from  the  throat  of  the  parent,  and  remain  in  or  near  the 
nest  until  they  are  able  to  fly. 

118.  Anhinga  anhinga  (Linn.).  WATER-TURKEY.  (Fig.  13.)  Ad. 
cf  in  summer. — General  plumage  glossy  black  with  greenish  reflections; 
back  of  head  and  neck  with  scattered  grayish  plumes;  upper  back  with 
numerous  elongated  silvery  white  spots,  which  on  the  scapulars  become 
streaks;  lesser  wing-coverts  spotted  like  back;  exposed  portion  of  median 
and  greater  coverts  silvery  gray;  tail  tipped  with  whitish,  outer  webs  of 
middle  pair  of  feathers  with  transverse  flutings.  Ad.  <?  in  winter. — Similar, 
but  without  grayish  plumes  on  head  and  neck.  Ad.  9. — Similar  to  cf,  but 
with  whole  head,  neck,  and  breast  brownish,  darker  above.  Im. — Similar 
to  9,  but  with  black  parts  of  plumage  brownish.  L.,  34'00;  W.,  13'50;  T., 
10-50;  B.,  3-25. 

Range. — Tropical  Am.  n.  to  w.  Mex.  (Tepic),  Tex.,  Fla.,  s.  Ills.,  and  N. 
C.,  and  casually  to  Kans. ;  accidental  in  N.  Mex.  and  Ariz. 

Nest,  well  formed,  of  sticks  lined  with  moss,  rootlets,  etc.,  over  the  water 
in  a  low  bush  or  high  tree.  Eggs,  2-5,  bluish  white  with  a  chalky  deposit, 
2'15  x  1'35.  Date,  Tampa,  Fla.,  Mch.  21. 

This  singular  bird  is  a  permanent  resident  in  Florida  but  migratory 
farther  north.  They  nest  in  isolated  pairs,  or  in  colonies  of  as  many  as 
two  hundred  birds.  Although  they  soar  with  great  ease  they  alight 
clumsily,  tumbling  on  to  their  perches,  with  much  flapping  of  wings 
before  gaining  their  balance.  When  not  alarmed,  they  seem  to  take 
flight  with  much  hesitation,  opening  and  closing  their  wings  repeatedly 
before  they  trust  themselves  to  their  support.  When  alighting  near  the 


182  CORMORANTS 

nest,  they  utter  harsh,  grating  calls,  which,  if  another  bird  chances  to 
be  near,  is  replied  to  with  threatening  motions  of  the  sharply  pointed 
bill. 

1908.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  116-118  (nesting). 

12.  FAMILY   PHALACROCORACID^B.   CORMORANTS.    (Figs.  29,  31.) 

Cormorants  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Six  of  the  fortj 
known  species  inhabit  North  America.  As  a  rule  they  are  mari- 
time, but  they  also  frequent  bodies  of  fresh  water  far  from  the 
seacoast.  They  are  more  or  less  gregarious  at  all  seasons,  and  breed  in 
colonies.  Their  flight  is  strong  and  ducklike,  and  they  often  fly  in 
diagonal  lines  with  a  somewhat  gooselike  formation.  They  secure 
their  food  of  fish  by  pursuing  it  under  water,  swimming  with  feet 
alone,  their  hooked  bill  assisting  them  in  its  capture.  Unlike  the  Gan- 
nets,  they  do  not  dive  from  the  air,  but  from  the  water  or  a  low  perch. 
They  nest  on  the  ground  on  islands,  or  on  trees  growing  in  water,  build- 
ing well-formed  structures.  The  young  are  born  naked,  but  are  soon 
covered  with  a  thick,  short,  black  down,  which  is  succeeded  by  the 
plumage  of  flight.  They  feed,  as  do  the  young  of  most  Steganopodes, 
by  thrusting  their  head  and  neck  well  down  the  parent's  throat. 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

A.  Tail  of  14  feathers,  length  over  33 '00 119.  CORMORANT. 

B.  Tail  of  12  feathers,  length  under  31  "00. 

a.  Feathers  of  back  and  scapulars  rounded. 

120.  DOUBLE-CRESTED  CORMORANT 

b.  Feathers  of  back  and  scapulars  pointed  .   121.  MEXICAN  CORMORANT. 

119.  Phalacrocorax  carbo  (Linn.).    CORMORANT  (Figs.  29,  32.)    Ads. 
in  breeding  plumage. — Region  about  base  of  lower  mandible  white  or  whitish ; 
head,  upper  neck,  and  throat  glossy  black,  thickly  sprinkled  with  white; 
rest  of  neck,  underparts,  and  rump  glossy  black;  a  white  patch  on  flank; 
upper  back,   scapulars,   and  wing-coverts  light  olive-brown,   each  feathei 
bordered  by  glossy  black;  tail  black,  composed  of  fourteen  feathers.    Ads. 
in  winter. — Similar,  but  without  white  on  the  head.    Im. — Top  of  the  head 
and    hindneck  brownish  black;    upper  back,   scapulars,   and    wing-coverts 
grayish   brown,    the   feathers   bordered   by   blackish;   rump   glossy   black; 
throat  and  breast  grayish  brown,  changing  to  white  on  belly;  sides  and  under 
tail-coverts  glossy  black.   L.,  36'00;  W.,  14'00;  T.,  7'00;  B.,  3'00. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  cen.  Greenland  s.  to  N.  S.,  and 
e.  through  Europe  and  Asia  to  Kamchatka;  winters  from  s.  Greenland  s.  to 
L.  I.,  casually  to  Lake  Ont.  and  S.  C.,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  s.  to  s. 
Africa,  Australia,  and  Malay  Pen. 

Long  Island,  regular  T.  V.  in  limited  numbers  (Butcher). 

Nest,  of  sticks  and  seaweed,  in  colonies,  generally  on  the  ledges  of  rocky 
cliffs.  Eggs,  4-6,  pale  bluish  white,  more  or  less  overlaid  with  a  chalky 
deposit,  2'50  x  1*50.  Date,  s.  Lab.,  June  19. 

120.  Phalaerocorax    auritus    auritus    (Swains.).     DOUBLE -CRESTED 
CORMORANT.   Ads.  in  breeding  plumage. — Head,  neck,  rump  and  underparts 
glossy  black;  upper  back,  scapulars,  and  wing-coverts  light  grayish  brown, 
each  feather  margined  with  glossy  black;  tail  black,  composed  of  twelve  feath- 


PELICANS  183 

ers;  a  tuft  of  black  feathers  on  either  side  of  the  head ;  a  few  white  ones  over 
the  eye.  Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  without  tufts  on  the  head.  Im. — Top 
of  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck  blackish  brown;  upper  back,  scapulars, 
and  wing-coverts  brownish  gray,  each  feather  margined  with  black;  rump 
glossy  black;  sides  of  the  head  and  foreneck  grayish  white,  whiter  on  the 
breast  and  changing  gradually  to  black  on  the  lower  belly.  L.,  30' 00;  WM 
12-50;  T.,  6'20;  B.,  2'30. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  cen.  Sask.  (casually  Great  Slave 
Lake),  s.  Keewatin,  ne.  Que.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  n.  Utah,  S.  D.,  s.  Minn.,  and 
Penobscot  Bay,  Maine;  winters  from  N.  C.,  (casually  Mass.),  s.  to  Gulf 
coast;  casual  in  Bermuda. 

Washington,  casual,  several  records.  Long  Island,  common  T.  V.,  in  fall, 
Aug.  26-Nov.  5;  Apl.  20-May  15.  Ossining,  A.  V.,  June.  Cambridge,  casual, 
one  instance,  Sept.  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V. 

Nest,  of  sticks,  seaweed,  etc.,  on  the  ledges  of  cliffs,  in  trees  or  bushes, 
or  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-4,  similar  in  color  to  those  of  the  preceding, 
2'40  x  1'40.  Date,  s.  Lab.,  June  19;  se.  Minn.,  May  7. 

This  is  the  common  Cormorant  of  the  middle  Eastern  States.  We 
see  it  chiefly  as  migrant  when  in  flocks  of  varying  size  it  passes  far 
overhead,  or  pauses  to  rest  on  our  shores.  In  migrating  the  flock 
is  formed  in  a  long  line,  comparatively  few  birds  deep.  On  the  wing  they 
bear  a  general  resemblance  to  large  Ducks  or  to  Geese. 

1894.  MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  XI,  18-25  (habits  in  R.  I.).— 1911.  SMITH, 
F.,  Auk,  XXVIII,  16-19  (breeding  in  Ills.). 

120a.  P.  a.  floridanus  (And.}.  FLORIDA  CORMORANT.  Resembles 
the  preceding  species  in  color,  but  is  smaller.  W.,  12'00;  T.,  5'50;  B.,  2'  10. 

Range. — Subtropical  and  temperate  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  Ills.,  La.,  N. 
C.,  Bahamas,  and  Cuba  s.  to  British  Honduras  and  Yucatan;  winters  n. 
to  Tex.  and  S.  C. ;  wanders  to  the  Dismal  Swamp,  Va. 

Nest,  in  bushes  or  trees,  preferably  mangroves  or  cypresses.  Eggs,  like 
those  of  preceding.  Date,  Walkulla,  Fla.,  Mch.  20. 

This  is  an  abundant  bird  on  the  Florida  coast  and  westward  along 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf.  Almost  every  buoy  in  the  harbors  of  Florida 
is  capped  by  a  Cormorant. 

121.  Phalacrocorax  yigua  mexicanus  (Brandt}.  MEXICAN  COR- 
MORANT. Scapulars  and  wing-coverts  pointed.  Resembling  P.  auritus  but 
smaller,  and  feathers  above  more  pointed.  Ads.  in  breeding  plumage  with 
pouch  and  face  bordered  posteriorly  by  white.  L.,  25'00;  W.,  10'25;  B.,  1*80. 

Range. — New  Mex.,  Kans.,  and  s.  Ills.  s.  to  Gulf  of  Mex.,  Bahamas, 
Cuba,  Mex.,  and  Nicaraugua. 

13.  FAMILY  PELECANIDTE.  PELICANS.   (Fig.   29.) 

The  ten  known  species  of  Pelicans  are  distributed  throughout  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  world.  Three  species  are  North  American,  of 
which  two  are  exclusively  maritime  and  are  found  on  our  southern 
coasts,  while  the  third  nests  well  to  the  north,  in  the  interior,  and  win- 
ters on  the  seacoasts  southward.  Pelicans  are  gregarious  and  nest  in 
colonies.  Their  flight  is  strong  but  leisurely,  six  or  seven  wing-strokes 
being  followed  by  a  short  sail,  all  the  members  of  a  flock  flapping  and 
mailing  in  unison.  They  often  mount  to  great  heights,  there  to  soar 


184  PELICANS 

majestically  in  broad  circles,  evidently  for  mere  pleasure  in  the  evolu- 
tion. They  feed  on  fish,  for  which  some  species  plunge  from  the  air, 
while  others  capture  small  fry  with  their  scooplike  pouches  while 
swimming.  The  young  are  born  naked,  but  are  shortly  covered 
with  white  down  which  is  followed  by  the  plumage  of  flight.  They 
procure  their  food  of  fish  by  plunging  their  heads  far  down  the 
parental  pouch. 

125.  Pelecanus  erythrorhynchos  Gmel.    WHITE   PELICAN.     Ads.  in 
nuptial  plumage. — White,  more  or  less  straw-color  on  breast  and  wing-coverts; 
wing-quills    chiefly   black;    occipital    crest   white   or   straw-color;   a  -horny 
prominence  on  the  culmen.     Post-nuptial  plumage. — Similar,  but  occiput 
of  short  gray  feathers,  no  horny  ridge  on  bill.    Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but 
occiput  white.   Ira. — Similar,  but  lesser  wing-coverts  and  top  of  the  head 
brownish  gray.   L.,  GO'OO;  W.,  22'00;  Tar.,  4'50;  B.,  14'00. 

Range. — Temperate  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  Great  Slave  Lake, 
and  sw.  Keewatin  to  Man.  (formerly  s.  Minn,  and  S.  D.),  Utah  and 
s.  Calif.;  winters  from  s.  Calif.,  the  Gulf  States,  Fla.,  and  Cuba  s.  to  w. 
Mex.,  and  Costa  Rica;  casual  e.  in  migration  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  n.  to 
New  Brunswick. 

Washington,  casual,  four  records.  Long  Island,  two  records.  N.  Ohio, 
casual  T.  V. 

Nest,  in  colonies,  on  the  ground,  a  depression  in  a  mound  of  pebbles,  or 
of  grasses,  sticks  or  reeds.  Eggs,  2-4,  creamy  cr  bluish  white  with  a  chalky 
deposit,  more  or  less  stained,  3'45  x  2*30.  Date,  Big  Stick  Lake,  Sask., 
June  10,  eggs  hatching. 

During  the  summer  the  White  Pelican  frequents  only  fresh  water; 
in  winter  it  lives  chiefly  on  salt  water.  At  this  season  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon locally  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida,  and  a  few  are  usually  seen 
each  winter  on  the  Mosquito  Lagoon  of  the  east  coast.  With  a  wing 
expanse  of  between  eight  and  nine  feet,  and  a  weight  of  sixteen  pounds, 
the  White  Pelican  is  one  of  the  largest  of  American  birds.  Its  snowy 
plumage  rentiers  it  conspicuous  at  a  great  distance  and  a  far-away 
Pelican  may  be  mistaken  for  a  sail.  This  species  migrates  by  day. 
In  mid-March  I  have  seen  flocks  containing  thousands  of  birds  passing 
northward  along  the  eastern  face  of  the  Sierras  of  Vcra  Cruz.  Although 
they  progressed  in  wheeling  circles,  they  moved  on  their  course  very 
rapidly.  The  habit  of  soaring,  or  sailing,  is  also  common  in  the 
nesting  season  when  the  birds  practically  go  up  beyond  the  reach 
of  vision. 

The  White  Pelican  does  not  dive  but  catches  its  food  while  swim- 
ming. 

1908.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  366-388  (biographical). 

126.  Pelecanus  occidentals  Linn.    BROWN  PELICAN.    Ads.  in  breed- 
ing plumage. — Top  of  head  white,  sometimes    straw-yellow  like  a  spot  on 
upper  breast;  line  down  either  side  of  breast  white;  hindhead,  neck  arid  a 
spot  on    foreneck  seal-brown;   sides   and    back   silvery  gray    bordered   by 
brownish  black;  scapulars,  wing-coverts,  secondaries,  arid  tail  silvery  gray; 
primaries   black;    underparts  dark  blackish  brown  narrowly  streaked  with 
white.      Ads.   after  the  breeding  season. — Similar,    but   with  hindhead   and 
whole  neck  white,  more  or  less  tinged  with  straw-yellow,  I  in, — Above  grayish 


MAN-O'-WAR-BIRDS  185 

brown  margined  with  paler;  chest  brownish,  belly  white.  L.,  50*00;  W.,  19'59; 
Tar.,  2-65;  B.,  ll'OO. 

Range  — Gulf  coast  of  U.  S.  and  Atlantic  coast  of  Cen.  and  S.  Am. 
Breeds  from  S.  C.  and  La.  s.  to  Brazil;  casual  in  N.  C.;  accidental  in 
Wyo.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Ills.,  Ind.,  Mass.,  and.  N.  S. 

Long  Island,  one  record. 

Nest,  in  colonies,  of  sticks  or  weed-stalks,  etc.,  in  mangrove  bushes  or 
on  the  ground.     Eggs,  3,  similar  in  color  to  those  of  the  preceding  species, 
3'00  x  1'95.    Date,  Pelican  Is.,  Fla.,  usually  Dec.  1;  Gulf  Coast,  Fla.,  Apl. 
4;  So.  Car.,  May  23. 

At  all  seasons  the  Brown  Pelican  is  maritime.  It  is  a  permanent 
resident  in  Florida,  but  nevertheless  migrates  regularly  to  its  ancestral 
nesting-grounds,  those  of  the  east  coast  reaching  Pelican  Island  in 
Indian  River  about  November  1.  Eggs  are  laid  by  December.  They 
hatch  in  about  four  weeks,  and  their  young  fly  when  about  ten  weeks 
old.  They  are  exceedingly  noisy  but  the  adults  are  virtually  silent. 

The  Pelicans  of  Pelican  Island  go  fishing  possibly  fifty  miles  or  more 
up  or  down  the  coast  from  their  island  home.  With  a  favorable  wind 
they  travel  high  before  it;  with  a  head  wind  they  skim  low  over  the 
waves  usually  just  outside  the  breakers.  The  usual  flock-formation  is  a 
diagonal  single  file,  and  the  birds  progress  by  alternate  flapping  and 
sailing  in  unison.  The  first  wing-stroke  after  a  sail  is  generally  given 
by  the  leader,  not  because  he  is  in  command,  but  because,  being  in 
advance,  he  encounters  greater  air-resistance  and  is  the  first  to  lose 
momentum  when  sailing. 

Unlike  the  White  Pelican,  this  species  secures  its  prey  by  diving. 
Singly,  in  pairs,  or  in  small  flocks,  they  beat  back  and  forth,  generally 
about  twenty  feet  above  the  water,  and  when  opportunity  offers,  plunge 
downward  with  such  force  that  the  spray  dastes  high  about  them, 
and  the  resulting  splash  may  be  heard  half  a  mile.  They  usually  fish 
at  sea  and  feed  chiefly  on  menhaden. 

1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  191-214.— 1908 
Camps  and  Cruises,  83-112  (biographical). — 1905.  JOB,  H.  KM  Wild  Wings, 
1-18. 

14.  FAMILY  FREGATID^E.    MAN-O'-WAR-BIRDS.    (Fig.  32.) 

Man-o'-war-birds,  or  Frigate-birds,  are  found  throughout  inter- 
tropical  seas.  One  of  the  two  known  species  occurs  in  America.  •  They 
are  strictly  maritime,  and,  while  sometimes  observed  at  great  distances 
from  the  land,  are  met  with  in  numbers  only  near  the  coasts.  They 
have  a  greater  expanse  of  wing  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  their 
body  than  any  other  bird,  and  in  power  of  flight  are  unsurpassed. 
Facing  the  wind,  they  pass  hours  resting  motionless  on  outstretched 
wings,  sometimes  ascending  to  great  heights  and  calmly  soaring  far 
above  storms.  It  is  when  feeding  that  their  marvelous  aerial  powers 
are  displayed  to  the  best  advantage.  By  swift,  indescribably  graceful 
darts  they  secure  fish  which  are  near  the  surface,  or  capture  those  which 
have  leaped  from  the  water  to  escape  some  enemy  below.  They  also 


186  DUCKS,  GEESE,   AND   SWANS 

pursue  Gulls  and  Terns,  and,  forcing  them  to  disgorge  their  prey,  catch 
it  in  midair.  As  a  rule  they  are  gregarious  at  all  seasons,  and  nest  and 
roost  on  bushes  near  the  shore.  The  feet  are  exceedingly  small  and  of 
little  use  except  in  perching.  The  single  young  is  born  naked  but  ia 
quickly  clothed  in  long  white  down.  The  black  scapulars  appear  at  a 
very  early  age. 

128.  Fregata  aquila  (Linn.).  MAN-O'- WAR-BIRD.  (Figs.  19,  31.)  Ad.  <?. 
— Entire  plumage  black,  more  glossy  above ;  dilatable  gular  pouch  in  breed- 
ing season  orange-red  or  carmine.  9. — Similar,  but  browner;  lesser  wing- 
coverts  grayish  brown;  breast  and  upper  belly  white.  Im. — Similar  to 
the  9  but  whole  head  and  neck  white.  L.,  40'00;  W.,  25'00;  T.,  17'00; 
B.,  4'50. 

Range. — Tropical  and  subtropical  coasts;  in  Am.  n.  to  s.  Calif.,  Tex., 
La.,  and  Fla.,  and  casually  to  Calif.  (Humboldt  Bay),  Kans.,  Iowa,  Wise., 
Ohio,  and  N.  S. 

Long  Island,  one  record,  Aug. 

Nest,  of  sticks,  in  colonies,  on  bushes  or  rocks.  Egg,  1,  chalky  whites 
2 '65  x  1'75.  Date,  Atwood  Key,  Bahamas,  Feb.  9. 

This  species  is  found  at  all  seasons  in  Florida,  but  I  know  of  no 
authentic  record  of  its  nesting  there.  It  becomes  more  common  in 
late  spring  after  its  breeding  season  in  the  Bahamas. 

1908.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  217-221  (nesting). 


V.  ORDER   ANSERES.    LAMELLIROSTRAL    SWIMMERS 

15.  FAMILY  ANATID^E.     DUCKS,  GEESE  AND  SWANS.     (Figs.  33,  34.) 

The  two  hundred  species  included  in  this  family  are  distributed 
throughout  the  world.  One-fourth  of  this  number  occur  in  North 
America,  and  are  grouped  by  the  A.  O.  U.  Check-List  in  the  five  sub- 
families, Mergince,  or  Mergansers,  Anatince,  or  River  Ducks,  Fuligulince, 
or  Sea  Ducks,  Anserince,  or  Geese,  and  Cygnince,  or  Swans.  The  Ana- 
tidcz  in  common  with  other  diving  birds  whose  natatorial  powers  give 
them  a  secondary  means  of  locomotion,  lose  all  their  wing-quills 
simultaneously  during  the  annual  postnuptial  molt,  and  at  this  time 
cannot  fly.  Evidently  to  make  them  less  conspicuous  during  this 
period,  the  males  of  many  species  acquire  by  molt  a  plumage  more  or 
less  closely  resembling  that  of  the  female.  This  'eclipse  plumage,'  as 
it  is  called,  is  worn  only  until  the  wing-quills  are  regained,  when  it 
is  lost  and  the  distinctive  male  costume  reacquired.  This  phenomenon 
is  well  illustrated  in  the  preceding  plate  of  the  Wood  Duck  showing 
an  adult  male  in  'breeding'  as  well  as  in  ' eclipse'  plumage.  Inci- 
dently  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  assumption  of  this  concealing 
plumage  at  a  time  of  comparative  helplessness,  is  an  indication 
that  the  breeding  plumage  is  conspicuous.  (See  Stone,  Pr.  Acad. 
Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  1889,  p.  467;  Chapman,  Bull.  Am.  Mus,  Nat.  Hist., 
1899,  p.  219.) 


PLATE  XII 


1.  Baldpate. 

2.  Green-winged  Teal. 

3.  Blue-winged  Teal. 

4.  Shoveller. 


HEADS  OF  DU-CKS 

6.  Wood  Duck. 

7.  Redhead. 

8.  Canvasback. 

9.  Am.  Scaup  Duck. 


11    Buffleheacl. 

12.  Old  Squaw. 

13.  Greenland  Eider. 

14.  White-winged  Scoter 

15.  Ruddv  Duck. 


MERGANSERS  187 

Most  of  these  birds  breed  north  of  the  United  States;  in  eastern 
North  America,  only  five  of  our  forty  species  nesting  south  of  latitude 
41°.  We  know  them,  therefore,  as  migrants  and  as  winter  visitants 
and  to  those  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  live  near  their  haunts,  their 
goings  and  comings  are  among  the  most  important  events  in  the  birds' 
calendar.  Strong  of  wing,  hardy  of  body,  many  species  pass  the  winter 
on  the  open  sea,  while  the  river  and  bay  Ducks  remain  until  ice  forms, 
and  return  the  first  day  of  open  water.  How  the  eye  is  held  by  the 
sight  of  their  swiftly  moving  forms  silhouetted  against  the  sky!  Through 
them,  bird-life  makes  its  strongest  appeal  to  our  love  of  the  wild  and 
elemental  in  nature. 

As  the  ancestors  of  our  domesticated  water-fowl  and  as  game,  the 
Anatidce  are  doubtless  better  known  to  man  than  any  other  birds.  Of 
late  years  their  numbers  have  been  greatly  reduced  by  excessive  shoot- 
ing for  market  and  for  sport,  and  by  the  reclamation  for  the  agriculturist 
of  vast  areas  in  which  formerly  they  bred.  We  have,  consequently, 
only  to  examine  the  history  of  the  past  few  decades  to  be  assured  that 
a  further  attempt  to  supply  the  unlimited  and  ever-growing  demands 
of  the  game-dealer  for  wild-fowl  means,  ultimately,  that  both  market 
hunters  and  sportsmen  may  lay  aside  their  guns.  Let  us,  therefore, 
look  to  our  poultry  yards  for  Ducks  and  Geese  as  food,  and  leave  the 
wild  birds  as  a  lure  to  draw  brain-weary  toilers  to  marsh,  bay  and 
headland. 

1896.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Ducks  of  Plymouth  Co.,  Mass.,  Auk,  XIII,  197-204.— 
1897.  CORY,  C.  B.,  How  to  Know  the  Ducks,  Geese  and  Swans,  8vo.  pp. 
94,  many  ills. — 1898.  ELLIOT,  D.  G.,  Wild-Fowl  of  United  States  and 
British  Possessions,  8vo,  pp.  316,  plls.  63  (Francis  Harper). — 1901-2. 
BENT,  A.  C.,  Nesting  Habits  of  Anatidse  in  N.  D.,  Auk,  XVIII,  328-336; 
XIX,  1-12;  165-174.— 1902.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Among  the  Water-Fowl  (Double- 
day). — 1903.  HUNTINGTON,  D.  W.,  Our  Feathered  Game,  8vo,  pp.  396, 
plls.  37. — 1903.  SANFORD,  L.  C.,  BISHOP,  L.  B.,  VAN  DYKE,  T.  S.,  The 
Water-Fowl  Family,  12mo.  pp.  ix-598,  plls.  20  (Macmillan). — 1906.  COOKE, 
W.  W.,  Dist.  and  Migr.  of  N.  A.  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans,  Bull.  26,  Biol. 
Surv. — 1907.  RICH,  W.  H.,  Feathered  Game  of  the  Northeast,  8vo.  pp. 
432,  pis.  87. — 1909.  DEHAVEN,  I.  N.,  Duck  Shooting  on  N.  J.  Coast, 
Cassinia,  11-18. —  1910.  GRINNELL,  G.  B.,  American  Game  Bird  Shooting, 
8vo,  pp.  xviii-558  (Forest  and  Stream). — 1910.  HUNTINGTON,  D.  W., 
Our  Wild  Fowl  and  Waders,  pp.  207  (New  York  City). — 1911.  PHILLIPS, 
J.  C.,  Ten  Years'  Migration  of  Anatidse  at  Wenham,  Mass.,  Auk,  XXVIII, 
188-200;  see  also,  319-323. 

Subfamily  Mergince.    Mergansers.    (Fig.  33.) 

The  five  subfamilies  into  which  our  Anatidce  fall  are  so  well  defined, 
it  seems  advisable  to  treat  of  each  one  separately.  The  first  of  these, 
the  Shelldrakes  or  Sawbills,  are  fish-eating  Ducks.  They  pursue  and 
capture  their  prey  under  water,  progressing  by  aid  of  the  feet  alone, 
and  their  serrate  bills  seem  especially  adapted  to  this  mode  of  feeding. 
Three  of  the  nine  known  species  are  found  in  North  America,  and  all 
may  be  recognized  in  life  by  their  cylindrical  bill. 


188  MERGANSERS 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

1.  Bill  under  1*75,  wing  8'QO  or  under 131.  HOODED  MERGANSER. 

2.  Bill  over  1*75,  wing  over  8'00. 

A.  Head  and  throat  black. 

a.  Breast  and  belly  white,  tinged  with  salmon. 

129.  AM.  MERGANSER  (&  ad.). 
6.  Breast  brownish,  thickly  streaked  and  spotted  with  black. 

130.  RED-BREASTED  MERGANSER  (<?  ad.). 

B.  Head  and  throat  not  black. 

a.  Head  and  sides  of  the  neck  rich  rufous-brown;  distance  from  nostril 

to  end  of  bill  less  thpn  T50  .  .   129.  AM.  MERGANSER  (9  and  im.). 

b.  Crown  grayish  brown,  more  or  less  washed  with  cinnamon-rufous: 

sides  of  the  neck  cinnamon-rufous;  distance  from  nostril  to  end  of 
bill  over   1*50  .  .   130.    RED-BREASTED   MERGANSER  (9  and  im.). 

129.  Mergus     americanus    (Cass.).      AMERICAN    MERGANSER.     (Fig. 
33.)    Ad.  tf. — Whole  head  and  upper  neck  glossy  greenish  black;  hindneck, 
secondaries,  lesser  wing-coverts,  and  ends  of  greater  ones  white;  back  black, 
rump  and  tail  ashy  gray;  breast  and  belly  white,  delicately  tinged  with 
salmon.    Ad.  9  and  Im. — Chin  and  upper  throat  white;  lower  throat  and 
entire  top  of  the  head  rufous-brown;  rest  of  upperparts  and  tail  ashy  gray; 
speculum*  white;  breast  and  belly  white.      L.  25'00;  w.,  10'50;  Tar.,  T85; 
B.,  from  N.  1*50. 

Range. — N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  Alaska,  s.  Yukon,  Great  Slave  Lake, 
cen.  Keewatin,  s.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  cen.  Ore.,  s.  S.  D.,  s.  Minn.,  cen. 
Mich.,  Ohio  (formerly),  n.  N.  Y.,  Vt.,  N.  H.,  and  Maine,  and  in  mountains, 
s.  to  n.  Calif.,  cen.  Ariz.,  n.  N.  Mex.,  and  Pa.  (formerly);  winters  from 
Aleutian  Islands,  B.  C.,  Idaho,  n.  Colo.,  s.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  n.  New  Eng- 
land, and  N.  B.,  s.  to  n.  L.  Calif.,  n.  Mex.  (Chihuahua),  Tex.,  La.,  Fla., 
and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.,  Oct.  13-May  26.  L.  I.,  uncommon  W.  V. 
Nov.  4-Dec.  30.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Jan.  1-Mch.  8.  Cam- 
bridge, rare  T.  V.  and  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  W.  V.,  Nov.  1-May.  Glen  Ellyri, 
T.  V.,  spring  only,  May  7-12.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V.,  Mch.  9,  casual  W.  R. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  grasses  and  moss,  lined  with  down,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  or 
cliff.  Eggs,  6-10,  creamy  buff,  2'65  x  1'75.  Date,  Saginaw  Is.,  Mich.,  May 
26. 

"This  bird  is  fond  of  plunging  beneath  rushing  currents  for  its  food, 
and  should  it  encounter  a  raft  of  floating  rubbish,  or  an  ice-cake,  it 
will  readily  pass  underneath  it.  It  swims  so  deeply  as  to  afford  the 
gunner  but  a  small  mark,  and  dives  so  quickly  at  the  snap  or  flash  of 
his  gun  that  he  stands  but  a  small  chance  of  killing  it. 

"On  being  surprised,  the  Goosander  may  rise  directly  out  of  the 
water,  but  more  commonly  pats  the  surface  with  his  feet  for  some 
yards  and  then  rises  to  windward.  A  whole  flock  thus  rising  from  some 
foaming  current  affords  a  spirited  scene.  Once  on  the  wing,  the  flight 
is  straight,  strong,  and  rapid"  (Langille). 

130.  Mergus  serrator   (Linn.).    RED-BREASTED   MERGANSER.    Ad.  d". 
— Whole  head  and  throat  black,  more  greenish  above;  a  white  ring  around 
neck;  a  broad  cinnamon-rufous  band  with  black  streaks  on  upper  breast  and 
sides  of  lower  neck;  lesser  wing-coverts,  tips  of  greater  ones,  secondaries, 
breast  and  belly  white;  rump  and  sides  finely  barred  with  black  and  white. 

*A  patch  in  the  wing  formed  by  the  end  half  of  the  secondaries,  which  in  Ducks 
are  generally  of  a  different  color  from  the  rest  of  the  wing-feathers. 


MERGANSERS  189 

Ad.  9  and  Im. — Top  and  back  of  head  grayish  brown  washed  with  cinnamon- 
rufous;  sides  of  head  and  throat  cinnamon-rufous,  paler  on  throat;  rest  of 
underparts  white;  back  and  tail  ashy  gray;  speculum  white.  L.,  22' 00; 
W.,  9'00;  Tar.,  1'70;  B.  from  N.,  T80. 

Remarks. — Adults  of  this  and  the  preceding  species  may  always  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  color  of  the  breast;  females  arid  young,  by  the  differently 
colored  heads,  whife  the  position  of  the  nostril  is  always  diagnostic. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  in  N.  Am.,  from  Arctic 
coast  of  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  Cumberland  Sound,  and  Greenland  (lat.  73°) 
s.  to  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Alberta,  s.  Minn.,  cen.  Wise.,  n.  N.  Y.,  s.  Maine,  and  Sable 
Island;  winters  in  s.  Greenland,  the  Commander  Islands,  and  from  s.  British 
Columbia,  Utah,  Colo.,  s.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  and  Maine,  s.  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  La., 
and  Fla. ;  casual  in  Bermuda,  Cuba,  and  Hawaii. 

Washington,  uncommon  W.  V.  L.  I.,  abundant  T.  V.,  Mch.  25-May  2; 
Oct.  15-Dec.  25;  occasional  in  summer  (and  in  winter).  Ossining,  common 
T.  V.,  Dec.-Apl.  30.  Cambridge,  uncommon  T.  V.,  in  late  fall.  N.  Ohio, 
tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  10-May  10;  Dec.  1-29.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V., 
Apl.  1 ;  casual  W.  R. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  grasses,  mosses,  etc.,  lined  with  down,  on  the  ground  near 
water,  among  rocks  or  scrubby  bushes.  Eggs,  6-12,  creamy  buff,  2'55  x  1*75. 
Date,  Seal  Is.,  Magdalen  Islands,  June  24. 

"These  Mergansers  are  often  observed  to  hunt  in  company,  a  large 
flock  sometimes  advancing  with  wide  extended  front,  driving  the  fish 
before  them  and  diving  simultaneously,  so  that  whichever  way  their 
prey  may  dart  there  is  a  serrated  beak  and  capacious  gullet  ready  to 
receive  them"  (Eaton). 

1911.  TOWNSEND,  C.  W.,  Auk,  XXVIII,  341-345  (courtship  and 
migration). 

131.  Lophodytes  cucullatus  (Linn.).  HOODED  MEKGANSER.  Ad.  <?. 
— Front  part  of  large  circular  crest  black;  remaining  part  white,  bordered  by 
black;  rest  of  head,  the  neck  and  back  black;  breast  and  belly  white;  sides 
cinnamon-rufous,  finely  barred  with  black.  Ad.  9. — Upper  throat  white; 
head,  neck  and  upper  breast  grayish  brown,  more  or  less  tinged  with  cinna- 
mon, especially  on  the  small  crest;  lower  breast  and  belly  white;  sides 
grayish  brown;  back  fuscous.  Im.  cf. — Similar,  but  throat  blackish.  L., 
17'50  W.,  7'50;  Tar.,  r  10;  B.,  1'45. 

Range. — N.  Am.  Breeds  from  cen.  British  Columbia,  Great  Slave  Lake, 
cen.  Keewatin,  cen.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  s.  Ore.,  n.  N.  Mex.,  s.  La., 
and  cen.  Fla.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Utah,  Colo.,  Nebr.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  Pa. 
and  Mass.  s.  to  L.  Calif.,  Mex.,  the  Gulf  States,  and  Cuba;  rare  in  ne 
part  of  range;  recorded  from  St.  Michael,  Alaska,  and  from  Europe 
and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  uncommon  W.  V.,  Sept.  11-Apl.  8.  Long  Island,  common 
T.  V.  in  fall,  Nov.  5-Dec.  14;  rare  W.  V.  and  in  spring.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V., 
Mch,  Cambridge,  formerly  common  T.  V.,  Nov.  10—30.  N.  Ohio,  not  com- 
mon T.  V.,  Apl.  1-15;  Nov.  1-30.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  T.  V.,  spring  only, 
Apl  8- June  5.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Mch.  24-Oct.  26. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  leaves,  moss,  etc.,  lined  with  down,  in  a  hollow  tree  or 
stump  near  water.  Eggs,  8-10,  buffy  white,  2' 10  x  1'75.  Date,  Saranac, 
Mich.,  Apl.  22. 

As  Ernest  Seton  has  pointed  out,  both  the  preceding  species  of 
Mergansers  frequent  chiefly  living'  or  running  water,  while  this  bird 
prefers  'dead'  waters,  or  quiet  ponds  and  lakes.  In  Florida  it  lives  in 
small  ponds  in  the  'hummocks,'  where  one  expects  to  find  Wood  Ducks, 
and  feeds  on  roots,  seeds,  etc.  It  visits  also  the  lakes  frequented  by 


190  RIVER  AND  POND  DUCKS 

Black  Ducks,  Mallards,  and  other  Anatince.    The  male  is  a  striking 
bird  in  life,  and  can  not  be  mistaken  for  any  other  species. 

The  SMEW  (131.1  Mergellus  albellus),  an  Old  World  species,  has  been  once 
recorded  from  the  Hudson  Bay  region.  (Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  M.,  XXVII, 

468.) 

Subfamily  Anatince.    River  and  Pond  Ducks.    (Fig.  34a.) 

The  Ducks  of  this  subfamily  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a 
lobe  on  the  hind-toe.  They  are,  for  the  most  part,  northern  breeding 
birds,  and  appear  on  our  waters  chiefly  as  migrants.  At  this  time,  they 
differ  but  little  in  habits,  and,  as  a  rule,  frequent  sluggish  streams,  shal- 
low ponds,  arms  of  bays,  and  marshes.  In  comparison  with  the  deep- 
water  Fuligulince,  they  might  be  called  'dabblers'  or  'tip-ups/  and 
any  one  who  has  seen  them  dabbling  along  the  shore,  or  with  upturned 
tail  and  head  immersed,  probing  the  bottom  in  shallow  water,  like  a 
flock  of  animated  tenpins,  will  recognize  the  appropriateness  of  these 
terms.  They  dive  but  little  and  when  under  water  are  said  to  use  both 
feet  and  wings.  They  feed  upon  mollusks,  crustaceans,  insects  and  their 
larvae,  the  seeds  and  roots  of  aquatic  plants.  The  'gutters'  on  the  sides 
of  the  bill  act  as  strainers,  and,  after  probing  the  bottom,  the  mere  act 
of  closing  the  bill  forces  out  the  mud  and  water  taken  in  with  the  food. 
As  a  rule,  they  feed  more  commonly  by  night  than  by  day.  They  do 
not  gather  in  such  large  flocks  as  the  Sea  Ducks,  and  in  our  waters  are 
generally  found  in  groups  of  less  than  fifty.  They  spring  from  the  water 
at  a  bound,  and  on  whistling  wing  are  soon  beyond  the  fowler's  reach. 
Their  highest  speed  is  variously  estimated,  for  different  species,  at 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  an  hour.  Doubtless 
the  first-named  distance  is  nearer  the  truth. 

All  our  Anatince,  but  the  Wood  Duck,  nest  on  the  ground,  lining 
a  slight  hollow  with  grasses,  leaves,  moss  or  rootlets,  and  with  more  or 
less  down  from  the  breast  of  the  incubating  bird,  which  is  used  to  cover 
the  eggs,  doubtless  for  purposes  of  warmth,  as  well  as  concealment, 
during  the  absence  of  the  sitter.  The  nesting-site  is  usually  near  water, 
but  may  be  half  a  mile  or  more  from  the  shore,  and  is  sometimes  in 
grass  so  scanty  that  the  sitting  bird  may  be  plainly  seen,  but  as  a  rule 
it  is  in  denser  vegetation  or  under  bushes. 

The  generally  greenish,  cream,  or  buff  eggs,  number  from  six  to 
fourteen  or  rarely  more,  and  hatch  within  a  surprisingly  short  time  of 
one  another.  Incubation  is  performed  by  the  female  alone.  She  sits 
close  and  springs  from  the  nest  at  one's  feet  in  a  most  disconcerting 
manner,  to  flutter  off  through  the  grass  or,  with  halting  flight,  make  for 
the  water,  there  to  alight  with  much  show  of  anxiety.  The  young  are  in 
the  highest  degree  prsecocial,  leaving  the  nest  almost  as  soon  as  they 
leave  the  egg,  and  under  the  guidance  of  their  mother,  at  once  taking  to 
water.  Few  birds  show  more  concern  for  the  safety  of  their  offspring 
than  do  Wild  Ducks.  When  danger  threatens,  the  young,  evidently 


RIVER  AND  POND  DUCKS  191 

acting  under  direction,  scatter  and  seek  cover  in  every  direction,  while 
the  female  gives  a  remarkable  and  courageous  exhibition  of  partial 
helplessness. 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

I.  Wing  under  8-50. 

a.  Lesser  wing-coverts  gray. 

139.  GREEN-WINGED  TEAL.     138.  EUROPEAN  TEAL. 

b.  Lesser  wing-coverts  blue. 

61.  Cheeks  slate-color,  a  broad  white  mark  near  the  front  of  the  face. 

140.  BLUE-WINGED  TEAL  (&  ad.). 
62.  Cheeks  and  underparts  chestnut-rufous. 

141.  CINNAMON  TEAL  (c?  ad.) 
c1.  Cheeks  finely  streaked  with  blackish. 

c2.  Underparts  whitish,  sometimes  washed  with  brownish,  streaked  or 

spotted  with   blackish 140.  BLUE-WINGED  TEAL  9. 

c3.  Underparts  heavily   washed  with   chestnut-rufous   and   mottled 

with  black 141.  CINNAMON  TEAL  9. 

II.  Wing  over  8' 50. 

A.  Belly  white  or  grayish  white,  not  conspicuously  streaked  or  spotted. 

a.  Whole  head  shining  dark  green 132.  MALLARD  (c?  ad.). 

b.  Center  of  head  white  or  whitish,  a  large  streak  behind  the  eye. 

137.  BALDPATE   (&  ad.). 

c.  Throat  white,  crown  green  or  grayish  green,  tips  of  primaries  greenish. 

144.  WOOD  DUCK. 

d.  Throat  blackish,  center  of  crown  buffy,  rest  of  head  rufous. 

136.  WIDGEON  (<?  ad.). 

e.  Throat  and  sides  of  head  olive-brown,  darker  on  the  crown. 

143.  PINTAIL  (9  ad.). 
/.  Throat,  crown  and  sides  of  head  more  or  less  finely  streaked  with 

blackish. 

f1.  Wing-coverts  with  more  or  less  chestnut  ....  135.  GADWALL. 
gl.  No  chestnut  in  wing-coverts. 

g2.  Axillars*  and  sides  barred  with  black 143.  PINTAIL  9. 

0s.  Axillars  white  or  speckled  with  black,  sides  plain  brownish. 

137.  BALDPATE  9. 
g*.  Axillars  white,  sides  thickly  spotted  or  barred  with  black. 

135.  GADWALL  9. 

B.  Underparts  conspicuously  mottled,  spotted,  or  streaked,  or  feathers 

margined  with  chestnut-rufous — or  belly  chestnut. 
o.  With  white  conspicuous  in  wing-coverts. 

a1.  Lesser  wing-coverts  ashy  blue 142.  SHOVELLER. 

61.  Lesser  wing-coverts  brownish  gray,  bordered  with  white  or  tipped 

with  black. 

62.  Speculumf  purple 132.  MALLARD  9. 

6s.  Speculum  gray  and  white 135.  GADWALL  9. 

6.  No  conspicuous  white  in  wing-coverts. 
*  fe1.  Throat  fulvous  or  buffy,  without  streaks.  .  .  134.  FLORIDA  DUCK. 

62.  Throat  finely  streaked  with  black 133.  BLACK  DUCK. 

132.  Anas  platyrhynchos  Linn.  MALLARD.  (Fig.  34a.)  Ad.  <?. — 
Whole  head  and  throat  glossy  greenish  or  bluish  black;  a  white  ring  around 
the  neck;  breast  rich  chestnut;  belly  grayish  white,  finely  marked  with  wavy 
black  lines;  under  tail-coverts  black;  upper  back  dark  grayish  brown;  rump 
and  upper  tail-coverts  black;  four  middle  tail  feathers  recurved;  speculum 
rich  purple,  bordered  at  the  base  and  tip  by  narrow  bands  of  black  and  white. 
Ad.  9 . — Top  and  sides  of  head  streaked  with  fuscous  and  buffy;  back  fuscous, 
the  feathers  with  internal  rings  or  loops  and  sometimes  borders  of  pale  ochra- 

*  See  Fig.  82.  |A  colored  patch  in  the  wing. 


192  RIVER  AND  POND  DUCKS 

ceous  buffy ;  speculum  as  in  the  preceding;  breast  and  belly  ocbraceous  buffy, 
mottled  with  dusky  grayish  brown.  L.,  23'00;  W.f  ll'OO;  Tar.,  1'75;  B.,  2'25. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  Am.  breeds  from  Pribilof  Islands,  nw. 
Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatiu,  :ind  Greenland  s.  to  L.  Calif.,  s.  N. 
Mex.,  s.  Kans.,  cen.  Mo.,  s.  Ind.,  and  Md.  (rarely) ;  winters  from  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  cen.  Alaska,  cen.  Mont.,  Wyo.,  Nebr.,  s.  Wise.,  n.  Ind.,  Ohio,  Md., 
and  N.  S.  (rarely)  s.  to  Mex.,  the  Lesser  Antilles,  and  Panama;  casual 
in  Bermuda  and  Hawaii. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Aug.  28-Mch.  19.  Long  Island,  uncommon 
T.  V.,  Oct.  3-Dec.  24;  Mch.,  Apl.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct.,  Mch.  Cam- 
bridge, rare  but  regular  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  1- 
May  15;  Oct.  1-Dec.  1.  Glen  Ellyii,  regular  but  uncommon  T.  V.,  Mch.  10- 
Apl.  7;  Sept.  13-Nov.  23.  SE.  Minn.,  S.  R.,  casual  W.  R.,  Mch.  4-Dec.  11. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  usually  near  water  and  among  high  grass  or  reeds. 
Eggs,  6-13,  light  greenish  buff  to  light  grayish  buff,  with  very  little  luster, 
2'27  x  1'61.  (Bent.)  Date,  Heron  Lake,  Minn.,  May  11. 

The  loud,  resonant  quacking  of  the  female  Mallard  and  much  lower, 
less  clearly  enunciated  quack  of  the  drake  are  familiar  sounds, 
though  the  loud  notes  are  usually  attributed  to  the  male.  When  flying, 
the  white  under  wing-coverts  are  sometimes  conspicuous  when  the 
birds  are  too  far  away  to  distinguish  the  green  head  of  the  male.  In 
Minnesota  the  Mallard  is  considered  the  wildest  of  wild  Ducks. 

133.  Anas  rubripes  Brewst.  BLACK  DUCK.  Ads. — Top  of  head  rich 
fuscous,  slightly  streaked  with  pale  buffy;  sides  of  the  head  and  throat  pale 
buffy,  thickly  streaked  with  blackish;  rest  of  underparts  fuscous-brown,  the 
feathers  all  bordered  by  ochraceous-buff ;  back  slightly  darker  and  narrowly 
margined  with  buffy;  speculum  rich  purple,  bordered  by  black,  and,  at  the 
end  only,  narrowly  by  white.  L.,  22*00;  W.,  ll'OO;  Tar.,  1'75;  B.,  2'20. 

Remarks. — Always  to  be  distinguished  from  the  female  Mallard  by  its 
darker  colors  and  smaller  amount  of  whjte  in  the  wing. 

According  to  William  Brewster  (Auk,  1902,  184)  the  Black  Duck  is 
represented  by  two  forms,  the  status  of  which,  however,  is  considered 
doubtful  by  the  A.  O.  U.  Committee  on  Nomenclature.  Should  they  be 
recognized,  they  will  stand  as  Anas  vubripes  rubripes,  the  Red-legged 
Black  Duck,  and  Anas  rubripes  tristis,  which,  for  sake  of  distinction,  may 
be  called  the  Brown-legged  Black  Duck.  A.  r.  rubripes  is  the  larger  of 
the  two  (cf  W.,  10-99;  Tar.,  1'68;  B.>  2'13;  $  W.,  10'47;  Tar.,  T60;  BM 
2'03,  as  compared  with  the  following  measurements  for  A.  r.  tristis:  d"  W., 
10-52;  Tar.,  1'65;  B.,  2'05;  9,  W.,  10'14;  Tar.,  1'61;  B.,  1'93)  and  has  the 
sides  of  the  head  and  the  neck,  chin,  and  throat  more  heavily  streaked  than 
in  tristis  in  which  the  throat  and  chin  are  said  to  be  unstreaked.  In  life  the 
tarsi  and  toes  are  bright  red,  the  bill  yellow;  while  tristis  has  the  tarsi  and 
toes  brownish,  the  bill  olivaceous.  The  difference  in  the  colors  of  the  feet, 
while  not  apparent  in  museum  specimens,  form  a  readily  observable  field 
mark.  The  limits  of  the  breeding  ranges  of  these  supposed  fornis  have  not 
been  determined,  but  rubripes  appears  to  be  the  more  northern,  not  being 
known  to  breed  south  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  During  the  migration 
and  in  winter  both  red-legged  and  brown-legged  birds  may  be  found  in  the 
same  flock.  (See  also  Brewster,  Auk,  1909,  175-179;  1910,  323-333,  and 
Dwight,  Ibid,  1909,  422-426.) 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  cen.  Keewatin  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to 
n.  Wise.,  n.  Ind.,  and  s.  Md.;  winters  from  N.  S.  s.  to  s.  La.,  and  Colo.; 
w.  in  migration  to  Nebr.  and  cen.  Kans.;  casual  in  Bermuda;  accidental  in 
Jamaica. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.  Aug.  1-Mch.  17.  Long  Island,  abundant 
W.  V.,  Sept.-May;  a  few  breed.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  6- 
Nov.  13.  Cambridge,  very  common  T.  V.,  and  W.  V.;  a  few  breed.  N.  Ohio, 


RIVER  AND  POND  DUCKS  193 

tolerably  common,  Mch.  1-May  1;  Sept.  1-Nov.  30.  SE.  Minn.,  uncom- 
mon T.  V. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  in  grass  or  brush,  often  far  from  water.  Eggs,  6-12, 
pale  greenish  or  bluish  white,  or  creamy  buff,  2' 43  x  1'75.  Date,  Montauk 
Point,  L.  I.,  Apl.  5;  Cambridge,  Apl.  19;  St.  Croix  River,  Maine,  Apl.  30. 

Though  not  literally  a  black  Duck,  this  bird  appears  so  much  darker 
in  life  than  the  female  of  its  near  relative  Mallard,  that  it  is  sometimes 
known  as  Black  Mallard.  Its  loud,  resonant  quack  resembles  that  of 
the  Mallard.  It  is  more  common  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  States  than 
inland,  and  when  molested  will  sometimes  pass  the  day  at  sea  retuining 
at  night  to  feed  in  the  ponds  and  marshes.  It  has  won  a  deserved 
reputation  for  wariness. 

The  gullet  and  gizzard  of  a  Black  Duck  shot  by  E.  H.  Eaton  were 
found  by  him  to  contain  23,704  weed  seeds.  ("Birds  of  New  York.") 

1893.   ALLEN,  C.  S.,  Auk,  X,  53-59  (nesting). 

134.  Anas    fulvigula   Ridgw.     FLORIDA   DUCK.     Ads. — Top  of  head 
streaked  with  black  and  buffy;  sides  of  head  and  entire  throat  buffy,  without 
streaks;  rest   of  underparts  rich  buffy  ochracepus,   widely  streaked  with 
black;  back  black,   the  feathers  broadly  margined  and  sometimes  inter- 
nally striped  with  ochraceous-buff ;  speculum  rich  purple  bordered  by  black; 
Bill  olive-yellow,  its  nail  black.    L.,  20'00;  W.,  10'50;  Tar.,  T65;  B.,  2'05. 

Remarks. — Easily  distinguished  from  A.  rubripes  by  the  absence  of 
streaks  on  the  throat. 

Range. — Fla.  and  Gulf  coast  to  Miss. 

Eggs,  8-10,  pale  dull  buff  or  pale  grayish  buff,  2'15  X  1*61  (Ridgw.). 

Date,  Caloosahatchie  River,  Fla.,  Apl.  16. 

This  southern  representative  of  the  Black  Duck  is  permanently 
resident  in  Florida,  where  it  has  apparently  decreased  in  numbers  in 
recent  years.  It  resembles  the  Black  Duck  in  voice  and  feeding  habits, 
but  I  have  never  known  it  to  go  out  to  sea. 

135.  Chaulelasmus  streperus   (Linn.}.    GAD  WALL.    Ad.  d*. — Top  of 

head  streaked  with  rufous-brown  and  black;  sides  of  head  and  neck  pale 
buffy,  thickly  streaked  or  spotted  with  black;  breast  and  neck  all  around 
black,  each  feather  with  a  border  and  an  internal  ring  of  white,  giving  the 
plumage  a  beautifully  scaled  appearance;  belly  white  or  grayish;  rump, 
upper  and  under  tail-coverts  black;  lesser  wing-coverts  chestnut.  Ad.  9. — 
Head  and  throat  as  in  male;  back  fuscous  margined  with  buffy;  breast  and 
sides  ochraceous  buffy,  thickly  spotted  with  blackish;  belly  and  under 
tail-coverts  white,  more  or  less  thickly  spotted  with  blackish;  little  or  no 
chestnut  on  wing-coverts ;  speculum  ashy  gray  and  white ;  axillars  and  under 
wing-coverts  pure  white.  L.,  19*50;  W.,  10'40;  Tar.,  T55;  B.,  1*70. 

Range. — Nearly  cosmopolitan.  In  N.  Am.  breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  cen. 
Alberta,  and  cen.  Keewatin  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  Colo.,  n.  Nebr.,  and  s.  Wise.; 
winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Ariz.,  Ark.,  s.  111.,  and  N.  C.  s.  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  cen. 
Mex.  (Jalisco),  and  Fla.;  accidental  in  Bermuda,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica;  rare 
in  migration  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Middle  and  New  England  States 
n.  to  N.  F. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Aug.  24- Apl.  L.  I.,  rare  T.  V.  N.  Ohio, 
occasional  T.  V.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  3. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  near  water,  in  short  prairie  grass  or  concealed 
beneath  rose  bushes.  Eggs,  8-12,  pale  buff  or  buffy  white,  2'09  x  1*57 
(Ridgw.).  Date,  N.  D.,  June  7. 


194  RIVER  AND  POND  DUCKS 

The  Gadwall  is  common  in  the  interior  but  rare  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  except  in  Florida.  Its  voice  is  a  quack  higher  and  with  less  volume 
than  that  of  the  Mallard.  It  is  a  surprising  sight  to  see  these  birds  in 
courtship  flight,  •  when  the  male  pursues  the  female  often  high  in  the 
air  and  for  some  time,  on  a  course  as  erratic  as  that  of  a  Barn  Swallow. 

136.  Mareca    penelope    (Linn.).     EUROPEAN    WIDGEON.      Ad.    <?. — 
Crown  creamy  buff;  throat  blackish,  rest  of  head  and  neck  rufous-brown; 
upper  breast  vinaceous,  lower  breast  and  belly  white;  sides  and  back  finely 
marked  with  wavy  black  and  white  lines.    Ad.  9. — Head  and  throat  deep 
ochraceous-buff,    finely   streaked   and    barred   with   black,    darker   above; 
upper  breast  and  sides  much  the  same  color,  but  without  black  markings; 
lower  breast  and  belly  white;  back  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  with  small 
ochraceous  buffy  bars;  tertials  fuscous,  bordered  by  deep  ochraceous  buffy; 
greater  wing-coverts  brownish  gray,  usually  whiter  on  the  outer  webs  and 
tipped  with  black.   W.,  10*50;  B.,  1'40. 

Remarks. — The  females  of  the  European  and  American  Widgeons  bear  a 
general  resemblance  to  one  another.  Their  distinguishing  characters  are 
mainly  in  the  color  of  the  head  and  throat,  which  are  browner  in  the  European 
species,  and  in  the  color  of  the  greater  wing-coverts,  which  are  whiter  in  the 
American  bird. 

Range. — N.  part  of  the  E.  Hemisphere.  Occurs  in  N.  Y.,  N.  S.,  N.  F., 
and  Greenland  s.  to  Nebr.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  N.  C.,  and  Fla.,  and  in  Alaska, 
B.  C.,  and  Calif. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  two  records.    Long  Island,  rare  T.  V. 

Eggs,  5-8,  buffy  white,  2'23  x  T53.    Date,  Iceland,  June  2. 

The  European  Widgeon  is  of  rare  but  regular  occurrence  in  Eastern 
North  America.  "The  call-note  of  the  male  is  a  shrill,  whistling  whee- 
you,  whence  the  local  names  'Whew  Duck'  and  ' Whewer' ;  but  the  female 
utters  a  low  purr-mg  growl.  Both  sexes,  however,  rise  in  silence." 
(Saunders.) 

137.  Mareca    americana     (Gmel.).    BALDPATE.    Ad.    c?. — Middle    of 
crown  white  or  buffy; 'sides  of  crown,  from  eye  to  nape,  glossy  green,  more 
or  less  sprinkled  with  black;  lores,  cheeks  and  throat  buffy,  finely  barred  with 
black:  upper  breast  and  sides  vinaceous,  the  latter  more  or  less  finely  barred 
with  wavy  black  lines;  lower  breast  and  belly  white;  back  grayish  brown, 
more  or  less  tinged  with  vinaceous  and  finely  barred  with  black.     Ad.  9. — 
Head  and  throat  white  or  pale,  creamy  buff,  finely  streaked  and  barred  with 
black,  darker  above;  upper  breast  and  sides  pale  vinaceous  washed  with 
grayish;  lower  breast  and  belly  white;  back  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  with 
small  creamy  buff  bars;  tertials  fuscous,  bordered  with  whitish  or  creamy 
buff;  greater  wing-coverts  brownish  gray,  their  outer  webs  mostly  or  entirely 
white,  their  ends  black,  sometimes  tipped  with  white.    L.,  19*00;  W.,  10'50; 
Tar.,   1-50;  B.,   1'40. 

Range. — N.  Am.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  and  cen.  Kee- 
watin  s.  to  Ore.,  Nev.,  Utah,  Colo.,  Kans.,  s.  Wise.,  and  n.  Ind.;  winters 
from  s.  B.  C.,  Ariz.,  s.  Ills.,  Md.,  and  Del.  (casually  Mass.,  and  R.  I.),  s.  to  s. 
L.  Calif.,  the  West  Indies,  and  Costa  Rica;  rare  in  migration  to  n.  Ont.,  n. 
Que.,  and  N.  F.;  accidental  in  Hawaii,  Bermuda,  and  Europe. 

Washington,  'common  W.  R.,  Oct.-Apl.  Long  Island,  T.  V.,  common,  Oct. 
10-Feb. ;  less  common  Mch.  8-Apl.  16;  a  few  winter.  Ossining,  common  T.  V., 
Mch.  11-Apl.  12;  Oct.  4-28.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  not  com- 
mon T.  V.,  Mch.  10-Apl.  25.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  17- Oct.  20. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  near  water,  sometimes  exposed,  usually  concealed 
in  grass,  weeds  or  bushes.  Eggs,  7-12,  buffy  white,  2'05  x  1*50.  Date, 
N.  D.,  May  31. 


RIVER  AND   POND  DUCKS  195 

N.  S.  Goss  writes  that,  as  a  rule,  Widgeons  are  "not  shy,  and  their  note, 
a  sort  of  whew,  whew,  whew,  uttered  while  feeding  and  swimming,  enables 
the  hunter  to  locate  them  in  the  thickest  growth  of  water  plants;  and 
when  in  the  air  the  whistling  noise  made  by  their  wings  heralds  their 
approach."  They  are  fond  of  wild  celery,  which  they  procure  by  robbing 
the  Canvasback  and  other  diving  Ducks,  "snatching  their  catch  from 
their  bills  the  moment  their  heads  appear  above  the  water."  "The 
female  utters  a  loud  cry  like  the  syllables  kaow,  kaow."  (Eaton.) 

The  EUROPEAN  TEAL  (138.  Nettion  crecca)  is  of  casual  occurrence  in 
Eastern  North  America.  The  adul.t  male  resembles  that  of  N.  carolinense, 
but  the  white  bar  in  front  of  the  wing  is  lacking,  and  the  inner  scapulars  are 
creamy  buff,  with  a  sharply  denned  black  mark  on  their  outer-webs.  The 
female  can  not  be  distinguished  from  that  of  N.  carolinense. 

139.  Nettion  carolinense  (GmeL).    GREEN-WINGED  TEAL.     Ad.  <?. — 
Chin  black,  sides  of  head  from  eye  to  nape  shining  green,  rest  of  head  and 
neck   rufous-chestnut;    breast   washed    with   vinaceous   and   spotted   with 
black;  belly  white;  sides  finely  marked  with  wavy  black  and  white  lines; 
middle  under  tail-coverts  black,  lateral  ones  creamy  buff;  upper  back  like 
sides,  lower  back  grayish  fuscous;  a  white  bar  in  front  of  the  bend  of  the 
wing;  wing-coverts  brownish  gray,  tipped  with  ochraceous  buffy.    Ad.  9. — 
Top  of  head  brownish  fuscous,  margined  with  cinnamon;  throat  and  sides 
of  neck  white,  finely  spotted  with  black;  breast  and  sides  washed  with  cin- 
namon   and    spotted    or    barred    with    black;     belly     and     under     tail- 
coverts  white,  sometimes  spotted  with  black;  back  fuscous,  the  feathers 
with  crescent-shaped  marks  of  ochraceous  buffy,  and  bordered  with  grayish: 
wings  as  in  the  male.   L.,  14'50;  W.,  7'00;  Tar.,  I'lO;  B.,  1'35. 

Range. — N.  Am.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin, 
n.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  cen.  Calif.,  n.  N.  Mex.,  n.  Nebr.,  n.  Ills.,  s.  Ont., 
Que.,  and  N.  B.;  winters  from  Alaska,  B.  C.,  Nev.,  s.  Nebr.,  n.  Ind.,  w.  N. 
Y.,  and  R.  I.  (casually  N.  S.)  s.  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  the  West  Indies,  and  Hon- 
duras; accidental  in  Hawaii,  Bermuda,  Greenland,  and  Great  Britain. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Sept.-Apl.  Long  Island,  uncommon  T.  V. 
and  W.  V.,  Oct.-Apl.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.;  Sept.  11-Oct.  28. 
Cambridge,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.;  Sept.-Dec.  N.  Ohio,  occasional  T.  V. 
Glen  Ellyn,  quite  regular  T.  V.,  Mch.  10-Apl.  14;  Sept.  25-Oct.  19.  SE.  Minn., 
common  T.  V.,  Mch.  11. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  near  water.  Eggs,  6-12,  buffy  white  or  creamy  buff, 
:-80  x  1-25.  Date,  N.  D.,  May  20. 

"The  Green-wing  is  a  noisier  bird  than  the  Blue-winged  Teal,  the 
male  uttering  a  short,  mellow  whistle  and  the  duck  a  quack  after  the 
fashion  of  a  Black  Duck,  but  small,  high-pitched  and  often  repeated.'' 
(Eaton. ) 

140.  Querquedula  discors   (Linn.}.     BLUE-WINGED  TEAL.    Ad.  <?. — 
Crown  fuscous,  chin  and  sides  of  base  of  bill  black;  a  broad  white  band 
across  front  of  head,  its  hinder  margin  bordered  by  black;  rest  of  head  and 
throat  dark  ashy  with  purplish  reflections ;  breast  and  belly  cinnamon-rufous, 
thickly  spotted  with  black;  back  fuscous,  the  feathers  with  crescents  of 
ochraceous-buff;  lesser  and  median  wing-coverts  grayish  blue,   end  half  of 
greater  ones  white;  speculum  green.    Ad.  9. — Crown  fuscous,  lightly  mar- 
gined with  grayish;  sides  of  the  head  and  the  neck  whitish,  finely  spotted 
with  blackish,  except  on  the  throat;  breast  and  belly  with  less  cinnamon 
wash  than  in  the  preceding;  back  and  wings  quite  similar  to  the  preceding, 
bat  pchraceous  bars  sometimes  wanting,    speculum    darker    and    greater 
coverts  with  less  white.   L.,  IG'OO;  W.,  7'25;  Tar.,  1'20;  B.,  1'60. 

15 


196  RIVER  AND  POND  DUCKS 

Range. —  vV.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  Great  Slave  Lake, 
cen.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  cen.  Ore.,  n.  Nev.,  n.  N.  M.,  cen.  Mo.,  ». 
Ind.,  n.  Ohio.,  w.  N.  Y.  (occasionally  R.  I.),  and  Maine;  winters  from  &>. 
B.  C.,  Ariz.,  s.  Ills.,  Md.,  and  Del.  s.  to  the  West  Indies  and  S.  A.  as  far  as 
Brazil  and  Chile;  accidental  in  Bermuda  and  Europe. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Aug.  18-Jun3  2.  Long  Island  uncommon 
T.  V.,  Mch.  24-Apl.  21;  Aug.  28-Oct.  25.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.  in  fall, 
Sept.  24-Oct.  17.  Cambridge,  rare  in  spring;  very  common  (at  least  formerly) 
Aug.-Oct.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  T.  V.  Apl.  20-May  4.  Glen  Ellyn,  not 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  2-Oct.  8.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  29. 

Nest,  on  ground,  well  concealed  in  grass,  near  water.  Eggs,  6-12,  buffy 
white  or  creamy  buff,  1'85  x  1*30.  Date,  SE.  Minn.,  May  10. 

The  Blue-winged  Teal  is  one  of  the  swiftest  of  our  Ducks.  The 
white  face-marK  of  the  male  can  be  discerned  at  some  distance,  and,  in 
connection  with  the  bird's  small  size,  is  a  good  field-mark.  "The  Blue 
Wing's  note  is  a  whistling  'peep'  repeated  five  or  six  times,  but  is  seldom 
heard.  The  duck  quacks  less  plainly  and  in  a  hoarser  voice  than  the 
Green-wing' '  (Eaton) . 

The  CINNAMON  TEAL  (1^1.  Querquedula  cyanoptera),  a  species  of  western 
North  America,  sometimes  occurs  east  of  the  Mississippi.  It  has  been 
recorded  from  Illinois  and  Florida.  The  male  has  the  underparts  deep 
cinnamon;  the  female  closely  resembles  the  same  sex  of  our  Q.  discors. 

The  RUDDY  SHELDRAKE  (1J+1-1  Casarcaferruginea),  an  Old  World  species, 
is  of  casual  occurrence  in  Greenland.  (See  Allen,  Auk,  1896,  243.) 

142.  Spatula  clypeata  (Linn.}.  SHOVELLER.  Ad.  cT. — Head  and 
neck  fuscous,  glossed  with  bluish  green;  back  and  a  broken  line  down  back 
of  lower  neck  fuscous ;  rest  of  lower  neck  and  breast  white ;  lower  breast  and 
belly  rufous-chestnut;  upper  and  under  tail-coverts  dark  greenish;  lessei 
wing-coverts  grayish  blue,  greater  ones  brownish  gray  tipped  with  white: 
speculum  green.  Ad. 9. — Throat  buffy  white;  head  and  neck  streaked  witL. 
buffy  and  black;  rest  of  underparts  more  or  less  washed  with  buffy  ochra- 
ceous,  everywhere  indistinctly  spotted  with  fuscous  except  on  middle  of 
belly;  back  fuscous,  the  feathers  with  margins  and  internal  crescents  of 
whitish  and  buffy;  wing-coverts  and  speculum  much  as  in  d".  Im. — The  im. 
d"  is  intermediate  between  the  ad.  <?  and  9 ;  the  im.  9  resemble  the  ad.  9 , 
but  the  wing-coverts  are  slaty  gray,  the  speculum  with  little  or  no  green. 
L.,  20-00;  W.,  9'50;  B.,  2*50;  greatest  width  of  B.,  1'20. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.  breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  nw. 
Mackenzie,  and  s.  Keewatin  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  cen.  N.  M.,  n.  Tex.,  n.  Mo., 
and  n.  Ind.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Ariz.,  N.  M.,  s.  Mo.,  s.  Ills.,  Md.,  and 
Del.  s.  to  the  W.  Indies,  Colombia  and  Hawaii;  in  migration  occasional  in 
Bermuda,  and  n.  to  N.  S.,  and  N.  F. 

Washington,  not  uncommon  W.  V.  Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct.  25— 
Nov.  29.  Ossining,  A.  V.  Oct.  Cambridge,  one  record.  N.  Ohio,  not  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  12-Apl.  6;  Sept.  20-Nov.  1.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V., 
fall  records  only,  Oct.  11-Nov.  8.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  uncommon 
S.  R.,  Mch.  30. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  well  concealed  in  grass,  sometimes  near  to,  some- 
times far  from  water.  Eggs,  6-11,  pale  olive-buff  or  pale  greenish  gray 
similar  to  a  Mallard's  or  Pintail's  but  smaller,  2*03  x  I' 42  (Bent).  Date, 
Heron  Lake,  Minn.,  May  9. 

The  Shoveller,  like  most  of  the  members  of  this  subfamily,  is  more 
common  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  than  on  the  coast.  It  is  generally  a 
silent  bird,  but  its  note  in  the  breeding  season  is  said  to  be  took,  took.  It 
feeds  largely  by  tipping  in  shallow  water. 


RIVER  AND  POND  DUCKS  197 

143.  Dafila  acuta  (Linn.}.    PINTAIL.    Ad.  cf. — Head  and  throat  olive- 
brown;  back  of  neck  blackish,  bordered  by  white  stripes,  which  pass  to 
breast;  breast  and  belly  white;  the  abdomen  faintly  and  sides  strongly 
marked  with  wavy  lines  of  black  and  white;  back  somewhat  darker  than 
sides;  scapulars  black,  bordered  or  streaked  with  buffy  white;  wing-coverts 
brownish  gray,  greater  ones  tipped  with  rufous;  speculum  green;  central 
tail-feathers  glossed  with  green  and  much  elongated.    Ad.  9 . — Throat  white 
or  whitish,  crown  and  sides  of  head  streaked  with  blackish  and  buffy  ochra- 
ceous, darker  above;  breast  washed  with  buffy  ochraceous  and  spotted  with 
blackish;   belly  white;   abdomen   more   or  less   indistinctly  mottled   with 
blackish;  sides  with  bars  and  lengthened  black  and  white  crescents;  under 
wing-coverts  fuscous,  bordered  with  whitish;  axillars  barred  or  mottled  with 
black;  back  fuscous,  the  feathers  with  borders,  bars,  or  crescents  of  white  or 
buffy;  speculum  grayish  brown  bordered  with  white.    Im. — The  im  <?  is 
variously  intermediate  between  the  ad.  <?  and  9  ;  the  im.  9  resembles  the  ad. 
9,  but  the  underparts  are  more  heavily  streaked  or  spotted.    L.,  <?,  28'00, 
9,  22-00;  W.,  lO'OO;  T.,  d%  7'50,  9,  3'60;  B.,  2'00. 

Remarks. — The  female  of  this  species  is  a  rather  obscure-looking  bird, 
but  may  always  be  known  by  its  broad,  sharply  pointed  central  tail-feathers 
and  dusky  under  wing-coverts. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  Am.  breeds  on  the  Arctic  coast  from 
Alaska  to  Keewatin  and  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  Colo.,  n.  Nebr.,  n.  Iowa,  and  n.  Ills.; 
winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Nev.,  Ariz.,  s.  Mo.,  s.  Wise.,  s.  Ohio,  Pa.  (rarely),  and 
Del.,  s.  to  Porto  Rico  and  Panama,  and  in  Hawaii;  in  migration  occasional 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  to  n.  Ungava,  Greenland,  and  N.  F.,  and  in  Bermuda. 

Washington,  W.  V.,  'Sept.  13-Apl.  1.  Long  Island,  common  T.  V., 
Sept.  15-Apl.  15;  a  few  winter  (Dutcher).  Ossining,  common  T.  V., 
Mch.  15-Apl.  10;  Sept.  26-Dec.  4.  Cambridge,  rather  rare  T.  V.,  Apl.; 
Oct.-Dec.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  1-Apl.  7;  Sept.  20-Dec.  1.  Glen 
Ellyn,  irregular,  Mch.  19-Apl.  17.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  3. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  often  but  little  concealed,  sometimes  near  to,  at 
others  far  from  water.  Eggs,  8-10,  pale  olive-green  or  olive-buff,  2'20  x  1*50. 
Date,  Minor  Co.,  S.  D,  May  7. 

"Its  note  is  seldom  heard  by  day,  but  while  coming  into  the  feeding- 
grounds  at  night  with  the  Widgeons,  Black  Ducks  and  Mallards,  the 
hoarse,  muffled  quack  of  the  duck  and  the  mellow  whistle  of  the  drake 
are  heard  mingled  with  the  whistling  of  the  Widgeon  and  the  loud 
calls  of  the  Black  Duck.  In  the  springtime  the  drake  often  gives  utter- 
ance to  low,  soft  notes  which  seem  to  flow  from  deep  down  in  the  throat, 
especially  while  performing  curious  courting  antics  in  the  presence  of 
the  ducks."  (Eaton.)  The  Pintail's  long,  slender  neck,  and  in  the  male 
the  long  tail-feathers,  are  good  field-marks. 

144.  Aix  sppnsa  (Linn.).   WOOD  DUCK.    Ad.  <?. — A  line  from  bill  over 
eye,  a  similar  line  at  base  of  side  of  crest,  and  some  of  elongated  crest- 
feathers  white;  throat,  a  band  from  it  up  side  of  head,  and  a  wider  one  to 
nape,  white;  rest  of  cheeks  and  crown  green  with  purplish  reflections;  a 
white  band  in  front  of  wings;  breast  and  a  spot  at  either  side  of  the  base  of 
the  tail  purplish   chestnut,   the  former  spotted  with  white;   belly  white; 
sides  buffy  ochraceous,  finely  barred  with  black,  longer  flank  feathers  tipped 
with  wider  bars  of  black  and  white;  back  greenish  brown;  scapulars  blacker; 
speculum  steel-blue;  p-.imaries  tipped  with  greenish  blue. — Ad.  9. — Throat 
and  a  stripe  from  the  eye  backward  white;  crown  purplish  brown;  sides  of 
the  head  ashy  brown;  breast  and  sides  grayish  brown  streaked  with  buffy; 
belly  white;  back  olive-brown  glossed  with  greenish;  inner  primaries  tipped 
with  greenish  blue.    Im. — The  im.  <?  resembles  the  9.  L.,  18'50;  W.,  9*00; 
Tar.,  1-35;  B.,  1'30. 


198  BAY  AND  SEA  DUCKS 

Range. — Temperate  N.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  cen.  Sask.,  n.  Ont., 
N.  B.  and  N.  S.  s.  to  cen.  Calif.,  s.  Tex.,  Fla.  and  Cuba;  winters  chiefly 
in  II.  S.,  from  s.  B.  C.,  Kans.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  Pa.,  and  N.  J.,  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  and 
the  Gulf  of  Mex. ;  accidental  in  Bermuda,  Mex.,  Jamaica,  and  Europe. 

Washington,  uncommon  P.  R.  Long  Island,  rare  S.  R.,  May  2-Nov. 
27.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  S.  R.  Cambridge,  not  common  T.  V., 
Apl.  1-30;  Sept.  15-Oct.  20.  N.  Ohio,  rare  S.  R.,  Mch.  20-Oct.  15.  Glen 
Ellyn,  rare,  May  records  only.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Mch.  17- 
Oct.  23. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  leaves,  twigs,  down,  etc.,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  stump. 
Eggs,  8-14,  pale  buffy  white,  2'05  x  1*50.  Date,  Chester  Co.,  S.  C.,  Mch.  10; 
Black  Hawk  Co.,  Iowa,  May  4. 

Woodland  ponds  and  forest-bordered  streams  make  a  proper  setting 
for  the  grace  and  beauty  of  these  richly  attired  birds.  I  know  of  no 
sight  in  the  bird  world  which  so  fully  satisfies  the  eye  as  to  see  them 
in  the  unconscious  enjoyment  of  their  secluded  homes.  Alarm  them,  and 
with  a  frightened,  plaintive  whistle,  "oo-eek,"  they  spring  from  the 
water  and  make  off  through  the  woods.  At  other  times  they  will  swim 
ahead  of  one's  canoe,  and,  rounding  a  bend  in  the  stream,  go  ashore 
and  walk  rapidly  away. 

The  RUFOUS-CRESTED  DUCK  (145.  Netta  rufina}  is  an  Old  World  species 
which  has  been  taken  once  in  America.  The  record  is  based  on  an  immature 
male  found  in  Fulton  Market,  New  York  City,  which  was  supposed  to  have 
been  shot  on  Long  Island.  (Ridgw.,  Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  1881,  25.) 

Subfamily  Fuligulinoe.  Bay,  Sea,  or  Diving  Ducks.  (Fig.  346.) 

The  members  of  this  subfamily  are  to  be  distinguished  from  those 
of  the  preceding  by  the  presence  of  a  lobe  or  web  on  the  hind-toe.  They 
are  open-water  Ducks,  frequenting  our  large  lakes,  bays  and  sea-coasts. 
Their  food  consists  chiefly  of  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  the  seeds  and 
roots  of  aquatic  plants.  They  obtain  it  principally  by  diving,  some- 
times descending  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  more.  According  to 
Townsend  ("Labrador  Spring,"  p.  92),  the  Old  Squaw,  Scoters  and  Eiders 
use  their  wings  when  diving,  while  the  Redhead,  Canvasback,  Buffle- 
head,  Scaups  and  Golden-eyes  use  only  their  feet.  The  bill,  as  in  the 
Anatince,  acts  as  a  sieve  or  strainer.  As  a  rule  they  feed  by  day  and  pass 
the  night  at  a  distance  from  the  shore  or  at  sea.  Some  of  the  species 
occur  in  our  waters  in  large  flocks — indeed,  our  most  abundant  Ducks 
are  members  of  this  subfamily.  With  one  exception,  they  are  northern 
breeding  birds,  seldom  nesting  south  of  our  northern  tier  of  States. 
Their  nest  is  composed  of  leaves,  grasses,  stems  of  aquatic  plants, 
seaweed,  etc.,  lined  with  down  from  the  breast  of  the  incubating  bird, 
and  is  variously  located. 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

I.  Feathers  at  the  base  of  the  bill  not  reaching  '50  forward  along  its  sides. 
1.  Wing  over  7'00. 

A.  Axillars  and  most,  if  not  all,  the  linings  of  the  wings  white. 
a.  Head  and  neck  black,  with  greenish  or  purplish  reflections. 


PLATE  Xlli 


DUCKS  Aif 


Shoveller. 
Mallard. 
Canvasback. 
Ruddy  Duck 


Canada  Geese. 
Pintail. 
Scaup  Duck. 
Clue-winged  Teal. 


BAY  AND  SEA  DUCKS  199 

a1.  Back  black;  bill  with  a  bluish  band  near  its  tip. 

150.  RING-NECKED  DUCK  <?. 
61.  Back  finely  barred  with  black  and  white. 

b2.  Back  of  head  generally  with  purplish  reflections;  wing  gener- 
ally under  8*25;  nail  of  bill  generally  under  '25  in  width. 

149.  LESSER  SCAUP  DUCK  d". 

b3.  Back  of  head  generally  with  greenish  reflections;  wing  gener- 
ally over  8*25;  nail  of  bill  over  '25  in  width. 

148.  GREATER  SCAUP  DUCK  <?. 
b.  Head  and  neck  not  black. 

61.  Head  and  neck  rufous  or  rufous-brown,  sharply  defined  from 
the  black  breast. 

62.  Head  and  upper  neck  rich  rufous;  bill  2*00  or  under;  flanks 

finely  barred,  like  the  back 146.  REDHEAD  d". 

63.  Head  and  neck  rufous-brown;  crown  blackish;  bill  over  2*00; 

flanks  very  slightly  if  at  all  barred  .  .  147.  CANVASBACK  d\ 
c1.  Head  and  neck  brownish  or  grayish. 
c2.  A  white  patch  in  the  wing. 

c3.  Feathers  at  base  of  bill  white;  wing  generally  under  8*25; 
nail  of  bill  generally  under  *25  in  width. 

149.  LESSER  SCAUP  DUCK  9 . 

c4.  Feathers  at  base  of  bill  white;  wing  generally  over  8'25; 
nail  of  bill  generally  over  *25  in  width 

148.  GREATER  SCAUP  DUCK  9 . 
d2.  No  white  in  wing. 

d3.  An  indistinct  bluish  band  near  the  tip  of  bill ;  bill  under  2'00. 

d4.  Wing  under  8*00 150.  RING-NECKED  DUCK  9 . 

d5.  Wing  over  8*00 146.  REDHEAD  9 . 

e3.  No  band  on  bill;  bill  over  2*00  .  .  .  147.  CANVASBACK  9. 
B.  Axillars  and  most,  if  not  all,  the  under  wing-coverts  blackish. 

a.  Head  and  throat  dark  steel-blue  or  steel-green. 

a1.  Head  and  throat  steel-blue;  white  patch  at  base  of  bill  TOO  or 
more  in  height 152.  BARROW'S  GOLDEN-EYE  d". 

a2.  Head  and  throat  steel-green;  white  patch  at  base  of  bill  less 
than  TOO  in  height 151.  AM.  GOLDEN-EYE  d". 

b.  Head  and  throat  not  steel-blue. 

b1.  Whole  head  and  throat  brown,  sharply  defined  from  the  gray 

or  white  neck;  a  white  patch  (speculum)  in  the  wing. 
62.  Nostril  nearer  the  tip  than  the  base  of  the  bill. 

151.  AM.  GOLDEN-EYE  9. 
b3.  Nostril  in  the  middle  of  the  bill. 

152.  BARROW'S  GOLDEN-EYE  9. 

c1.  Head  and  throat  not  brown  but  with  more  or  less  black. 
c2.  Whole  head  and  neck  black. 

c3.  Plumage  black 163.  AM.  SCOTER  d". 

dz.  Whole  head  and  neck  not  black. 
d3.  Crown-patch  or  cheeks  white. 

d4.  A  white  patch  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  another  on 

the  nape 166.  SURF  SCOTER  d1. 

d5.  Middle  of    crown    black,  bordered  by  chestnut;    front 

half  of  face  white 155.  HARLEQUIN  DUCK  d". 

e3.  Head  and  neck  whitish,  grayish,  or  brownish,  no  white  in 

wing. 
e4.  Bill  over  1'25. 

e5.  Feathers  on   culmen  reaching  much  farther  forward 

than  those  at  sides  of  the  biP     166.  SURF  SCOTER  9. 

e6.  Feathers   on   culmen  reaching  Jittle    of    any  beyond 

those  at  sides  of  bill .  .  ,  t     .  .  163.  AM.  SCOTER  9, 

<*,  Bill  under  1'25, 


200  BAY  AND  SEA  DUCKS 

/6.  Central  tail-feathers  longest,  sharply  pointed,  under 

tail- coverts  white 154.    OLD  SQUAW. 

/6.  Central  tail-feathers  not  sharply  pointed;  under  tail- 
coverts  grayish  brown  .  .  .  155.  HAKLEQUIN  DUCK. 
3.  Wing  under  7'00. 

a.  Tail-feathers  stiff  and  narrow;  upper  tail-coverts  very  short. 
a1.  Upperparts  mostly  rich  chestnut-rufous. 

a2.  Cheeks  white 167.  RUDDY  DUCK  c? 

a3.  Cheeks  black 168.  MASKED  DUCK  d". 

61.  Upperparts    grayish    or    brownish,    with    sometimes    rufous 

markings. 
fe2.  Lining  of  wing  blackish;  underparts  grayish. 

168.  MASKED  DUCK  9 
63.  Lining  of  wing  whitish;  underparts  grayish. 

167.  RUDDY  DUCK  9 
6.  Tail-feathers  normal;  upper  tail-coverts  about  half  as  long  as  tail 

153.    BUFFLEHEAD 

II.  Feathers  at  sides  or  top  of  bill  extending  forward  generally  as  far  ae 
nostril. 

A.  Feathers  on  sides  of  bill  not  reaching  nostril. 

a.  Nostril  narrow,  elongate;  feathers  on  culmen  extending  forward 
in  a  narrow  line,  a  V-shaped  mark  on  throat  .  162.  KING  EIDER. 

6.  Nostril  large,  rounded;  feathers  on  culmen  not  extending  forward 
in  a  narrow  line 165.  WHITE-WINGED  SCOTER. 

B.  Feathers  on  sides  of  bill  extending  as  far  as  nostril. 

a.  Bare  base  of  bill  on  top  narrow,  ending  posteriorly  in  a  sharp 
point. 

159.  GREENLAND  EIDER. 
6.  Bare  base  of  bill  on  top  broad,  the  posterior  end  rounded. 

160.  AM.  EIDER 

146.  Marila  americana  (Eyt.).  REDHEAD.  Ad.  <?. — Head  and  throat 
brigl:  t  rufous ;  lower  neck,  breast,  back  of  neck  and  upper  back  black ;  rest  of 
back  and  scapulars  finely  barred  with  wavy  black  and  white  lines  of  equal 
width;  wing-coverts  brownish  gray;  upper  tail-coverts  black;  belly  white, 
lower  belly  more  or  less  finely  barred  with  black;  under  tail-coverts  black; 
sides  like  back.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  dark  grayish  brown,  darker  on  rump, 
the  feathers  more  or  less  margined  with  buffy  or  ashy;  sides  of  head  lighter; 
upper  throat  white;  neck  buffy  ochraceous;  breast  and  sides  grayish  brown, 
more  or  less  washed  or  margined  with  buffy  or  buffy  ochraceous;  belly  white; 
lower  belly  and  under  tail-coverts  tinged  with  ochraceous;  an  indistinct 
bluish  gray  band  across  end  of  bill.  L.,  19'00;  W.,  8'90;  Tar.,  1'55;  B.,  1'85. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  frequently  confused  with  the  Canvasback, 
from  which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  characters  given  under  that 
species. 

The  female  Redhead  suggests  the  female  Ring-neck  in  coloration,  but  the 
latter  is  browner,  and  they  can  be  also  distinguished  with  certainty  by  the 
difference  in  their  size. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  cen.  Alberta,  cen.  Sask.  and  sw. 
Keewatin  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  Utah,  s.  S.  D.,  s.  Minn.,  and  s.  Wise.;  winters 
from  s.  B.  C.,  Utah,  N.  M.,  Kans.,  Ills.,  Md.,  Del.,  and  Mass.,  s.  to  s.  L 
Calif.,  cen.  Mex.,  and  Fla.;  accidental  in  Jamaica;  in  migration  casual  in 
Alaska  and  regularly  on  the  Atlantic  coast  n.  to  s.  Lab. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.  Long  Island  T.  V.,  locally  common, 
Sept.  30- Jan.  9;  Feb.  15-Mch.  22.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  1-Apl.  24; 
Oct.  12-Oct.  28.  Cambridge,  rather  rare  T.  V.,  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably 
common  T.  V.,  Mch.  1-Apl.  25.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  14. 

Nest,  of  reeds,  with  more  or  less  white  down,  in  reeds,  usually  over 
water.  Eggs,  6-18;  light  olive-buff  to  light  cream-buff,  2'40  x  1*70.  Date, 
Dodge  Co.,  Wise.,  May  22,  1888;  Heron  Lake,  Minn.,  May  19,  1887. 


BAY  AND  SEA  DUCKS  201 

The  Ducks  of  the  genus  Marila  possess  to  some  extent  the  habits 
of  both  the  River  Ducks  and  true  Sea  Ducks.  They  are  divers  in  deep 
water,  but  along  the  shores  or  in  shallow  water  they  are  also  'dabblers/ 
On  the  Atlantic  coast  the  Redhead  is  a  Bay  Duck,  and  feeds  in  salt 
and  brackish  water;  but  in  the  West  it  inhabits  prairie  sloughs  and 
lakes.  When  feeding  on  wild  celery  its  flesh  is  equal  to  that  of  the  Can- 
vasback,  indeed,  by  the  discriminating  it  is  considered  slightly  superior, 
being  as  much  finer  as  the  bird  is  smaller  than  its  more  famous  cousin. 

147.  Marila  valisineria  (Wile.).  CANVASBACK.  Ad.  cf. — Head  and 
neck  rufous-brown,  chin  and  crown  generally  blackish;  breast  and  upper 
back  black ;  rest  of  back  and  generally  wing-coverts  finely  barred  with  wavy 
lines  of  black  and  white,  white  lines  wider;  belly  white;  lower  belly  more  or 
less  finely  barred  with  black;  upper  and  under  tail-coverts  black;  sides 
white,  much  more  lightly  barred  with  wavy  black  lines  than  back,  or  even 
entirely  without  bars.  Ad.  9. — Head,  neck,  upper  breast,  and  upper  back 
cinnamon,  throat  lighter,  and,  with  front  parts  of  head,  more  or  less  washed 
with  rufous;  back  grayish  brown,  feathers  more  or  less  barred  with  wavy 
white  lines;  belly  white  or  grayish  white;  sides  the  same  or  grayish  brown, 
generally  marked  like  back.  L.,  21'00;  W.,  9'00;  Tar.,  1'60;  B.,  2'40. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  Redhead,  to  which 
it  bears  a  general  resemblance.  The  males  of  the  two  species  may  be  distin- 
guished (1)  by  the  color  of  the  head  and  neck,  which  is  rufous  in  the  Red- 
head and  rufous-brown  in  the  Canvasback;  (2)  by  the  generally  blackish 
chin  and  crown  of  the  Canvasback,  these  parts  in  the  Redhead  being  colored 
like  the  rest  of  the  head;  (3)  by  the  difference  in  the  markings  of  the  back, 
wing-coverts,  and  sides;  and  (4)  by  the  difference  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
bill,  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  measurements.  The  females  of  the  two 
species  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  the  color  of  the  back,  which  in  the 
Canvasback  is  finely  barred  with  wavy  white  lines,  markings  which  do  not 
appear  on  the  back  of  the  female  Redhead. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  Fort  Yukon,  Great  Slave 
Lake,  and  sw.  Keewatin  s.  to  Ore.,  n.  Nev.,  Colo,  (rarely),  Nebr.,  and  s. 
Minn.,  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Nev.,  Colo.,  Ills.,  Pa.,  and  w.  N.  Y.  s.  to  cen. 
Mex.  (Jalisco)  and  the  Gulf  coast;  in  winter  formerly  abundant,  now  less 
so,  in  Md.,  Va.,  and  N.  C.;  occasional  s.  to  Fla.,  and  casual  in  the  West 
Indies,  Bermuda,  and  Guatemala;  in  migration  n.  rarely  to  N.  B.  and  N.  S. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.,  Oct.  15-Mch.  25.  L.  I.,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct.  20- 
Feb.  11.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.  N.  Ohio,  toler- 
ably common  T.  V.,  Mch.  20-Apl.  10,  Oct.  1-Nov.  25.  SE.  Minn.,  uncom- 
mon T.  V. 

Nest,  of  reeds,  lined  with  gray  down,  in  reeds,  or  tules  over  water.  Eggs, 
6-10,  (often  with  eggs  of  the  Ruddy  Duck  or  Redhead  added)  "rich  grayish 
olive  or  greenish  drab  of  a  darker  shade  than  is  usually  seen  in  the  eggs  of 
other  species"  of  Ducks,  2*48  x  1*75  (Bent).  Date,  Heron  Lake,  Minn., 
May  9,  1886,  adv. 

While  the  fame  of  the  Canvasback  has  no  doubt  been  unduly  sung 
by  the  epicure,  there  can  be  no  question  that  from  the  sportsman's 
viewpoint  it  is  king  among  the  Ducks.  Pursued  for  the  market  and  as 
game,  it  has  decreased  alarmingly,  but  in  recent  years,  thanks  to  more 
stringent  and  better  enforced  laws,  and  particularly  to  the  abolition 
of  spring  shooting,  its  numbers  appear  to  be  increasing. 

In  October,  1910,  ten  thousand  Canvasback  were  estimated  to  be 
on  Heron  Lake,  Minnesota.  They  were  feeding  on  the  wild  celery 
which  nearly  covers  the  bottom  of  this  shallow  body  of  water,  and, 


202  BAY   AND  SEA  DUCKS 

as  a  rule,  kept  near  the  center  of  the  lake  (where  shooting  is  prohibited) 
massed  in  one  great  body.  On  still  mornings,  the  shining  white  backs 
of  the  males  could  be  clearly  seen,  while  at  a  distance  of  half  a  mile, 
one  could  hear  distinctly  a  dabbling  sound  as  they  ate  the  celery  brought 
to  the  surface 

"The  female  Canvasback  can  quack  almost  as  well  as  a  Black 
Duck,  and  also  gives  voice  to  a  screaming  curr-row  when  startled.  The 
males,  when  together,  frequently  utter  a  peeping  or  growling  note." 
(Eaton.) 

1910.   FAY,  S.  P.,  Auk,  XXVII,  369-381  (status  in  Mass.). 

148.  Marila  marila  (Linn.).    GREATER  SCAUP  DUCK.    Ad.  d*. — Head, 
neck,  breast  and  upper  back  black,  top  and  sides  of  head  with  generally  green- 
ish reflections ;  back  and  scapulars  with  wavy  black  and  white  bars ;  speculum 
white;  upper  and  under  tail-coverts  black;  belly  white;  lower  belly  strongly 
and  sides  faintly  marked  with  wavy  black  bars.   Ad.  9 . — Region  around  base 
of  bill  white;  head,  neck,  breast  and  upper  back  umber,  margined  with  ochra- 
ceous  on  breast;   back  and  scapulars  fuscous-brown;   sides  dark  grayish 
brown,  both  generally  marked  with  fine,  wavy  bars  of  white;  speculum  and 
belly  white.     <?  L.,  18'50;  W.,  8'75;  Tar.,   1'40;  B.,   1'65;  greatest  width  of 
B.,  I'OO.  9  L.,  17'SO;  W.,  8'25;  Tar.,  1'36;  B.,  l'G5;  greatest  width  of  B.,  I'OO. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.,  breeds  from  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  iiw.  Alaska,  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  cen.  Keewatin  s.  to  s.  B.  C.  and  n. 
N.  D.;  has  bred  casually  on  Magdalen  Islands  and  in  Out.  and  Mich.; 
winters  from  Maine  to  Fla.,  and  the  Bahamas,  and  from  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  Nev.,  Colo.,  and  Lake  Ont.,  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  N.  M.,  and  s.  Tex.; 
in  migration  rare  in  cen.  Ungava,  N.  F.,  and  N.  S. 

Washington,  rather  common  W.  V.  Long  Island,  abundant  T.  V., 
Sept.  1-Apl.  22,  some  winter.  Ossinirig,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  22-Apl.  13; 
Oct.  4-Dec.  3.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  10-May  1;  Oct.  1-Dec.  10, 
breeds  occasionally.  Glen  Ellyn,  April  records  only.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  near  grassy  sloughs  or  marshy  lake  sides.  Eggs, 
6-10,  olive-buff,  2'54  x  1*71.  Date,  Bering  Is.,  June  6. 

This  is  one  of  our  most  common  Bay  Ducks.  While  with  us  it 
seems  to  prefer  salt  and  brackish  water.  It  feeds  largely  on  mollusks, 
which  it  obtains  by  diving.  "Ducks  of  this  species  utter  a  soft,  purring 
whistle  when  excited  or  calling  to  their  mates,  and  rarely  the  discordant 
note  described  by  Seebohm  as  resembling  the  word  scaup,  screamed  out 
in  an  exceptionally  harsh  voice.  On  two  or  three  occasions  I  have  heard 
a  flock  of  Scaups  give  utterance  to  these  notes,  and  the  effect  was  the 
loudest  and  most  discordant  chorus  of  bird-notes  to  which  I  ever 
listened,  coming  as  it  did  from  scores  of  voices  over  silent  water." 
(Eaton.) 

149.  Marila  af finis  (Eyt.).    LESSER  SCAUP  DUCK.    Ad.  <?. — Similar  to 
preceding  species  but  smaller,  head,  as  a  rule,  glossed  with  purplish  instead 
of  greenish,  and  flanks  strongly  instead  of  faintly  marked  with  wavy  black 
bars.   Ad.  9. — Similar  to  9  of  the  preceding  species,  but  smaller,   <?  L.,  16'50; 
W.,  8-00;  Tar.,  1'35;  B.,  1*60;  greatest  width  of  B.,  '95.     9  L.,  16'50;  W., 
7*60;  Tar.,  1*30;  B.,  1'55;  greatest  width  of  B.,  '90. 

Remarks. — The  Scaup  Ducks  resemble  each  other  so  closely  that  it  is 
sometimes  impossible  to  tell  them  apart,  but  they  may  generally  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  characters  given  above. 


BAY  AND  SEA  DUCKS  203 

Range. — N.  Am.  Breeds  from  the  Yukon  Valley,  Alaska,  and  Fort 
Anderson,  Mackenzie,  s.  to  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Mont.,  Colo,  (casually),  n.  Iowa, 
n.  Iiid.,  and  w.  Lake  Erie;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Nev.,  Colo.,  Lake  Erie, 
and  N.  J.  s.  to  the  Bahamas,  Lesser  Antilles,  and  Panama;  rare  in  migration 
in  N.  F.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.;  accidental  in  Greenland  and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  not  uncommon  W.  R.,  Sept.  25-May  30.  Long  Island, 
common  T.  V.,  Oct.  1-Apl.  28;  a  few  winter.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.. 
Jan.  28-Apl.  12;  Aug.  31-Nov.*  Cambridge,  common  in  Oct.  and  Nov.; 
rare  in  spring.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  15-May  10;  Oct.  1-Dec.  1. 
Glen  Ellyn,  regular  T.  V.,  Mch.  10-Apl.  18;  Oct.  23-Nov.  4.  SE.  Minn., 
T.  V.,  Mch  9. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  near  grassy  sloughs  and  marshy  lake  sides.  Eggs, 
6-11,  "rich  olive-buff,"  2'25  x  1*58.  Date,  N.  D.,  May  31. 

This  species  has  much  the  same  habits  as  the  preceding,  but  is  more 
southern  in  its  distribution  during  the  winter.  It  is  by  far  the  most 
abundant  Duck  in  Florida  waters  at  that  season,  where  it  occurs  in 
enormous  flocks  in  the  rivers  and  bays  along  the  coasts.  When  protected 
it  soon  becomes  as  tame  as  a  domesticated  Duck,  but  beyond  the  limits 
of  protection  at  once  exhibits  its  normal  shyness.  I  have  heard  it  utter 
a  soft,  purring  note. 

150.  Marila  collaris   (Donov.).     RING-NECKED  DUCK.     Ad.  d*. — Chin 
white;  head,  neck,  breast  and  upper  back  black,  head  with  bluish  reflections, 
neck  with  a  not  sharply  defined  chestnut  collar;  back  and  scapulars  black, 
speculum   gray;   upper   and   under   tail-coverts    black,    belly   white,    lower 
belly  and  sides  finely  barred  with  wavy  black  lines;  bill  black,  base  and  a 
band  across  end  bluish  gray.    Ad.  9. — Upperparts  fuscous-brown,  more  or 
less  margined  with  ochraccous ;  speculum  gray;  sides  of  head  and  neck  mixed 
grayish  brown  and  white;  breast,  sides  and  lower  belly  grayish  brown,  more 
or  less  margined  with  ochraceous;  upper  belly  white  or  whitish;  bill  blackish, 
an  indistinct  band  of  bluish  gray  across  its  end.    L.,  16'50;  W.,  7'50;  Tar., 
1*25;  B.,  1'80. 

Remarks. — The  male  Ring-neck  may  be  known  from  any  of  its  allies  by 
its  chestnut  collar  and  other  excellent  characters;  the  female  resembles  the 
female  Redhead,  but  is  smaller  and  generally  browner. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.  to  n.  Calif.,  and  from  n.  Alberta 
and  Lake  Winnipeg  s.  to  N.  D.,  n.  Iowa.,  and  s.  Wise.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C., 
N.  M.,  n.  Tex.,  s.  Ills.,  and  N.  J.  s.  to  Porto  Rico  and  Guatemala;  occurs 
in  migration  n.  to  N.  F.,  N.  S.,  and  Que.;  recorded  from  Bermuda  and  Eng- 
land. 

Washington,  not  rare,  W.  V.,  Oct.  6-Mch.  13.  Long  Island,  two  records. 
Ossining,  A.  V.,  Apl.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  not  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  20-Apl.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  28-May  24; 
Oct.  12-Nov.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  3-Nov.  30. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  near  grassy  sloughs  or  marshy  lakesides.  Eggs, 
6-12,  similar  in  color  to  those  of  the  two  preceding  species,  2'28  x  1'63 
Date,  SE.  Minn.,  May  27. 

This  is  more  of  a  fresh-water  bird  than  either  of  the  preceding.  It 
is  not  common  in  the  Atlantic  states  north  of  Florida,  where,  during 
the  winter,  it  is  abundant  on  fresh-water  lakes. 

151.  Clangula  clangula  americana  Bonap.    AMERICAN  GOLDEN-EYE. 
Ad.  <f . — Head  and  throat  dark,  glossy  green,  a  circular  white  patch  at  base 
of  bill  measuring,  along  bill,  less  than  half  an  inch  in  height;  neck  all  around, 

*The  presence  or  absence  of  Ducks  in  the  winter  depends  upon  whether  the  river 
is  frozen  or  open. 


204  BAY   AND  SEA  DUCKS 

breast,  belly,  exposed  part  of  wing-coverts,  speculum,  and  most  of  the  scap- 
ulars white;  rest  of  plumage  black.  Ad.  9. — Head  and  throat  cinnamon- 
brown,  foreneck  white;  upper  breast,  back,  and  sides  ashy  gray  bordered  with 
grayish;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white;  speculum,  lower  breast  and  belly 
white.  L.,  20'00;  W.,  9'00;  B.  from  anterior  margin  of  white  patch  to  anterior 
margin  of  nostril,  1*00;  from  anterior  margin  of  nostril  to  tip,  '75. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  n. 
Ungava,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Mont.,  n.  N.  D.,  n.  Mich.,  n.  N.  Y.,  and 
n.  New  England;  winters  from  the  Aleutian  Islands,  Utah,  Nebr.,  Minn.,  Lake 
Erie,  Maine,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  cen.  Mex.,  and  Fla. ;  occurs  in  Bermuda. 

Washington,  not  rare,  W.  V.,  Oct.  8-Apl.  1.  Long  Island,  common  W.  V., 
Dec.  5-Apl.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.  and  W.  V.,  Nov.-May.  Cambridge, 
rather  common,  T.  V.  and  W.  V.,  Nov.  15-Apl.  1.  N.  Ohio,  not  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  10-30;  Oct.  5-Nov.  20.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Mch.  23. 

Nest,  in  a  stump  or  hollow  tree.  Eggs,  6-10,  pale  greenish,  2'35  x  1*75 
Date,  Upton,  Maine.,  May  10;  Sweetwater  Lake,  N.  D.,  May  14. 

The  rapidly  moving  wings  of  most  Ducks  make  a  whistling  sound, 
but  this  species  excels  in  wing  music.  As  a  diver  it  can  also  claim  high 
rank.  Brewster  records  a  brood  of  young  birds  which,  in  response  to 
the  calls  of  their  mother  at  the  base  of  the  nest-tree,  jumped  from  the 
nest-opening  to  the  water  twelve  feet  below.  (See  his  important  paper, 
Auk,  XVII,  1900,  pp.  207-216.)  "The  note  of  the  male  Whistler  is  a  single 
peep,  accompanied  by  a  kicking  up  of  the  feet,  while  the  head  is  thrown 
far  back  toward  the  tail.  The  duck,  when  startled  or  lost,  calls  out  a 
sharp  cur-wew."  (Eaton.) 

1910.   TOWNSEND,  C.  W.,  Auk,  XXVII,  177-181  (courtship). 

152.  Clangula  islandica  (Gmel.}.    BARROW'S  GOLDEN-EYE.    Ad.  &. — 
Head  and  throat  dark,  glossy,  purplish  blue,  an  irregular,  somewhat  spread- 
wing-shsLiped  white  patch  at  the  base  of  the  bill  measuring,  along  the  bill, 
about  one  inch  in  height;  neck  all  around,  breast,  belly,  speculum,  lesser 
wing-coverts,  ends  of  greater  ones,  and  the  shaft  part  of  the  scapulars  white; 
rest  cf  plumage  black.    Ad.  9. — Resembles  the  9  of  the  preceding  species 
but  has  the  bill  shorter  and  more  tapering,  with  more  or  less  yellow  instead 
of  brown;  brown  of  head  and  neck  darker;  ashy  on  chest  broader  and  more 
pronounced;  greater  wing-coverts  usually  tipped  with  black.  (W.  Brewster, 
Auk,  1909,  158).    W.,  9'25;  B.,  from  anterior  margin  of  white  patch  to  ante- 
rior margin  of  nostril,  '80;  from  anterior  margin  of  nostril  to  tip,  '66. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  cen.  Alaska  and  nw.  Mackenzie  to 
s.  Ore.,  and  s.  Colo.,  and  from  n.  Ungava  to  cen.  Quebec;  winters  from  se. 
Alaska,  cen.  Mont.,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  s.  to  cen. 
Calif.,  s.  Colo.,  Nebr.,  and  New  England;  accidental  in  Europe;  breeds 
commonly  in  Iceland  and  is  a  rare  visitor  to  Greenland. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  one  record.  Long  Island,  one  record.  N.  Ohio, 
casual  T.  V.  SE.  Minn.,  rare  W.  R. 

Nest,  in  a  stump  or  hollow  tree.  Eggs,  6-10,  pale  greenish,  2*40  x  1*70. 
Date,  Iceland,  May  30;  Flathead  Valley,  Mont.,  May  14. 

A  more  northern  species  than  the  preceding,  which  it  doubtless 
resembles  in  habits. 

153.  Charitonetta  albeola  (Linn.).    BUFFLEHEAD.     Ad.  <?. — A  broad 
white  band  passes  around  back  of  head  from  eye  to  eye;  rest  of  head,  upper 
neck,  and  throat  beautifully  glossed  with  purple,  greenish  and  bluish;  lower 
neck  all  around,  breast,  belly,  wing-coverts,  speculum  and  outer  scapulars 
white;  back  black;  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail  ashy  grayish.     Ad.   9. — A 
vvhite  patch  on  either  side  of  head,  throat  and  entire  upperparts  fuscous- 


BAY  AND   SEA   DUCKS  205 

brown;  speculum,  breast  and  belly  white.  L.,  14'75;  W.,  6*50;  Tar.,  1'25 
B.,  1-05. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  the  upper  Yukon  (rarely  Yukon  mouth), 
the  lower  Mackenzie,  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  cen.  Keewatin  s.  to  B.  C.,  n. 
Mont.,  and  cen.  Ont.;  winters  from  the  Aleutian  Islands,  B.  C.,  Idaho, 
Colo.,  Mo.,  s.  Mich.,  w.  N.  Y.,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  n.  L.  Calif.,  cen. 
Mex.  (Jalisco),  and  Fla.;  recorded  from  Hawaii,  Greenland,  N.  F.,  N.  S., 
Bermuda,  and  Great  Britain. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Sept.-Apl.  Long  Island,  rather  common 
W.  V.,  Dec.  8- Apl.  6.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.  Cambridge,  T. 
V.  in  autumn  (W.  V.?),  Oct,  30-Nov.  15.  N.  Ohio,  common,  T.  V.,  Mch. 
25-May  1;  Oct.  15-Nov.  30.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  in  April.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  3. 

Nest,  in  a  stump  or  hollow  tree.  Eggs,  6-12,  dull  light  buff,  T98  x  1*46 
(Ridgw.).  Date,  Fort  Simpson,  Mack.,  May  25. 

This  small  Duck  has  won  deserved  distinction  through  its  powers 
as  a  diver.  Like  the  Grebes,  it  "dives  at  the  flash,"  though  this  well- 
worn  expression  has  lost  half  its  meaning  since  flintlocks  and  percus- 
sion caps  have  become  things  of  the  past.  The  Bufflehead  feeds  to 
some  extent  on  small  fish,  which  it  pursues  and  catches  under  water. 

154.  Harelda  hy emails  (Linn.).  OLD  SQUAW.  Ad.  &  in  winter. — 
Sides  of  front  of  head  washed  with  grayish  brown ;  sides  of  back  of  head  and 
sides  of  upper  neck  black,  more  or  less  margined  with  ochraceous;  rest  of 
head,  neck  all  around,  upper  back,  scapulars,  and  lower  belly  white;  back, 
breast,  and  upper  belly  black;  tail  pointed,  middle  feathers  very  long  and 
narrow;  band  across  end  of  bill  yellowish  orange.  Ad.  <?  in  summer. — Sides 
of  the  front  of  head  white;  rest  of  head,  neck,  throat,  breast  and  upper  belly 
black;  back  and  scapulars  black,  the  latter  margined  with  dark  buffy  ochra- 
ceous; lower  belly  white;  tail  and  bill  as  in  preceding.  9  in  winter. — Upper- 
parts  black  or  fuscous;  scapulars  and  upper  back  more  or  less  margined 
with  grayish  or  grayish  brown;  sides  of  head  and  neck  and  sometimes  back 
of  neck  white  or  whitish;  breast  grayish;  belly  white;  tail  pointed,  but  with- 
out long  feathers  of  male;  under  wing-coverts  dark.  Ad.  9  in  summer. — 
Generally  similar  to  above,  but  sides  of  head  and  throat  mostly  blackish, 
and  feathers  of  upperparts  more  or  less  margined  with  ochraceous.  L.,  d% 
21-00,  9,  16-00;  W.,  8'60;  T.,  d%  8'00,  9,  2'50;  B.,  1'05. 

Remarks. — The  male  Old  Squaw  is  too  distinct  to  be  confused  with  any 
other  species,  its  long  tail-feathers  being  its  most  striking  character;  the 
female  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  female  of  the  Harlequin  Duck,  but 
has  the  belly  pure  white  instead  of  grayish  dusky. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.  breeds  from  islands  of  Bering  Sea, 
Arctic  coast  of  Alaska,  Melville  Island,  Wellington  Channel,  Grinnell 
Land,  and  n.  Greenland  s.  to  Aleutian  Islands,  e.  cen.  Mackenzie,  n.  Hudson 
Bay,  and  se.  Ungava;  winters  from  the  Aleutian  Islands  s.  regularly  to 
Wash,  rarely  to  San  Diego  Bay,  Calif.,  and  in  s.  Greenland,  and  from  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  s.  regularly  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  N.  C.,  and  rarely  to 
Colo.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  Fla. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.,  Oct.  20-Apl.  20.  Long  Island,  abundant 
W.  V.,  Oct.  15-May  1.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  W.  V.,  Dec.  4- Apl. 
6.  Cambridge,  rather  common  in  Oct.  and  Nov.  N.  Ohio,  irregular  W.  V., 
Nov.  1-Apl.  16. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  near  water,  under  low  bushes  or  tall  grasses.  Eggs, 
6-12,  pale  bluish  tinged  with  olive,  2'05  x  1*49.  Date,  Disco  Bay,  Green- 
land, June  15. 

In  The  Auk  for  1892,  pp.  330-337,  George  H.  Mackay  gives  a  capital 
account  of  the  habits  of  this  species  in  our  waters.  He  speaks  of  them 


206  BAY  AND  SEA   DUCKS 

as  the  swiftest  flying  as  well  as  the  noisiest  (in  the  spring)  of  all  the 
sea-fowl  which  tarry  with  us,  and  gives  their  curious  scolding  or  talking 
notes  as  o-onc-o-onc-ough,  egh-ough-egh.  Their  flight  is  generally  near 
the  water,  and  when  shot  at  while  flying  they  sometimes  dive  from  the 
wing.  He  also  mentions  their  habit  of  towering,  "usually  in  the  after- 
noon, collecting  in  mild  weather  in  large  flocks  if  undisturbed,  and 
going  up  in  circles  so  high  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible,  often  coming 
down  with  a  rush  and  great  velocity,  a  portion  of  the  flock  scattering 
and  coming  down  in  a  zigzag  course  similar  to  the  Scoters  when  whistled 
down." 

155.  Histrionicus  histrionicus  (Linn.}.    HARLEQUIN  DUCK.    Ad.  d". 

Center  of  the  crown  black,  margined  by  white  and  rufous;  front  of  sides 
of  head,  a  spot  on  ear,  a  stripe  back  of  it,  and  a  collar  around  back  and  sides 
of  neck  white ;  rest  of  head  and  throat  rich  slaty  blue ;  a  band  in  front  of  the 
wing  white,  margined  with  black;  inner  scapulars  white;  back  and  breast 
bluish  slate;  belly  fuscous;  sides  rufous-chestnut.  Ad.  9. — Front  of  head 
whitish;  a  white  spot  on  ears;  upperparts  brownish  fuscous;  throat,  breast 
and  sides  lighter;  belly  grayish  brown,  margined  with  whitish.  L.,  17*00; 
W.,  7'80;  Tar.,  1'50;  B.,  i'05. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.,  arid  E.  Asia.  Breeds  from  the  Kowak  and  Yukon 
rivers,  Alaska,  Arctic  coast,  and  Greenland  s.  to  sw.  B.  C.,  cen.  Mackenzie; 
n.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.,  and  s.  in  the  mts.,  to  cen.  Calif.,  sw.  Colo.,  ne.  Asia, 
and  Iceland;  occurs  in  summer  in  flocks  near  the  Pribilof  and  Aleutian 
Islands  and  on  the  coast  of  Wash. ;  winters  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  the 
Aleutian  Islands  to  Monterey,  Calif.,  in  the  interior  to  Colo.,  Mo.,  Lake 
Michigan,  and  w.  N.  Y.,  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
regularly  to  Maine,  rarely  to  N.  J.,  and  accidentally  to  Fla.;  accidental  in 
Europe  and  not  rare  in  Asia  south  to  Japan. 

Long  Island,  rare  W.  V. 

Nest,  near  water,  on  the  ground,  "under  rocks  or  driftwood,"  or  in  a 
hollow  stump.  Eggs,  6-8,  yellowish  buff  or  greenish  yellow,  2'30  x  1*62 
(Davie).  Date,  Holsteinborg,  Greenland,  June  24. 

Unlike  other  members  of  this  subfamily,  this  species  passes  the 
breeding  season  on  rapid  dashing  streams,  but  during  the  winter  it 
occurs  as  a  Sea  Duck  off  our  more  northern  coasts. 

1896.   NORTON,  A.  H.,  Auk,  XIII,  229-234  (habits  in  Maine). 

156.  Camptorhynchus  labradorius  (Gmel.).    LABRADOR  DUCK.    Ad. 
d". — Center  of  crown  black;  rest  of  head,  throat  and  upper  neck  white;  a 
black  band  around  lower  neck  connected   behind  with  the  black  back; 
primaries  fuscous,  rest  of  wing  white;  front  and  sides  of  upper  breast  white, 
lower  breast  and  belly  black.     Ad.    9. — Brownish  gray,   speculum  white, 
Im.  cf. — Like  9,  but  with  throat  and  ends  of  greater  wing-coverts  white. 
L.,  20-00;  W.,  8-40;  Tar.,  1'50;  B.,  1'58. 

Range. — Formerly,  n.  Atlantic  coasts  of  N.  A.;  supposed  to  have  bred  in 
Labrador;  wintered  from  N.  S.  to  N.  J.;  now  extinct. 
Nesting,  unknown. 

William  Dutcher  (1891)  quotes  the  late  George  N.  Lawrence,  as 
follows:  "I  recollect  that  about  forty  or  more  years  ago  it  was  not 
unusual  to  see  them  in  Fulton  Market,  and  without  doubt  killed  on 
Long  Island;  at  one  time  I  remember  seeing  six  fine  males,  which  hung 
in  the  market  until  spoiled  for  want  of  a  purchaser;  they  were  not 


BAY  AND    SEA   DUCKS  207 

jonsidered  desirable  for  the  table,  and  collectors  had  a  sufficient  number, 
at  that  time  a  pair  being  considered  enough  to  represent  a  species  in  a 
3ollection." 

The  cause  of  this  Duck's  extinction  is  unknown.  The  last  speci- 
men, so  far  as  known,  was  taken  at  Grand  Menan  in  1871.  Forty-three 
specimens  have  been  recorded  as  existing  in  collections. 

1891.    BUTCHER,  W.,  Auk,  VIII,  201-216;    1894.    XI,  4-12  (history). 

STELLER'S  EIDER  (157.  Polysticta  stelleri],  a  North  Pacific  species,  is 
of  accidental  occurrence  in  Greenland  and  Quebec. 

159.  Somateria   mollissima  borealis    (Brehm).     NORTHERN  EIDER. 
Ad.  cf . — Top  of  head  black,  a  greenish  white  line  on  the  crown;  rest  of  head, 
throat,  neck,  upper  breast,  back,  scapulars  and  lesser  wing-coverts  white, 
tinged  with  greenish  on  sides  and  back  of  head,  and  with  vinaceous  on 
breast;  middle  of  rump,  upper  and  under  tail-coverts,  lower  breast  and  belly 
black.    Ad.  9. — Head,  throat  and  neck  buffy  ochraceous,  darker  above  and 
streaked  with  black;  back  black,  feathers  all  widely  margined,  and  some- 
times partly  barred  with  buffy  ochraceous;  breast  buffy  ochraceous,  barred 
with  black;  belly  grayish  brown  or  olive-brown,  indistinctly  margined  or 
barred  with  buffy.    Im. — Similar,  but  distinctly  marked  with  buffy.    L., 
23-00;  W.,  ll'OO;  Tar.,  1'80;  B.,  2'10. 

Range. — NE.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  Ellesmere  Land  and  both  coasts  of 
Greenland  s.  to  nw.- Hudson  Bay  and  s.  Ungava;  winters  in  s.  Greenland 
and  s.  rarely  to  Mass. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  amid  coarse  herbage  and  rocks.  Eggs,  5-8,  pale 
bluish  or  greenish,  tinged  with  olive,  2'95  x  2'00.  Date,  Shertook  Is., 
Greenland,  June  20. 

This  is  the  American  representative  of  the  Eider  Duck  of  northern 
Europe,  from  which  it  differs  only  slightly.  The  highly  prized  Eider 
down  is  taken  from  the  nest  of  this  bird  and  its  allies.  As  incubation 
progresses  the  sitting  bird  plucks  the  down  from  her  breast  to  serve 
as  a  nest  lining.  In  Iceland,  according  to  Saunders,  the  average  yield 
from  each  nest  is  about  one-sixth  of  a  pound.  When  the  females  begin 
to  sit  the  males  leave  them,  and,  gathering  in  small  flocks,  live  at  sea. 

160.  Somateria  dresseri  Sharpe.     AMERICAN  EIDER.     Resembles  the 
preceding  in  color,  but  differs  in  the  feathering  of  the  base  of  the  culmen. 
In  both  species  the  culmen  is  divided  by  a  wedge  of  feathers  reaching  forward 
from  the  forehead.    Looked  at  from  the  tip  of  the  bill,  the  base  of  the  cul- 
men is  thus  V-shaped.    In  dresseri  the  arms  of  the  V  are  very  broad  and 
rounded  at  the  ends,  while  in  borealis  they  are  much  narrower  and  generally 
pointed  at  the  ends.   L.,  23'00;  W.,  11'30;  Tar.,  1'70;  B.,  2'10. 

Range. — NE.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  Ungava  and  N.  F.,  to  se.  Maine, 
and  on  the  s.  half  of  Hudson  Bay;  winters  from  N.  F.,  and  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  s.  on  Atlantic  coast,  regularly  to  Mass.,  rarely  to  Va.,  and  in 
interior  rarely  to  Colo.,  Iowa,  Wise.,  Ohio,  and  w.  N.  Y. 

Long  Island,  rare  W.  V.    Ossining,  A.  V.,  Dec. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  generally  sheltered  by  rocks.  Eggs,  5-8,  pale  bluish 
or  greenish,  tinged  with  olive,  3*00  x  2'00.  Date,  Labrador,  June  5. 

This  species  nests  from  the  coast  of  Maine  northward,  and  is  there- 
fore a  species  of  more  southern  distribution  than  the  preceding,  which 
it  resembles  in  habits.  During  their  visits  to  the  coasts  of  the  United 
States  the  Eiders  are  true  Sea  Ducks,  living  some  distance  off  shore, 


208  BAY   AND  SEA   DUCKS 

generally  over  a  bed  of  mussels,  which  they  secure  by  diving,  and  which 
constitute  their  chief  food. 

1890.  MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  VII,  315-319  (habits  in  Mass.).  1910. 
TOWNSEND,  C.  W.,  Auk,  XXVII,  177-181  (courtship). 

162.  Somateria  spectafoilis  (Linn.).     KING  EIDER.     Ad.  d". — Region 

about  base  of  upper  mandible  and  a  large  V-shaped  mark  on  throat  black; 
top  of  head  bluish  gray;  cheeks  greenish;  neck  all  around  white;  front  and 
sides  of  breast  creamy  buff;  upper  back,  sides  of  rump,  and  wing-coverts 
white;  rest  of  plumage  black.  Ad.  9. — Head  and  throat  buffy  ochracepus, 
the  former  streaked  with  black;  back  black,  the  feathers  widely  margined 
with  ochraceous  or  rufous;  underparts  varying  from  brownish  gray  to  fus- 
cous, more  or  less  washed,  especially  on  breast,  with  ochraceous  or  rufous. 
Im. — Paler  and  with  less  ochraceous.  L.,  23'00;  W.,  10*80;  Tar.,  1'80;  B., 
1-30. 

Remarks. — The  adult  male  of  this  species  may  at  once  be  known  by  its 
bluish  gray  head  and  the  V-shaped  mark  on  its  throat.  Females  and  young 
birds  resemble  those  of  the  two  preceding  species,  but  are  to  be  distinguished 
by  the  generally  unstreaked  throat  and  the  feathering  of  the  side  of  the  base 
of  the  bill,  which  in  this  species  does  not,  as  in  the  two  preceding,  reach  to 
the  nostril. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  along  the  whole  coast  of  n. 
Siberia,  Bering  Sea  (St.  Lawrence  Island),  and  Arctic  coast  of  Am.  from 
Icy  Cape  e.  to  Melville  Island,  Wellington  Channel,  n.  Greenland,  nw. 
Hudson  Bay,  and  n.  Ungava ;  winters  on  Pacific  coast  from  Aleutian  Islands 
to  Kadiak  Island,  in  the  interior  rarely  to  the  Great  Lakes,  and  from  s. 
Greenland  and  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  s.  regularly  to  Long  Island,  rarely  to 
Ga. ;  accidental  in  Calif,  and  Iowa. 

Long  Island,  rare  but  regular  W.  V.,  Nov.  13-Apl.  21.  Cambridge, 
casual  in  early  winter. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  among  rocks  or  herbage.  Eggs,  6-10,  light  olive- 
gray  to  grayish  green,  3'12  x  1'92  (Davie).  Date,  Pt.  Barrow,  Alaska, 
June  25. 

While  in  our  waters  this  species  does  not  differ  from  the  preceding 
in  habits. 

163.  Oidemia   americana   Swains.     AMERICAN   SCOTER.     Ad.    <?. — 
Entire  plumage  black,  feathers  on  side  of  bill  extending  little  if  any  forward 
beyond  corner  of  mouth;  bill  black;  upper  mandible  orange  or  yellowish  at 
the  base.    Ad.   9  and  Im. — Above  chest  and  sides  grayish  brown;  cheeks 
whitish,    sharply   denned   from   crown;   belly   whitish   faintly  barred   with 
dusky.    L.,  19'00;  W.,  9'00;  Tar.,  1'70;  B.  along  culmen,  1'75;  B.  along  side, 
1-85. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  and  E.  Asia.  Breeds  in  ne.  Asia  and  Kotzebue 
Sound  to  Aleutian  Islands,  including  Near  Islands;  also  on  w.  shore  of 
Hudson  Bay,  Ungava,  and  N.  F. ;  winters  on  Asiatic  coast  to  Japan  and  from 
islands  of  Bering  Sea  s.  rarely  to  Santa  Catalina  Island,  Calif. ;  in  the  interior 
not  rare  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  casual  or  accidental  in  Mo.,  La.,  Nebr., 
Colo.,  and  Wyo.;  on  the  Atlantic  coast  abundant  during  migration  from 
N.  F.,  and  Maine,  s.  (rarely  to  Fla.). 

Washington,  casual  W.  V.  Long  Island,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  through 
Apl.  Ossiriing,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct.  Cambridge,  occasional  in  fall. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  near  water.  Eggs,  "6-10,  pale  dull  buff  or  pale 
brownish  buff,  2'55  x  T80"  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Cape  Lisburne,  Alaska,  June  15. 

All  three  species  of  Surf  Scoters,  or  "Coots,"  are  abundant  winter 
residents  off  the  coasts  of  the  New  England  and  Middle  States.  At  this 
time  their  habits  are  practically  alike — indeed,  they  are  often  found 


BAY  AND  SEA  DUCKS  209 

associated.  As  a  rule,  they  frequent  only  the  sea  and  its  estuaries, 
where  they  live  over  beds  of  mussels,  clams,  or  scallops,  which  they 
obtain  by  diving;  but  they  are  sometimes  found  in  ponds  near  the 
coast  where  food  of  this  nature  is  abundant. 

The  flight  of  the  Surf  Scoter  "is  marked  by  a  shrill  whistling,  and 
when  the  birds  are  in  large  numbers  this  sound  is  heard  a  long  distance 
off."  (Sanford.) 

1891.  MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  VIII,  279-290;  IX,  292-294  (habits  in 
Mass.). 

The  VELVET  SCOTER  (164.  Oidemia  fusca),  an  Old  World  species,  has 
been  recorded  from  Greenland. 

165.  Oidemia  deglandi  Bonap.     WHITE-WINGED  SCOTER.     Ad.  cf. — 
A  spot  below  eye  and  speculum  white,  rest  of  plumage  black;  bill  orange, 
black  at  base,  the  feathers  on  it  reaching  forward  far  beyond  corners  of 
mouth.    Ad.  9  and  Im.  &. — Grayish  or  fuscous-brown,  lighter  below;  specu- 
lum white,  feathers  at  base  of  upper  bill  and  a  spot  on  the  ears  whitish.    L., 
22-00;  W.,  ll'OO;  Tar.,  2'00;  B.  along  culmen,  1'50;  B.  along  side,  1'55. 

Remarks. — The  white  speculum  and  feathering  of  the  bill  will  always 
serve  to  distinguish  this  species  from  its  allies. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  the  coast  of  ne.  Siberia,  n.  Alaska,  n. 
Mackenzie,  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  cen.  B.  C.,  Alberta,  n.  N.  D.,  and  s.  Que. ; 
winters  on  the  Asiatic  coast  to  Bering  I.,  Japan,  and  China,  and  in 
N.  A.,  from  Unalaska  Island  to  San  Quintin  Bay,  L.  Calif.,  the  Great 
Lakes  (casually  to  Colo.,  Nebr.,  and  La.),  and  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  s.  (rarely)  to  Fla. ;  non-breeding  birds  o'ccur  in  summer 
as  far  s.  as  R.  I.,  and  Monterey,  Calif. 

Washington,  casual  W.  V.,  Oct.-Apl.  Long  Island,  common  W.  V., 
Oct.  15-Apl.  13.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.  Cambridge,  occasional 
in  fall.  SE.  Minn.,  casual  W.  R. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  beneath  bushes,  or  in  high  growth.  Eggs,  "6-14, 
pale  dull  buff,  varying  to  cream-color,  2*68  x  1*83"  (Ridgw.).  Date, 
N.  D.,  June  20. 

166.  Oidemia    perspicillata    (Linn.}.       SURF   SCOTER.       Ad.    <?. — A 
square  mark  on  crown  and  a  triangular  one  on  nape  white,  rest  of  plumage 
black;  bill  with  white,  red  and    yellow,  a  black  spot  on  its  side  at  base; 
feathers  on  culmen  extending  nearly  to  a  level  with  nostril,  feathers  on  side 
of  bill  not  extending  forward.    Ad.  9.  and  Im. — A  whitish  spot  at  base  of 
the  bill  and  on  ears;  upperparts  fuscous-brown;  throat,  breast,  sides   and 
lower  belly  grayer,  belly  white.    L.,  20'00;  W.,  9'30;  Tar.,  1'60;  B.  along 
culmen,  1'55;  B.  along  side  2'30. 

Remarks. — The  forward  extension  of  the  feathers  on  the  culmen  will 
always  distinguish  this  species  from  O.  americana,  while  it  may  be  known 
from  deglandi  by  the  absence  of  white  in  the  wings. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  Kotzebue  Sound  to 
Sitka,  and  from  nw.  Mackenzie  and  Hudson  Strait  to  Great  Slave  Lake, 
cen.  Keewatin,  and  n.  Quebec;  non-breeding  birds  occur  in  summer  in  ne. 
Siberia  and  s.  on  the  Pacific  coast  to  L.  Calif.,  and  in  Greenland  and  s.  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  to  L.  L;  winters  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  the 
Aleutian  Islands  s.  to  San  Quintin  Bay,  L.  Calif.,  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
s.  casually  to  Colo.,  Kans.,  Iowa,  Ills.,  and  La.;  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
from  N.  S.  to  N.  C.,  rarely  to  Fla.;  casual  in  Bermuda;  frequent  in 
Europe. 

Washington,  casual  W.  V.  until  Apl.  Long  Island,  common  W.  V., 
Sept.  1-Apl.  13.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Oct.  7-Oct.  22.  Cambridge, 
occasional  in  fall. 


210  GEESE 

Nest,  in  tall  grasses  near  water.  Eggs,  "5-8,  pale  buff  or  pale  creamy  buff, 
2'47  x  IWCRidgw.).  Date,  Fort  Anderson,  Mack.,  June  25. 

167.  Erismatura  jamaicensis  (GmeL).  RUDDY  DUCK.  Ad.  d*. — Top 
of  head  black,  cheeks  and  chin  white,  throat  and  back  rufous-chestnut, 
lower  back  blackish;  breast  and  belly  silvery  white;  upper  tail-coverts  very 
short,  tail-feathers  stiff  and  pointed;  bill  blue.  Ad.  9  and  Im. — Upperparts 
dark  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  marked  with  fine  wavy  bars  of  buffy; 
sides  of  head  and  upper  throat  whitish,  lower  throat  grayish,  rest  of  under- 
parts  silvery  white.  L.,  15'00;  W.,  5'90;  Tar.,  1'15;B.,  1'55. 

Remarks. — The  short  upper  tail-coverts  and  stiff,  pointed  tail-feathers 
will  always  serve  to  identify  this  species. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  Great  Slave  Lake,  s.  Keewatin, 
and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  n.  L.  Calif.,  cen.  Ariz.,  n.  N.  Mex.,  nw.  Nebr.,  s.  Minn., 
s.  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  and  Maine,  and  rarely  and  locally  in  s.  L.  Calif.,  Kans., 
Mass.,  Valley  of  Mex.,  Lake  Dueiias,  Guatemala,  and  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
and  Carriacou;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Ariz.,  N.  Mex.,  s.  Ills.,  Maine,  Pa. 
and  s.  to  the  Lesser  Antilles  and  Costa  Rica;  rare  in  migration  to  N.  F.  and 
Bermuda. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Aug.  20- June  21.  Long  Island,  irregular 
T.  V.  and  W.  V.,  Oct.  17-May  22.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  14-Apl.  6; 
Oct.  5-Oct.  28.  Cambridge,  formerly  very  common  in  fall;  Oct.  10-Nov.  8. 
N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  1-May  15;  Oct.  10-Nov.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare 
T.  V.,  Mch.  21-May  21.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V.,  and  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  14. 

Nest,  of  reeds,  in  reeds  over  water.  Eggs,  6-10,  white,  2*50  x  1*80. 
Date,  N.  D.,  June  10. 

This  plump  little  Duck  swims  jauntily  with  upturned  tail.  When 
pursued  it  dives,  unless  too  hard  pressed,  and  then,  after  pattering 
over  the  water,  it  takes  to  the  air,  with  rapidly  whirring  wings  and  low, 
straight  flight  which  suggests  that  of  a  great  bumblebee.  The  male, 
in  breeding  plumage,  is  unmistakable  and  its  bright,  sky-blue  bill  is 
distinguishable  from  a  distance. 

The  MASKED  DUCK  (168.  Nomonyx  dominions)  is  a  tropical  species  rare 
north  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Single  specimens  have  been  taken  in  Wisconsin, 
Massachusetts,  Vermont,  and  Maryland. 

Subfamily  Anserince.    Geese. 

Excluding  the  members  of  the  subfamilies  Anseranatinoz  and  Plec- 
tropterince  we  have  left  the  true  Geese,  numbering  twenty-five 
species,  which  are  included  in  the  present  subfamily.  With  Geese  the 
sexes  are  alike  in  color.  The  male  is  the  larger  and  he  takes  part  in 
incubation  and  in  the  care  of  the  young. 

Geese  are  vegetarians.  When  on  the  water,  they  feed  largely  by 
tipping,  as  with  head  and  neck  immersed  and  tail  pointing  skyward, 
they  search  for  the  roots  or  seeds  of  aquatic  plants.  They  are  far  more 
terrestrial  than  Ducks,  and  visit  the  land  to  nip  the  herbage,  young 
corn,  or  cereals.  When  wounded,  they  dive  readily  and,  with  their 
body  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water  and  only  the  bill  exposed, 
head  for  the  shore,  where  they  attempt  to  hide  in  the  vegetation.  In 
migrating,  the  flock  is  formed  in  a  V-shaped  wedge,  the  lead,  it  is  said, 
being  taken  by  an  old  gander. 


GEESE  211 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

I.  Whole  head  or  forehead  white. 

A.  Bill  yellowish. 

a.  Forehead  and  feathers  at  the  base  of  bill  white. 

17 la.  WHITE-FRONTED  GOOSE   (Ad.). 
6.  Head  and  neck  white  or  grayish)  sometimes  tinged  with  rusty. 

61.  Primaries  black,  rest  of  plumage  white. 

169.  LESSER  SNOW  GOOSE.     169a.  GREATER  SNOW  GOOSE. 

62.  Back  grayish  brown,  rump  and  belly  whitish,  wing-coverts  and 

tertials  widely  margined  with  white  .  .  169.  LESSER    SNOW 
GOOSE  (Im.).     169a.  GREATER  SNOW  GOOSE   (Im.). 

63.  Back  grayish  brown,  rump,  belly  and  wing-coverts  gray,  the 

latter  not  conspicuously  margined  with  white. 

169.1.  BLUE  GOOSE  (Ad.). 

B.  Bill  black,  throat  and  sides  of  the  head  white,  lores  black. 

175.  BARNACLE  GOOSE. 
II.  Head  or  forehead  not  white. 

1.  Head  and  neck  brown,  bill  yellow  or  yellowish. 

A.  Nail  of  bill  black,  rump  fuscous. 

171a.  WHITE-FRONTED  GOOSE  (Im.). 

B.  Nail  of  bill  yellow,  rump  gray 169.1.  BLUE  GOOSE  (Im.). 

2.  Head  black  or  brownish  black,  bill  black. 

A.  Throat  white  .  .  172.  CANADA  GOOSE.     172a.  HUTCHINS'S  GOOSE. 

B.  Throat  black  or  brownish  black,  neck  speckled  with  white. 

a.  Belly    white 173.    BRANT. 

6.  Belly  brownish  gray 174.  BLACK  BRANT 

169.  Chen  liyperboreus  hyperboreus  (Pall.}.  LESSER  SNOW  GOOSE. 
Ads. — Entire  plumage,  except  primaries  with  their  coverts,  white;  pri- 
maries black,  their  bases  and  coverts  ashy.  Im. — "Head,  neck  and  upperparts 
pale  grayish,  the  feathers  of  the  latter  with  whitish  edges  and  (especially 
wing-coverts  and  tertials)  striped  medially  with  darker;  rump,  upper  tail- 
coverts,  tail  and  lower  parts  plain  white.  L.,  23'00-28'00;  W.,  14'50-17'00; 
B.,  1-95-2-30;  Tar.,  2-80-3'25"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  e.  probably  to 
Coronation  Gulf  and  Melville  Island;  occurs  on  the  Arctic  coast  of  ne.  Asia, 
but  not  known  to  breed  there;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Colo.,  and  s.  Ills.  s. 
to  n.  L.  Calif.,  cen  Mex.  (Jalisco),  Tex.,  and  La.,  and  on  the  Asiatic  coast 
s.  to  Japan;  generally  rare  in  e.  U.  S. 
SE.  Minn.,  T.  V. 

Eggs,  uniform  dirty,  chalky  white,  3'40  x  2'20  (B.,  B.,  and  R.).  Date, 
Pt.  Barrow,  Alaska,  June  18. 

169a.  C.  h.  nivalis  (Forst.).  GREATER  SNOW  GOOSE.  Resembles  the 
preceding  in  color,  but  is  larger.  L.,  30'00-38'00;  W.,  17'35-17'50;  B.,  2'55- 
2-70;  Tar.,  3'15-3'50  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Has  been  found  breeding  at  Whale  Sound,  n.  Green- 
land, and  Ellesmere  Land;  full  breeding  range  not  known;  winters  from  s. 
Ills.,  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  Mass,  (rarely)  s.  to  La.,  Fla.,  and  West  Indies  to 
Porto  Rico;  in  migration  rarely  w.  to  Colo.,  and  e.  to  New  England  and  N.  F. 

Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  in  fall,   Oct.8-Jan.  30.    Ossining,  A.  V.,  Apl. 

Nesting  date,  Admiralty  Bay,  Alaska,  June  17,  1898  (Norris) ;  Mackenzie 
Bay,  June  15  (Thayer  Coll.). 

The  Snow  Goose  does  not  appear  to  be  a  common  bird  on  any  part 
of  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  migrates  both  by  night  and  day,  and  when 
on  the  wing  its  white  plumage  and  black-tipped  primaries  render  it 
easily  identifiable.  It  is  a  noisier  bird  than  the  Canada  Goose,  and  its 
voice  is  higher  and  more  cackling. 
1G 


212  GEESE 

169.1.  Chen  caerulescens  (Linn.).  BLUE  GOOSE.  Ads. — Head  and 
upper  neck  white;  middle  of  hindneck  sometimes  blackish,  lower  neck  all 
around  fuscous,  rest  of  underparts  brownish  gray  edged  with  buffy;  lower 
belly  generally  paler,  sometimes  white ;  upper  back  and  scapulars  like  breast  ; 
lower  back,  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  gray;  tail  fuscous-gray  edged  with 
whitish;  wing-coverts  like  the  rump  or  slightly  darker,  with  little  or  no 
whitish  margins;  wing-quills  and  tertials  fuscous,  the  latter  more  or  less 
margined  with  whitish.  Im. — "Similar  to  adult,  but  head  and  neck  uniform 
deep  grayish  brown,  only  the  chin  being  white.  L.,  26'50-30'00;  W.,  15'00- 
IT'OO;  B.,  2-10-2-30;  Tar.,  3'00-3'30"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeding  range  unknown,  but  probably  interior 
of  n.  Ungava;  winters  from  Nebr.  and  s.  Ills.  s.  to  coasts  of  Tex.  and  La.; 
rare  or  casual  in  migration  in  Calif.,  and  from  N.  H.  to  Fla.,  Cuba,  and  the 
Bahamas. 

Long  Island,  one  record.  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V. 

Nest,  in  a  depression  on  dried  grass.  Eggs,  4,  "brownish  buff,  2'50  x 
1-75"  (Reed).  Date,  Cape  Bathurst,  June  29  (Thayer  Coll.). 

The  fact  that  the  summer  home  of  the  Blue  Goose  is  in  the  far 
north  while  its  winter  range  is  remarkably  restricted,  has  brought  the 
bird  to  the  attention  of  comparatively  few  ornithologists.  In  consequence 
it  has  until  recently  been  considered  a  rare  species.  During  the  winter 
of  1910,  however,  it  was  found  in  flocks  of  thousands  at  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi  River  by  Job  and  by  McAtee  (Auk,  1910,  p.  337).  Here  they 
were  doing  great  damage  to  pasture  lands,  through  their  destruction 
of  various  grasses. 

171a.  Anser  albifrons  gambeli  Hartl.  WHITE-FRONTED  GOOSE.  Ads. 
— Forehead  and  region  bordering  base  of  bill  white;  upperparts  and  fore- 
neck  grayish  brown,  more  or  less  margined  on  back  with  lighter;  longer  and 
lateral  upper  tail-coverts  white;  breast  somewhat  lighter  than  throat,  more 
or  less  irregularly  marked  with  black,  and  fading  gradually  into  pure  white 
on  lower  belly;  sides  like  back.  Im. — Similar,  but  no  white  at  base  of  bill 
or  black  marks  on  breast;  nail  of  the  bill  black.  "L.,  27'00-30'00;  W., 
14-25-17'SO;  B.,  l'80-2'35;  depth  of  mandible  at  base,  -90-1'20;  width, 
•85-1-05;  Tar.,  2'60-3'20" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Cen.  and  w.  N.  A.  Breeds  on  and  near  the  Arctic  coast  from 
ne.  Siberia  e.  to  ne.  Mackenzie  and  s.  to  lower  Yukon  Valley;  winters  com- 
monly from  s.  B.  C.  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  and  Jalisco,  and  rarely  from  s.  Ills.,  s 
Ohio,  and  N.  J.  s.  to  ne.  Mex.,  s.  Tex.,  and  Cuba,  and  on  the  Asiatic  coast 
to  China  and  Japan;  rare  in  migration  on  the  Atlantic  coast  n.  to  Ungava. 

Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  T.  V.,  Mch.  and  Oct.  SE. 
Minn.,  T.  V.,  Apl.  1. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  of  grasses  lined  with  down.  Eggs,  6-7,  dull  greenish 
yellow  with  obscure  darker  tints,  3*10  x  2*07  (Davie).  Date,  Pt.  Barrow, 
Alaska,  June  19. 

'  'These  birds  are  rarely  met  with  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  are 
quite  common  in  the  Misissippi  Valley  and  abundant  on  the  Pacific 
slojjj^.  They  prefer  low,  wet  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  timber,  or  where 
the  prairie  is  dotted  here  and  there  with  bushes;  and,  while  they  occas- 
ionally forage  off  the  wheat  fields  and  other  grains  on  the  bottom  lands, 
they  seldom  visit  the  high,  dry  prairies  like  the  Snow  and  Canada  Geese." 
(Goss.) 

The  EUROPEAN  WHITE-FRONTED  GOOSE  (171.  Anser  albifrons  albifrons) 
resembles  its  American  representative  in  color,  but  averages  smaller.  It  is 
of  doubtful  record  from  Eastern  Greenland. 


GEESE  213 

The  BEAN  GOOSE  (171-1  Anser  fabalis}  and  the  PINK-FOOTED  GOOSE 
(171.2  Anser  brachyrhynchus) ,  Old  World  species,  have  been  recorded  from 
Greenland. 

172.  Branta  canadensis  canadensis  (Linn.}.  CANADA  GOOSE.  Ads. 
— Throat  and  a  large  patch  on  side  of  head  behind  eye  white  or  whitish; 
chin  and  rest  of  head  and  neck  black;  back  and  wings  grayish  brown,  more 
or  less  edged  with  lighter;  tail  and  shorter  upper  tail-coverts  black,  longer 
and  lateral  ones  white;  breast  and  belly  grayish,  fading  to  white  on  lower 
belly;  sides  like  back.  Im. — Similar,  but  throat  and  cheeks  sometimes 
mixed  with  blackish.  "L.,  35'00-43'00;  W.,  15'60-21'00;  Tar.,  2'45-3'70; 
B.,  1-55-2-70"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  limit  of  trees  in  valley  of  the  lower  Yukon, 
nw.  Mackenzie,  and  cen.  Keewatin  s.  to  s.  Ore.,  n.  Colo.,  Nebr.,  and  Ind.; 
formerly  bred  casually  s.  to  N.  M.,  Kans.,  Tenn.,  and  Mass.;  winters  from 
s.  B.  C.,  s.  Colo.,  s.  Wise.,  s.  Ills.,  and  N.  J.  (rarely  s.  Ont.  and  N.  F.),  s.  to 
s.  Calif.,  Tex.,  and  Fla.;  accidental  in  Bermuda  and  Jamaica. 

Washington,  W.  V.  and  rather  common  T.  V.,  Oct.-Apl.  Long  Island., 
common  T.  V.,  Feb.  27-Apl.  28;  Oct.  1-Dec.  31;  some  W.  V.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  11-May  21;  Oct.  Cambridge,  not  uncommon 
T.  V.,  Mch.-ApL;  Nov.  1-30.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  1-30.  Glen 
Ellyn,  W.  V.,  quite  common  in  spring,  Oct.  17-May  5.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V., 
Feb.  10. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  often  on  an  island,  of  twigs,  grasses,  or  reeds  and 
large  quantity  of  down.  Eggs,  4-7,  white.  Date,  Kossuth  Co.,  Iowa,  May  7, 
1883;  Grant  Co.,  Minn.,  Apl.  29,  1876. 

Probably  the  migration  of  no  bird  attracts  more  universal  interest 
than  that  of  the  Wild  Goose.  Ornithologists  talk  of  "waves"  and 
"flights"  of  migrants  passing  in  the  night,  but  the  semiannual  pilgrimage 
of  the  Canada  Goose  appeals  to  us  all  with  the  directness  of  a  per- 
sonal experience.  We  see  the  living  wedge  of  long-necked  birds  pass- 
ing high  overhead;  the  unbroken  sound-waves  bring  the  sonorous 
"honks"  with  unexpected  distinctness  to  our  ears;  and  we  receive  an 
impressive  lesson  in  the  migration  of  birds.  They  are  embarked  on  a 
journey  of  several  thousand  miles,  but  they  come  and  go  as  surely  as 
though  they  carried  chart  and  compass. 

1910.  PHILLIPS,  J.  C.,  Auk,  XXVII,  263-271 ;  XXVIII,  319-323  (migra- 
tion in  Mass.). 

172a.  B.  c.  hutchinsi  (Rich.}.  HUTCHINS'S  GOOSE.  Resembles 
the  preceding  in  color,  but  averages  smaller.  L.,  25'00-34'00;  W.,  14'75- 
17-75;  Tar.,  2'25-3'20;  B.,  1'20-1'90  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  Kowak  Valley,  Alaska,  and  from 
mouth  of  Mackenzie  e.  along  Arctic  shores  and  islands  from  lat.  70°  s.  to 
Melville  Peninsula  and  nw.  Hudson  Bay;  winters  from  B.  C.,  Nev.,  Colo., 
and  Mo.,  s.  to  San  Rafael  in  L.  Calif.,  Tex.,  and  La.;  accidental  in  Vera 
Cruz;  in  migration  rare  e.  of  the  Miss.  Valley  but  recorded  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Maine  to  Va. 

Long  Island,  A.  V. 

172c.  B.  c.  minima  Ridgw.  CACKLING  GOOSE.  To  be  distinguished 
from  the  two  preceding  by  its  smaller  size  and  the  much  darker  brownish 
gray  color  of  the  breast  and  upper  belly.  "W.,  13'60-14*50;  Tar.,  2'40-2'75; 
B.,  -95-1-15"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  w.  Aleutians  and  from  Norton  Sound 
s.  to  n.  coast  of  Alaska  Peninsula;  winters  from  B.  C.  s.  to  San  Diego  Co., 
Calif.;  casual  e.  to  Colo.,  Iowa,  Wise.,  and  Ills. 


214  GEESE 

173.  Branta  bernicla  glaucogastra  (Brehm).     BRANT.    Ads. — Head, 
neck,  throat  and  upper  breast  black;  sides  of  the  neck  speckled  with  white; 
back  brownish  gray,  margined  with  grayish  brown ;  longer  and  lateral  upper 
tail-coverts  white;  lower  breast  ashy  gray  fading  to  white  on  lower  belly; 
sides  darker.    Im. — Similar,  but  with  less  white  on  sides  of  neck  and  wing- 
coverts,  and  secondaries  tipped  with  white.   L.,  26'00;  W.,  13'20;  Tar.,  2'20; 
B.,  1-35. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  on  Arctic  islands  n.  of  lat.  74°  and  w. 
to  about  long.  100°,  and  on  the  whole  w.  coast  of  Greenland;  winters  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  from  Mass.  s.  to  N.  C.,  rarely  to  Fla.,  has  been  recorded  in 
the  interior  from  Man.,  Ont.,  Colo.,  Nebr.,  Wise.,  Mich.,  Ind.,  and  La.; 
accidental  in  B.  C.  and  Barbados. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.  Long,  Island,  common  T.  V.,  Nov.  18-Jan.  8; 
Mch.  6-May  10;  a  few  winter.  Ossining,  A.  V. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  moss,  etc.,  lined  with  down,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4, 
smooth  and  creamy  white  in  color,  2'70  x  1*80  (Saunders).  Date,  Buchanan 
Bay,  Ellesmere  Land,  June  17  (Thayer  Coll.). 

"Its  manner  of  flying  is  different  from  that  of  the  Canada  Goose — 
moving  in  more  compact  bodies,  less  rapidly,  and  without  seeming  to 
have  a  chosen  leader — that  marked  characteristic  in  the  flight  of  the 
latter. 

" While  in  our  bays  it  appears  inactive,  seldom  taking  to  wing  unless 
disturbed  by  a  passing  boat  or  the  near  report  of  a  gun. 

"The  Brant  rises  slowly,  and  when  on  the  wing  moves  sluggishly 
for  a  short  distance,  and,  if  not  attracted  by  a  distant  flock,  frequently 
returns  to  the  place  it  had  left.  Its  food  consists  of  a  marine  plant 
(Zoster a  marina],  commonly  called  'eel  grass.'  At  low  water  it  is  seen 
industriously  at  work  tearing  up  its  favorite  plant.  After  the  tide  has 
risen  to  such  a  height  as  to  compel  it  to  relinquish  its  vocation,  it  is 
seen  drifting  with  the  current,  feeding  sumptuously  on  the  fruits  of 
its  labor."  (Giraud.) 

174.  Branta   nigricans    (Lawr.).      BLACK    BRANT.      Bears  a  general 
resemblance  to  the  preceding  species,  but  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  its 
much  darker  lower  breast  and  upper  belly,  which  are  nearly  as  dark  as  the 
back,  and  by  having  white  markings  on  the  front  as  well  as  on  the  sides  of 
the  neck. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  on  the  Arctic  coast  and  islands  from  Pt. 
Barrow  e.  to  near  mouth  of  Anderson  River,  n.  probably  to  Melville  Island ; 
common  on  Siberian  coast,  Chukchi  Peninsula,  and  w.  to  New  Siberian 
Islands;  winters  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  B.  C.  s.  to  San  Quintin  Bay, 
L.  Calif.,  in  the  interior  of  Ore.,  and  Nev.,  and  on  the  Asiatic  coast  s.  to 
Japan;  recorded  as  a  straggler  to  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  and  N.  J. 

Long  Island,  A.  V. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  moss,  etc.,  lined  with  down,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  5-7, 
dull  ivory-white  or  grayish  white,  2'85  x  1*82  (B.,  B.,  and  R.).  Date,  Admi- 
ralty Bay,  Alaska,  June  19. 

This  is  the  western  representative  of  the  preceding  species.  It  is 
of  casual  occurrence  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  about  a  dozen  birds  having 
been  recorded  from  between  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey. 

1910.   Fay,  S.  P.,  Auk,  XXVII,  336. 

The  BARNACLE  GOOSE  (175.  Branta  leucopsis)  is  an  Old  World  species 
which  visits  Greenland  regularly  in  the  fall,  and  is  sometimes  found  on  our 


SWANS  215 

coasts.    It  differs  from  any  of  the  preceding  in  having  the  forehead,  sides  of 
the  head,  throat  and  chin  white,  the  lores  being  black. 

The  FULVOUS  TREE-DUCK  (178.  Dendrocygna  bicolor)  of  the  South- 
western United  States  and  southward,  is  accidental  in  North  Carolina. 

Subfamily  Cygnince.  Swans. 

A  group  containing  eight  species  distributed  throughout  the  world. 
Swans  feed  from  the  surface,  either  by  'tipping'  or  by  simply  immersing 
the  long  neck  and  head.  Their  food  consists  largely  of  vegetable  matter, 
but  they  eat  also  small  mollusks.  They  migrate  in  V-shaped  flocks. 
When  on  the  wing,  and  also  when  feeding,  they  utter  at  times  loud, 
trumpeting  notes.  When  pursued,  they  do  not  at  once  take  flight,  but 
swirn  rapidly  away,  and  in  this  manner  easily  distance  a  strong  rower. 
The  sexes  are  alike  in  color  and  both  share  in  the  task  of  incubation 
and  care  of  the  young. 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

A.  With  yellow  on  the  lores;  distance  from  the  eye  to  the  nostril  greater  than 

the  distance  from  the  nostril  to  the  tip  of  the  bill. 

180.  WHISTLING  SWAN. 

B.  No  yellow  on  the  lores;  distance  from  the  eye  to  the  nostril  not  greater 

than  from  the  nostril  to  the  end  of  the  bill  .  .  181.  TRUMPETER  SWAN. 

180.  Olor  columbianus  (Ord).  WHISTLING  SWAN.  Ads. — White; 
bill  and  feet  black;  a  small  yellow  spot  on  the  lores]  tail  usually  with  but 
20  feathers.  Im. — Head  and  neck  brownish  and  rest  of  plumage  more  or 
less  washed  with  grayish;  bill  and  feet  light.  L.,  55'00;  W.,  22'00;  Tar.,  4'00; 
Eye  to  N.,  2'40;  N.  to  tip  of  B.,  2'25. 

Remarks. — Few  unquestionably  distinct  species  of  birds  resemble  each 
other  more  closely,  superficially,  than  do  the  Whistling  and  Trumpeter 
Swans.  In  freshly  killed  specimens,  at  least  in  the  spring,  the  yellow  on  the 
bill  of  the  former  and  red  on  the  bill  of  the  latter  is  wholly  and  sufficiently 
diagnostic.  Lacking  these  characters,  which  are  always  wanting  in  old, 
dried  skins,  the  birds  can  be  distinguished  by  the  larger  size  of  buccinator 
in  connection  with  the  fact  that  its  nostrils  are  nearer  the  center  of  the  bill 
than  in  columbianus  (which  has  them  nearer  the  tip)  while  buccinator  usually 
has  24,  instead  of  the  20  tail-feathers  of  columbianus. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  n.  Alaska  s.  to  Becharof  Lake,  Alaska 
Peninsula,  and  on  Arctic  islands  from  about  lat.  74°  s.  to  n.  Mackenzie  and 
nw.  Hudson  Bay;  in  migration  occurs  w.  to  Bering  Islands;  winters  on  the 
Pacific  coast  from  s.  B.  C.,  rarely  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  and  in  the  interior  from  Lake 
Erie  and  s.  Ills,  to  coast  of  La.  and  Tex.,  and  on  Atlantic  coast  from  Del. 
and  Md.  to  S.  C.,  rarely  n.  to  Mass.,  and  s.  to  Fla.;  casual  in  n.  Mex.; 
accidental  in  Scotland  and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.,  Oct.  15-Mch.  25.  Long  Island,  rare  T.  V. 
Cambridge,  A.  V.  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  occasional  T.  V.,  Mch.,  early  Apl.  SE. 
Minn.,  T.  V.,  Apl.  12. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  moss,  etc.,  lined  with  down,  on  the  ground  near  water. 
Eggs,  2-5,  soiled  whitish,  4'25  x  2'70.  Date,  St.  Michael's,  Alaska,  May  29. 

This  is  a  rare  bird  on  the  Atlantic  coast  north  of  Virginia.  In  the 
Currituck  region,  thanks  to  its  excessive  wariness,  it  is  not  uncommon 
in  winter.  "When  feeding,  or  dressing  their  plumage,  this  Swan  is 
usually  very  noisy,  and  at  night  their  clamors  may  be  heard  to  the 


216  FLAMINGOES 

distance  of  several  miles.  Their  notes  are  varied,  some  resembling  the 
lower  ones  made  by  the  common  tin  horn,  others  running  through  the 
various  modulations  of  the  notes  of  the  clarionet.  These  differences  are 
presumed  to  be  dependent  upon  age."  (B.,  B.,  and  R.) 

181.  Olor  buccinator  (Rich.}.  TRUMPETER  SWAN.  Ads. — White,  bill 
and  feet  black,  no  yellow  on  the  lores;  cutting  edge  of  the  lower  mandible, 
at  least  in  spring,  reddish;  tail  usually  with  24  feathers  Im. — Head  and 
neck  brownish,  rest  of  plumage  more  or  less  washed  with  grayish.  L., 
65-00;  W.,  23'QO;  Tar.,  4'25;  Eye  to  N.,  270;  N.  to  tip  of  B.,  2'20. 

Range. — Interior  and  w.  N.  A.  Breeds  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
w.  shore  of  Hudson  Bay  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  about  lat.  60°;  for- 
merly bred  s.  to  Ind.,  Mo.,  Nebr.,  Mont.,  and  Idaho,  and  casually  w.  to 
Fort  Yukon  and  B.  C.;  winters  from  s.  Ind.  and  s.  Ills.  s.  to  Tex.,  and  from 
s.  B.  C.  to  s.  Calif.;  casual  in  migration  in  the  Rocky  Mt.  region  of  U.  S.; 
accidental  in  N.  Y.  and  Del.  Now  of  rare  occurrence  nearly  everywhere. 

Nest,  of  grasses  and  down,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  2-6,  soiled  whitish, 
4'40  x  2'80.  Date,  Mackenzie  Bay,  June  17,  1900  (Thayer  Coll.). 

The  Trumpeter  Swan  is  now  one  of  the  rarest  of  American  birds. 
I  know  of  no  recent  records  of  its  capture.  Heard  in  captivity,  its  call 
has  more  of  a  clarion  tone  than  that  of  the  Whistling  Swan. 

The  WHOOPING  SWAN  (179.  Olor  cygnus}  is  an  Old  World  species  which 
sometimes  is  found  in  Greenland.  It  differs  from  either  of  our  Swans  in 
having  the  "basal  portion  of  the  bill  and  entire  lores  yellow  in  the  adult." 


VI.  ORDER    ODONTOGLOSSJE.      LAMELLIROSTRAL      GRALLA- 

TORES 

16.  FAMILY  PHCENICOPTERID^E.    FLAMINGOES.    (Fig.  35.) 

The  six  species  included  in  this  family  are  distributed  throughout 
the  tropics.  Four  species  are  American,  of  which  one  reaches  southern 
Florida  in  winter.  Flamingoes  are  gregarious  at  all  seasons.  Their 
favorite  resorts  are  shallow  bays  and  lakes  or  vast  mud  flats  which  are 
flooded  at  high  water.  In  feeding,  the  bill  is  pressed  downward  into 
the  mud,  its  peculiar  shape  making  the  point  then  turn  upward.  The 
ridges  along  its  sides,  as  in  the  bills  of  Ducks,  serve  as  strainers  through 
which  are  forced  the  sand  and  mud  taken  in  with  the  food.  The  wing- 
quills  are  molted  simultaneously,  as  with  the  Anatidce,  indicating  rela- 
tionship with  that  family. 

182.  Phcenicop  terns  ruber  (Linn.}.  FLAMINGO.  (Figs.  17,  35.)  Ads. 
— Beautiful  rosy  vermilion,  scapulars  and  underparts  somewhat  paler; 
flanks  carmine;  primaries  and  secondaries  black;  bill  red-tinged  at  base, 
black  at  the  tip.  Im. — Above  brownish  gray,  back  with  black  shaft-streaks, 
scapulars  basally  pink-tinged;  wing-quills  black,  primary  and  under  wing- 
coverts  pinkish ;  below  paler  than  above  fading  to  whitish,  pink-tinged  on  the 
belly.  L.,  45'00;  W.,  16'25;  Tar.,  12'50;  B.,  5'50. 

Range. — Atlantic  coast  of  subtropical  and  tropical  Am.,  from  the 
Bahamas,  and  Yucatan  to  Brazil,  and  in  the  Galapagos;  extremity  of  Fla. 
in  winter;  accidental  in  S.  C. 


SPOONBILLS  217 

Nest,  in  colonies  on  mud  flats,  a  truncate  cone  of  mud  8-14  inches  in 
height,  hollowed  on  top.  Egg,  I,  whitish  with  a  chalky  deposit,  3'55  x  2'20. 
Date,  Andros  Is.,  Bahamas,  May  5. 

The  Flamingo  was  formerly  a  regular  winter  visitant  to  the  vast 
shoals  at  the  extremity  of  Florida,  but  it  is  now  of  rare  occurrence 
there.  (Scott,  Auk,  VII,  pp.  221-226;  Ingraham,  World's  Congress  in 
Orn.,  pp.  59-69.)  There  are  probably  two  large  breeding  colonies  on 
Andros  Island,  Bahamas.  The  nests  are  placed  within  a  few  feet  of 
each  other,  2,000  being  counted  in  a  space  one  hundred  and  thirty 
yards  long.  Both  sexes  incubate.  The  period  of  incubation  is  about 
four  weeks.  The  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down  and  leave  the 
nest  when  two  or  three  days  old.  They  are  fed  by  regurgitation  on  the 
partially  digested  juices  of  a  small  mollusk  of  the  genus  Cerithium, 
which  forms  apparently  the  only  food  of  the  adult.  The  note  of  the 
young  is  a  shrill  whistling,  that  of  the  adult  a  goose-like  honking. 
In  flight  the  neck  is  fully  extended. 

1902.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird-Lore,  IV,  177-181.  1908.  Camps  and 
Cruises,  155-191  (nesting  habits). 


VII.  ORDER    HERODIONES.     HERONS,    STORKS,    IBISES,    ETC. 

17.  FAMILY   PLATALEID^E.    SPOONBILLS.    (Fig.  38.) 

The  Spoonbills  inhabit  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  Only  one 
of  the  six  species  is  found  in  America.  They  frequent  the  shores  both 
on  the  seacoast  and  in  the  interior.  They  are  generally  found  in  flocks 
and  they  nest  in  colonies.  Spoonbills  have  the  general  habits  of  Ibises, 
but  feed  by  immersing  the  bill  and  swinging  it  from  side  to  side  in  their 
search  for  food.  They  fly  with  the  neck  fully  extended,  and  with  steady, 
uninterrupted  wing-stroke. 

183.  Ajaia  ajaja  (Linn.).  ROSEATE  SPOONBILL.  (Fig.  38.)  Ads. — 
Head  and  throat  bare,  neck  and  upper  back  white,  sometimes  tinged  with 
pink;  sides  of  breast  in  front  of  the  wings  and  end  half  of  tail  ochraceous- 
buff ;  rest  of  plumage  pink;  lengthened  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  neck  darker; 
lesser  wing-coverts,  upper  and  under  tail-coverts  carmine.  Im. — Similar, 
but  head  and  throat  feathered,  ochraceous-buff  and  carmine  of  the  adult 
replaced  by  pink.  L.,  32'00;  W.,  14'50;  Tar.,  4'00;  B.,  6'25. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.,  from  Tex.,  La.,  Fla.,  and  Ga.  s.  to  Patagonia 
and  the  Falkland  Islands;  formerly  casual  north  to  Pa.  and  the  lower  Ohio 
Valley  (Ind.  and  Ills.);  accidental  in  Calif.,  Colo.,  Kans.,  and  Wise. 

Nest,  in  colonies,  a  platform  of  sticks  in  small  trees,  usually  about  10 
feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  white,  spotted  and  speckled  with  shades  of  olive-brown, 
2-57  x  1-73.  Date,  Marquesas  Key,  Fla.,  Jan.  11,  1883;  s.  Fla.,  Mch.  11; 
Tamiahua  Lagoon,  Vera  Cruz,  Apl.  17,  second  plumage  well  grown. 

There  are  probably  not  more  than  a  few  hundred  Spoonbills  existing 
in  Eastern  North  America,  and  they  are  confined  to  the  southern  part 
of  Florida.  The  Spoonbill's  flight  is  rather  ibislike,  the  neck  being  fully 
extended,  but  the  wing-strokes  are  not  interrupted  by  short  sails.  The 


218  IBISES 

pink  color  is  very  evident  at  a  great  distance,  either  against  sky  or 
foliage. 

1908.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  141,  146  (Fla.). 

18.  FAMILY  IBIDID^.    IBISES.    (Fig.  37.) 

Ibises  are  distributed  throughout  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe; 
they  number  about  thirty  species,  of  which  four  occur  in  North  America. 
They  are  usually  silent  birds,  and  live  in  flocks  during  the  entire  year. 
They  feed  along  the  shores  of  lakes,  bays,  and  salt-water  lagoons,  and 
on  mud  flats  over  which  the  tide  rises  and  falls.  Their  food  consists 
principally  of  crustaceans,  frogs,  and  small  fish.  They  fly  with  the 
neck  extended  and  their  wing-strokes  are  often  followed  by  a  short  sail. 

KEY    TO     THE     SPECIES 

A.  Plumage  deep  chestnut 186.  GLOSSY  IBIS. 

B.  Plumage  scarlet 185.  SCARLET  IBIS  (Ad.). 

C.  Plumage  white 184.  WHITE  IBIS  (Ad.). 

D.  Back  brown,  belly  white. 

a.  Rump  white 184.  WHITE  IBIS  (Im.). 

b.  Rump  like  the  back 185.  SCARLET  IBIS  (Im.). 

184.  Guara  alba  (Lmn.).  WHITE  IBIS.  (Fig.  37.).  Ads. — White,  the 
tips  of  the  four  outer  primaries  black;  bare  parts  of  the  head  orange-red. 
Im. — Head  and  neck  white/  streaked  with  grayish  brown ;  upper  back  and 
wings  grayish  brown;  rump,  breast  and  belly  white.  L.,  25'00;  W.,  11.00; 
Tar.,  3-40;  B.  from  N.,  4'60. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.,  from  L.  Calif.,  Tex.,  and  S.  C.,  s.  to  West 
Indies,  Brazil,  and  Peru,  and  casually  to  Great  Salt  Lake,  S.  Dak.,  Ills., 
Vt.,  Conn.,  and  L.  I.;  winters  from  Gulf  of  Mex.,  southward. 

Long  Island,  two  records. 

Nest,  in  colonies,  of  reeds  and  weed  stalks,  in  trees,  bushes  and  reedy 
marshes.  Eggs,  3-5,  pale  greenish  white,  with  chocolate  markings  generally 
most  numerous  at  the  larger  end,  2*25  x  1*50.  Date,  s.  Fla.,  Apl.  2. 

This  locally  abundant  species  is  generally  found  in  flocks  of  five  or 
six  to  as  many  hundred  birds  which  frequent  mud  flats,  marshes,  or 
the  borders  of  lagoons.  They  fly  in  close  rank,  and  when  in  large  flocks, 
with  their  snowy  plumage  glistening  in  the  sunlight  and  their  wing- 
strokes  accented  by  the  black-tipped  primaries,  form  a  strikingly 
beautiful  picture.  They  progress  by  alternate  flapping  and  sailing,  the 
neck  being  fully  extended.  Birds  in  the  brown  immature  plumage  may 
be  seen  in  large  flocks  in  the  spring,  indicating  that  the  birds  do  not 
breed  until  at  least  their  second  spring. 

The  SCARLET  IBIS  (185.  Guara  rubra),  a  South  American  species,  has 
been  recorded  from  Florida,  Louisiana,  New  Mexico,  Colorado  and  Arizona. 
(See  Brewster,  Bull  Nutt.  Orn.  Club.,  VIII,  1883,  185;  also  Scott,  Auk,  VI. 
1889,  15.) 

186.  Plegadis  autumnalis  (Hassclq.).  GLOSSY  IBIS.  Ads. — Rich 
chestnut,  upper  and  under  tail-coverts,  back,  wings  and  front  of  the  head 
with  greenish  and  purplish  reflections;  lores  (in  skins)  blackish.  Im. — Head 
and  neck  fuscous-brown,  the  feathers  laterally  margined  with  white;  rest  of 


STORKS  219 

underparts  dull  fuscous-brown;  back  with  greenish  reflections.  L.,  24'00; 
W.,  11-50;  Tar.,  3*10;  B.,  5'00. 

Range. — Tropical  arid  subtropical  regions,  mainly  of  E.  Hemisphere. 
Rare  and  local  in  se.  U.  S.  from  La.  to  Fla.,  and  in  the  West  Indies;  casual 
n.  to  Mo.,  Wise.,  Mich.,  Ont.,  and  N.  S. 

Washington,  two  records.  Long  Island,  two  records.  Cambridge,  one 
record,  May. 

Nest,  of  rushes,  plant  stems,  etc.,  in  reedy  swamps  or  low  bushes.  Eggs, 
3,  rather  deep,  dull  blue,  2'01  x  1*47.  Date,  Orange  Lake,  Fla.,  Apl. 

Of  this  once  doubtless  widely  distributed  species  comparatively 
few  individuals  remain,  and  in  the  New  World  it  is  of  rare  and  irregu- 
lar occurrence. 

The  WHITE-FACED  GLOSSY  IBIS  (187.  Plegadis  guarauna),  a  locally  com- 
mon species  from  Texas  westward  and  southward,  has  been  recorded  but  once 
from  east  of  the  Mississippi,  viz.,  at  or  near  Lake  Washington,  Florida1,  where 
a  female  was  shot  on  a  nest  containing  three  eggs  (Brewster,  Auk,  III,  1886, 
482).  This  species  resembles  the  Glossy  Ibis,  but  adults  have  the  region 
about  the  base  of  the  bill  white. 

19.  FAMILY  CICONIHXE.    STORKS 

The  nineteen  known  species  of  this  family  are  distributed  through- 
out the  world,  but  only  three  are  found  in  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
and  of  these  but  one  occurs  north  of  Mexico.  The  Common  Stork 
(Ciconia  dconia)  of  Europe,  the  Adjutant  (Leptoptilus  dubius)  of 
India,  and  Marabou  (L.  crumeniferus)  of  Africa  are  the  best  known 
of  the  Old  World  species.  The  Marabou  feathers  of  commerce  are  from 
the  last-named  species. 

While  terrestrial  in  feeding  habit,  Storks  usually  nest  some  distance 
above  the  ground.  They  perch  readily  in  trees  and  in  this  respect  differ 
from  Cranes,  with  which,  however,  they  agree  in  flying  with  the  neck 
fully  extended.  The  young  are  hatched  with  but  a  scanty  covering 
of  down  and  are  reared  in  the  nest,  Storks,  in  this  respect,  resembling 
Herons  rather  than  Cranes.  They  are  essentially  voiceless. 

188.  Mycteria  americana  Linn.  WOOD  IBIS.  Ads. — Head  and  neck 
bare;  primaries,  secondaries  and  tail  glossy  greenish  black,  rest  of  plumage 
white.  Jra. — Head  more  or  less  feathered;  head  and  neck  grayish  brown, 
blacker  on  the  nape;  rest  of  plumage  as  in  the  adult,  but  more  or  less  marked 
with  grayish;  wings  and  tail  less  greenish.  L.,  40'00;  W.,  IS'OO;  Tar.,  7'60; 
B.  from  N.,  8'00. 

Range. — Temperate  and  tropical  Am.  from  s.  Calif.,  Ariz.,  Tex.,  Ohio 
Valley,  and  S.  C.,  s.  to  Argentina;  casual  n.  to  Mont.,  Wise.,  N.  Y.  and  Vt. 

Washington,  casual  in  July.   Long  Island,  one  record. 

Nesc,  in  colonies,  a  platform  of  sticks  in  trees.  Eggs,  2-3,  dull  white  with 
a  soft  calcareous  deposit,  2*75  x  1'75.  Date,  Brevard  Co.,  Fla.,  Mch.  14. 

This  is  a  locally  common  species  in  Florida. 

20.  FAMILY  ARDEID^E.    HERONS  AND  BITTERNS.  (Fig.  36.) 

This  family  contains  about  one  hundred  species  distributed  in  most 
parts  of  the  globe,  but  more  numerously  in  the  intertropical  regions. 


220  HERONS  AND  BITTERNS 

Generally  speaking,  Herons  are  gregarious,  nesting  and  roosting  in 
flocks.  While  feeding  they  are  more  solitary,  but  each  night  they 
regularly  return  to  roost  with  their  kind  in  a  ' 'rookery."  Bitterns  do 
not  associate  in  flocks,  and  are  generally  found  singly  or  in  pairs.  As  a 
rule,  they  feed  in  grassy  marshes,  while  Herons  more  commonly  resort 
to  the  shores  of  lakes,  rivers,  bays,  or  salt-water  lagoons.  Herons  perch, 
and  usually  nest  in  trees;  Bitterns  rarely  or  never  do.  Some  species 
secure  their  food  of  frogs,  fish,  small  reptiles,  etc.,  by  standing  rigidly 
motionless  and  waiting  for  it  to  come  within  striking  distance,  or  by 
wading  for  it  with  the  utmost  caution.  Others  run  rapidly  and  noisily 
through  the  water,  trusting  to  their  agility  and  the  rapidity  of  their 
spearlike  thrusts  to  supply  their  wants.  Herons,  unlike  our  Ibises  and 
Cranes,  fly  with  their  folded  neck  drawn  in  between  their  shoulders. 
Their  voice  is  a  hoarse  squawk.  The  young  are  born  with  a  scanty 
covering  of  long,  filamentous  down  and  are  reared  in  the  nest.  In 
feeding,  young  Herons,  and  possibly  also  young  Bitterns,  take  a  scissor- 
like  grasp  of  the  base  of  the  parent's  bill  with  their  own,  when  the 
parent  disgorges  food  into  the  nest  or  skillfully  into  the  mouth  of  the 
young. 

KEY     TO     THE     SPECIES 

I.  Wing  over  13*00. 

A.  Plumage  pure  white. 

a.  Wing  17*00  or  over;  feathers  on  the  lower  neck  long,  narrow. 

192.  GREAT  WHITE  HERON. 
6.  Wing  under  17*00;  neck-feathers  not  lengthened. 

196.  AM.  EGRET. 

B.  Upperparts  generally  slaty  or  grayish  blue. 

1946.  WARD'S  HERON.     194.  GREAT  BLUE  HERON. 
II.  Wing  under  13*00. 

1.     Crown  without  streaks. 

A.  Crown  white  or  whitish. 
a.  Wing  over  11*00. 

a1.  Plumage  entirely  or  mostly  white ....  198.  REDDISH  EGRET. 
a2.  Plumage  gray  streaked  with  black;  throat  and  sides  of  neck. 

black 203.  YELLOW-CROWNED  NIGHT  HERON. 

6.  Wing  under  11*00. 

61.  Plumage  pure  white;  legs  and  bill  black;  feet  yellow. 

197.  SNOWY  HERON. 

62.  Tips  of  primaries  slate-color;  plumage  white,  sometimes  irregu- 

larly marked  with  slaty  blue  .  200.  LITTLE  BLUE  HERON  (Im.) 

B.  Crown  not  white  or  whitish. 

a.  Crown  umber  or  reddish  brown. 

a1.  Head  and  neck  reddish  brown;  body  slate-color. 

198.  REDDISH  EGRET. 
a2.  Neck  conspicuously  streaked ;  body  variegated. 

190.  AM.  BITTERN. 
6.  Crown  not  umber  or  reddish  brown. 

ft1.  Crown  slaty  or  slate-blue  with  sometimes  a  purplish  cast. 

62.  Wing-coverts  more  or  less  margined  with  rufous. 

199.  LOUISIANA  HERON. 

63.  Wing-coverts  without  rufous  .  .    200.  LITTLE  BLUE  HERON. 
c1.  Crown  not  slaty,  but  greenish  or  bluish  black. 

c2.  Wing  over  10*00;  entire  underparts  pure  white. 

202.  BLACK-CROWNED  NIGHT  HERON. 


HERONS  AND  BITTERNS  221 

d2.  Wing  under  10*00. 

d3  Wing-coverts  green 201.   LITTLE  GREEN  HERON. 

e3.  Wing-coverts  rufous-chestnut  and  buff. 
e4.  Underparts  buffy,  more  or  less  streaked. 

191.  LEAST  BITTERN. 
e5.  Underparts  rufous-chestnut. 

191.1  CORY'S  LEAST  BITTERN. 
2.  Crown  streaked. 

A.  Wing  under  10*00;  upperparts  greenish    201.  LITTLE  GREEN  HERON. 

B.  Wing  over  10*00;  upperparts  brownish  or  blackish  brown  streaked 

with  white, 
a.  Upperparts  light  brown;  outer  edge  of  primaries  reddish. 

202.  BLACK-CROWNED  NIGHT  HERON  (Im.). 

6.  Back  dark  brown;  crown  nearly  black  with  white  streaks;  prima- 
ries dark  slate-color. 

203.  YELLOW-CROWNED  NIGHT  HERON  (Im.). 

190.  Botaurus  lentiginosus  (Montag.).  AMERICAN  BITTERN.  Ads. — 
A  glossy  black  streak  on  each  side  of  upper  neck;  top  of  head  and  back  of 
neck  bluish  slate,  more  or  less  washed  with  buffy;  back  brown,  bordered 
and  irregularly  mottled  with  buffy,  and  buffy  ochraceous,  wing-coverts 
similarly  marked,  but  ground  color  grayer;  underparts  creamy  buff,  the 
feathers  all  widely  streaked  with  buffy  brown,  which  is  finely  speckled  with 
buffy  and  narrowly  margined  by  brownish  gray.  Im. — Similar,  but  buffy 
everywhere  deeper  and  more  ochraceous.  L.,  28*00;  W.,  10*50;  Tar.,  3'50; 
B.,  3*00. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin, 
s.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  n.  Ariz.,  Kans.,  the  Ohio  Valley  and  N. 
C.,  and  less  frequently  in  s.  U.  S.;  winters  from  Calif.,  Ariz.  s.  Tex.,  the 
Ohio  Valley,  and  Va.  s.  to  Cuba  and  Guatemala,  and  casually  to  the  Bahamas, 
Porto  Rico,  Jamaica,  and  Great  Britain. 

Washington,  rather]  common  W.  V.,  July  15- Apl.  30.  Long  Island, 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  16-May  5;  Aug.  4-Dec.  11.  Ossining,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl. 
11-Oct.  5.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  breeds  locally,  Apl.  15-Oct.  20.  N. 
Ohio,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  1-Oct.  1.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  9-Nov.  1.  SE.  Minn.,  comnum  S.  R.,  Apl.  8. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  etc.,  on  the  ground  in  marshes.  Eggs,  3-5,  pale  olive- 
buff,  1*90  x  1*45.  Date,  Cambridge,  May  5;  Pewaukee,  Wasc.,  May  23. 

The  Bittern  makes  its  home  in  extensive  grassy  meadows  with 
plenty  of  water,  but  in  the  season  of  migration  may  be  found  and 
heard  "booming"  in  smaller  and  more  accessible  swampy  places.  Like 
the  other  members  of  its  family,  it  excels  in  standing  still,  and  will  hold 
its  head  erect  and  motionless  amid  the  tall  grass  till  the  watcher  tires 
of  looking  and  pronounces  the  suspicious  object  nothing  but  a  stick 
after  all.  The  Bittern's  fame  rests  upon  its  vocal  performance,  or 
"boom."  This  is  sometimes  exactly  like  the  working  of  an  old-fashioned 
wooden  pump,  and  sometimes — even  with  the  same  bird — like  the 
driving  of  a  stake  in  a  bog.  It  can  be  heard  for  a  long  distance.  The 
performance  is  best  witnessed  in  spring,  while  the  grass  is  still  low. 
That  it  is  not  so  very  difficult  at  that  season  to  steal  a  march  upon 
the  bird  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  established  on  the  testimony 
of  a  man  who  has  never  lived  near  a  Bittern  msadow,  and  yet  has 
watched  the  performance  at  much  length  and  at  near  range  on  several 
occasions.  His  first  experience  of  this  kind  is  described  somewhat 
fully  in  The  Auk,  Vol.  VI.,  page  1.  The  strange  notes  are  delivered 


222  HERONS  AND  BITTERNS 

with  equally  strange  contortions,  as  if  the  bird  were  horribly  nauseated, 
and  are  preceded  by  a  succession  of  quick  snapping  or  gulping  sounds — 
"hiccoughs,"  one  observer  has  called  them.  No  water  is  employed 
in  the  operation,  in  spite  of  the  circumstantial  assertions  of  several 
persons  who  profess  to  have  seen  the  bird  swallowing  and  then 
ejecting  it.  BRADFORD  TORREY. 

BREWSTER,  WM.,  Auk,  1911   90-100  (display  of  plumes). 

191.  Ixpbrychus  exilis  (Gmei.).  LEAST  BITTERN.  Ad.  cf. — Top  of  head, 
back  and  tail  shining  black;  back  of  neck  chestnut-rufous;  most  of  the  greater 
wing-coverts  and  outer  vanes  of  the  secondaries  darker;  lesser  wing-coverts 
and  part  of  greater  ones  buffy;  underparts,  including  under  tail-coverts, 
washed  with  buffy;  a  blackish  patch  at  each  side  of  the  breast.  Ad.  9. — 
Similar,  but  head  browner  and  back  light,  glossy  umber;  underparts  darker 
and  more  or  less  streaked  with  brownish.  Im.  & . — Similar  to  ad.  d" ,  but  the 
back  washed  and  tipped  with  chestnut;  underparts  darker  and  lightly 
streaked  with  black.  Im.  9 . — Similar  to  ad.  9 ,  but  the  back  rufous,  mar- 
gined with  buffy  ochraceous.  L.,  13'00;  W.,  4'60;  Tar.,  1*60;  B.,  1'80. 

Range. — Temperate  N.  A.,  and  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  Ore.,  s.  Sask. 
s.  Man.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  S.  s.  to  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil;  winters 
from  Fla.  and  Gulf  of  Mex.,  southward. 

Washington,  not  very  numerous  S.  R.,  May  5-Sept.  25.  Long  Island, 
common  S.  R.,  May-Sept.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  to  Aug.  10. 
Cambridge,  local  S.  R.,  May  15-Aug.  1.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
20-Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  local  S.  R.,  late  spring  and  summer  records  only. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  grasses,  reeds,  etc.,  in  marshes  among  rushes,  some- 
times in  a  small  bush,  usually  over  water.  Eggs,  3-6,  pale  bluish  white, 
1*20  x  ;92.  Date,  Ft.  Thompson,  Fla.,  Mch.  25;  Mt.  Pleasant,  S.  C.,  May  1; 
Cambridge,  June  1;  Pewaukee,  Wise.,  May  27. 

Wet,  grassy  marshes  such  as  Rail  love,  or  reed-grown  ponds  that 
Gallinules  frequent,  are  the  resorts  of  these  retiring,  secretive  little 
birds.  With  outstretched  necks  and  lowered  heads  they  make  their 
way  without  difficulty  through  the  jungle  of  roots  and  stalks.  Some- 
times they  climb  up  a  slender  reed,  and,  hanging  on  like  Marsh  Wrens, 
survey  theis  surroundings.  They  take  wing  almost  from  beneath  one's 
feet,  and,  with  a  low,  frightened  qua,  fly  slowly  for  a  short  distance  and 
then  drop  back  into  the  grass.  During  the  breeding  season  one  may 
hear  what  presumably  is  the  voice  of  only  the  male — a  soft,  slowly 
repeated,  dovelike  coo,  coo,  coo,  coo,  coo.  It  floats  over  the  marsh  like 
the  voice  of  a  spirit  bird. 

1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  62-75  (nesting). 

191.1.  Ixobrychus  neoxenus  (Cory).  CORY'S  LEAST  BITTERN.  Ad. 
j.-^  Above  shining  greenish  black,  tail  the  same ;  wings  black,  their  coverts 
rich  chestnut;  underparts  chestnut,  sides  black.  Ad.  9. — Similar  but  black 
area  duller,  chestnut  areas  slightly  paler.  W.,  4*30;  Tar.,  1*40;  B.,  1.80.  (See 
Chapman,  Auk,  1896,  11-19.) 

Range. — Imperfectly  known.  Breeds  in  s.  Ont.  and  s.  Fla.;  occurs 
casually  in  Mass.,  Mich.,  and  Wise. 

Nest,  "of  willow  twigs,  lined  with  maiden  cane  leaves;  in  a  low  bush  two 
and  a  half  feet  above  the  water."  Young  two-thirds  grown,  Lake  Flirt, 
Fla.,  June  8,  1890.  (Scott,  Auk,  1891,  309.) 


HERONS  AND  BITTERNS  223 

Twenty-four  specimens  of  this  species  have  been  recorded,  of  which 
five  are  from  Florida  and  sixteen  from  the  vicinity  of  Toronto.  It 
resembles  the  Least  Bittern  in  haunts  and  habits,  but  I  know  of  no 
description  of  its  notes.  Its  rarity,  sporadic  distribution,  and  albinistic 
tendencies,  indicative  of  physical  degeneration,  suggest  that  it  is  a 
decadent  species  on  the  verge  of  extinction. 

1896.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Auk,  XIII,  11-19  (historical).  1901.  FLEMING, 
J.  H.,  Auk,  XVIII,  106  (nesting);  XIX,  77  (Toronto  records). 

192.  Ardea  occidentalis  And.  GREAT  WHITE  HERON.  Ads. — Entirely 
white;  in  breeding  plumage,  with  long,  narrow,  stiffened  feathers  on  the 
back  and  lower  foreiieck,  and  two  narrow  plumes  on  the  back  of  the  crown, 
"L.,  45-00-54-00;  W.,  17'00-21-00;  B.,  6'00-7'00;  Tar.,  8'00-8'75"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Region  bordering  Gulf  of  Mex.  from  s.  Fla.  s.  to  Cuba,  Jamaica, 
and  Yucatan;  casual  n.  to  Anclote  River  and  Micco,  Fla. 

Nest,  in  small  colonies,  a  platform  of  sticks  usually  in  mangrove  bushes. 
Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  dull  blue,  2'50  x  T80.  Date,  Florida  Keys,  Jan.  and  Feb. 

I  This  is  a  common  species  on  the  coasts  of  southern  Florida,  par- 
ticularly in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Sable.  Rarely  it  is  found  as  far  north 
as  the  Anclote  River  on  the  west  coast  and  Micco  on  the  east  coast. 
This  bird  is  as  large  as  the  Great  Blue  Heron,  and  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  Herodias  egretta,  to  which  the  name  Great  White  Heron  is 
frequently  applied. 

Ardea  wuerdmanni  Baird  has  been  considered  to  be  a  color  phase 
of  this  species,  but  its  true  standing  is  unknown.  It  may  be  described 
as  a  Ward's  Heron  with  a  whitish  head  and  neck,  and  is  thus  inter- 
mediate between  occidentalis  and  wardi.  On  March  27,  1908,  on  Clive 
Key,  southeast  of  Cape  Sable,  I  found  two  young  Ward's  Herons  and 
one  pure  white  bird  in  the  same  nest.  One  of  the  parents  was  Ardea 
occidentalis,  the  identity  of  the  other  was  not  ascertained. 
1905.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild  Wings,  27. 

194.  Ardea  herodias  herodias  Linn.  GREAT  BLUE  HERON.  Ads.  in 
breeding  plumage. — Center  of  crown  and  throat  white,  sides  of  crown  black, 
this  color  meeting  on  back  of  head,  where  the  feathers  are  lengthened  to 
form  an  occipital  crest;  neck  pale  grayish  brown,  a  narrow  black,  white,  and 
ochraceous  line  down  the  middle  of  the  f oreneck ;  feathers  of  lower  foreneck 
narrow  and  much  lengthened,  whitish  with  sometimes  black  streaks;  back, 
wing-coverts,  and  tail  slaty  gray,  the  scapulars  paler,  narrow  and  much 
lengthened;  bend  of  wing  chestnut-rufous;  a  patch  of  black  and  white 
feathers  on  side  of  breast ;  breast  and  belly  streaked  with  black  and  white  and 
sometimes  pale  rufous;  feathers  on  legs  dull  rufous,  legs  and  feet  black, 
upper  mandible  olive-yellow,  the  culmen  blackish ;  lower  mandible  yellow ; 
lores  blue.  Im. — Similar,  but  entire  crown  black,  throat  white,  neck  brown- 
ish gray  washed  with  buffy  ochraceous;  no  black  at  sides  of  the  breast  or 
plumes  on  the  lower  neck ;  underparts  streaked  with  black,  slaty,  white  and 
ochraceous;  bend  of  wings  and  feathers  on  legs  paler;  back  slaty  grayish 
brown  without  lengthened  plumes.  "L.,  42'00-50'00;  W.,  17'90-19'85; 
B.,  4-30-6-25;  Tar.,  6-00-8W  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — W.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  se.  B.  C.,  cen.  Alberta,  cen. 
Man.,  n.  Ont.,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  s.  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  n.  Tex.,  and  S. 
Atlantic  States  (except  Fla.) ;  winters  from  Ore.,  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  Middle 
States  s.  to  the  West  Indies,  Panama,  and  Venezuela. 


224  HERONS  AND  BITTERNS 

Washington,  rather  common,  absent  only  in  midwinter.  Long  Island, 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  and  May;  Aug.-Dec.  (Dutcher).  Ossining,  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  4-Apl.  18;  Aug.  16-Oct.  6.  Cambridge,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl. 
1-Mayl;  Sept.  1-Oct.  20;  occasional  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  com- 
mon S.  R.,  Mch.  20-Oct.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  3-26; 
Aug.  3-Oct.  24.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  26-Oct.  1. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  generally  in  colonies,  usually  in  tall  trees, 
sometimes  on  the  ground  on  islets.  Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  dull  blue,  2'50  x  1*50. 
Date,  Coast  S.  C.,  Mch.  20;  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.,  May  1;  SE.  Minn.,  Apl.  28. 

Is  it  due  to  the  influence  of  the  artists  of  the  Orient  that  these 
long-legged,  long-necked  birds  are  so  frequently  miscalled  "Cranes?" 
With  head  drawn  in  and  legs  trailing  on  behind,  they  flap  slowly  over 
the  water,  resembling,  no  doubt,  the  "Cranes"  of  fans,  screens,  and 
bronzes;  nevertheless,  they  are  Herons.  With  all  a  Heron's  immovable 
alertness  they  watch  patiently  for  passing  fish,  sometimes  wading  with 
extreme  caution,  placing  one  foot  slowly  after  the  other.  They  feed 
both  by  day  and  night.  Fishes,  frogs,  reptiles,  even  small  mice,  all 
are  welcome;  and  all  are  powerless  to  escape  the  lightning  thrust  of 
the  spearlike  bill.  Their  voice  is  harsh  and  rasping.  When  alarmed 
they  utter  a  croak  which  is  sometimes  prolonged  into  a  series  of  squawks. 
They  nest  and  roost  in  colonies,  but  at  other  times  are  solitary  birds. 

194. b.  A.  h.  wardi  (Ridgw.).  WARD'S  HERON.  The  Florida  repre- 
sentative of  A.  h.  herodias.  The  average  differences  in  color  between  it  and 
A.  h.  herodias  consist  in  its  whiter  lower  parts,  darker  neck,  and  olive  instead 
of  black  legs.  These  differences,  however,  cannot  always  be  relied  upon, 
and  size  is  the  character  by  which  the  two  birds  can  best  be  distinguished, 
wardi  being  the  larger,  as  the  following  measurements  show;  L.,  52'00;  W., 
1975-20-50;  B.,  6'40-6'80;  Tar.,  8'00-8'50. 

Range. — Fla.  and  the  Gulf  coast  to  Tex. 

Nest,  in  colonies,  a  platform  of  sticks,  usually  in  trees,  sometimes  bushes, 

fenerally  over  water.    Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  dull  blue,  2'65  x  1'85.    Date,  Tarpon 
prings,  Fla.,  Jan.  20. 

This  is  the  Florida  form  of  the  Great  Blue  Heron,  which  it  resembles 
in  habits. 

1908.   CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  119-122  (nesting). 

The  EUROPEAN  GREAT  BLUE  HERON  (195.  Ardea  cinerea)  is  accidental 
in  southern  Greenland.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  our  species  by  the 
white  instead  of  rufous  feathers  on  the  legs. 

196.  Herodias  egretta  (GmeL).  EGRET.  Ads.  in  breeding  plumage. — 
Entire  plumage  pure  white;  about  fifty  straight  'aigrette'  plumes  grow  from 
the  interscapular  region  and  reach  beyond  the  tail;  legs  and  feet  black;  bill 
yellow;  lores  orange,  bordered  below  by  greenish.  Ads.  after  the  breeding 
season  and  Im. — Without  the  interscapular  plumes.  L.,  41 '00;  W.,  15*00; 
Tar.,  5-60;  B.,  4.50. 

Range. — Temperate  and  tropical  Am.  Breeds  in  Ore.  and  Calif.,  and 
from  N.  C.,  Fla.,  the  Gulf  coast,  and  Mex.  s.  to  Patagonia;  formerly  bred 
n.  to  N.  J.  and  Wise.;  winters  from  the  Gulf  of  Mex.  southward;  casual  to 
Man.,  Que.,  N.  Y-,  New  England,  and  N.  S. 

Washington,  not  common  and  irregular  S.  R.,  May- Aug.  Long  Island, 
rare  from  July-Oct.  Ossining,  A.  V.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  S.  R., 
Mch.  20-Oct.  10.  SE.  Minn.  A.  V. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  in  colonies,  in  trees  or  bushes  over  water. 


HERONS  AND   BITTERNS  225 

Eggs,  3-5,  dull  blue,  of  a  rather  deeper  shade  than  those  of  the  preceding, 
2'25  x  1'60.   Date,  s.  Fla.,  Feb.;  Santee,  S.  C.,  Apl.  5. 

Tourists  who  went  to  Florida  prior  to  1880  have  told  me  of  prairies 
white  with  Egrets,  of  bushy  islands  glistening  in  the  sun  like  snow 
banks.  Now  you  may  look  foi  miles  along  a  lake  shore  and  perhaps 
in  the  distance  see  a  solitary  Egret,  which,  as  you  approach,  with  a 
frightened  squawk  takes  wing  a  rifle-shot  away.  The  rapid  exter- 
mination of  these  plume-bearing  birds  is  startling  evidence  of  man's 
power  in  the  animal  world.  At  his  word  a  species  is  almost  immediately 
wiped  out  of  existence.  I  have  heard  a  "plume-hunter"  boast  of  killing 
three  hundred  Herons  in  a  "rookery"  in  one  afternoon.  Another  proudly 
stated  that  he  and  his  companions  had  killed  one  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  birds — Herons,  Egrets,  and  Terns — during  one  winter.  The 
destruction  of  these  birds  is  a  blot  on  Florida's  history. 

1887.  SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.,  Auk,  IV,  135  (destruction  in  Fla.).  1905.  JOB, 
H.  K.,  Wild  Wings,  134-149  (habits,  destruction).— 1908.  CHAPMAN,  F. 
M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  122-134  (nesting). 

197.  Egretta  candidissima  candidissima  (Gmel.).     SNOWY  EGRET. 
Ads.  in  breeding  plumage. — Entire  plumage  pure  white;  about  fifty  recurved 
'aigrette'  plumes  grow  from  the  interscapular  region  and  reach  to  or  just 
beyond  the  end  of  the  tail;  legs  black,  feet  yellow,  bill  black,  yellow  at  the 
base;  lores  orange-yellow.    Ads.  after  the  breeding  season  and  Im. — Without 
the  interscapular  plumes.   L.,  24'00;  W.,  9'75;  Tar.,  3'80;  B.,  3'20. 

Range. — Temperate  and  tropical  Am.  Formerly  bred  from  Ore.,  Nebr., 
Ind.,  Ills.,  and  N.  J.  s.  to  Chile  and  Argentina;  now  breeds  locally  in  the  U. 
S.  from  N.  C.,  to  La.;  winters  from  Fla.,  southward;  casual  in  B.  C.,  Ont., 
Mass.,  and  N.  S. 

Washington,  casual;  irregular  in  fall.  Long  Island,  rare  S.  R.  May- 
Sept.  Ossining,  A.  V. 

Nest,  a  platfom  of  sticks,  in  colonies,  in  bushes  over  water.  Eggs,  3-5, 
pale,  dull  blue,  T80  x  1*20.  Date,  s.  Fla.,  March;  Coast  S.  C.,  May  5. 

The  "curse  of  beauty"  has  numbered  the  days  of  this  the  most 
dainty  and  graceful  of  Herons.  Formerly  it  was  abundant  in  the  South, 
now  it  is  the  rarest  of  its  family.  The  delicate  'aigrettes'  which  it 
donned  as  a  nuptial  dress  were  its  death  warrant.  Woman  demanded 
from  the  bird  its  wedding  plumes,  and  man  has  supplied  the  demand. 
The  Florida  Egrets  are  near  the  verge  of  extermination  and  now  he 
is  pursuing  the  helpless  birds  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth. 
Mercilessly  they  are  shot  down  at  their  roosts  or  nesting-grounds,  the 
coveted  feathers  are  stripped  from  their  backs,  the  carcasses  are  left 
to  rot,  while  the  young  in  the  nest  above  are  starving.  Consular  reports 
show  that  in  1898  the  plumes  of  about  1,538,000  White  Herons  were 
shipped  from  Venezuela  alone. 

198.  Dichromanassa  rufescens  (GmeL).    REDDISH  EGRET.    Ads.  dark 
phase. — Head  and  neck  rufous-chestnut,  glossed  with  vinaceous;  rest  of 
plumage  dark  bluish  slate-color;  about  thirty  'aigrette'  plumes  grow  from 
interscapular  region  and  reach  beyond  tail ;  legs  and  feet  black.    Im. — Simi- 
lar, but  without  'aigrette'  plumes.    White  phase. — Similar  in  size  and  form, 
but  entire  plumage  white,  except  tips  of  primaries,  which  are  sometimes  very 


226  HERONS  AND  BITTERNS 

finely  speckled  with  grayish.  Im. — Similar,  but  without  'aigrette'  plumes, 
L.,  29'OG;  W.,  12'50;  Tar.,  5'40;  B.,  3'60. 

Remarks. — The  two  color  phases  of  this  bird  were  supposed  to  represent 
two  species,  the  white  phase  being  called  Ardea  pealei  Bonap.  They  have, 
however,  been  found  mated  together,  and  intermediates  or  parti-colored 
specimens  are  known. 

Range. — S.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  L.  Calif,  and  Gulf  of  Mex.  to  Jamaica 
and  Guatemala;  winters  from  s.  Fla.  southward;  casual  in  Colo,  and  s.  Ills. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  singly  or  in  colonies,  in  bushes  generally  over 
salt-water.  Eggs,  2-4,  pale,  dull  blue,  1'95  x  1'45.  Date,  Tampa  Bay,  Apl. 

This  is  now  a  rare  bird  on  the  coasts  of  southern  Florida  and  it  is 
occasionally  seen  in  the  interior;  the  reddish  phase  prevailing.  It  is  a 
graceful,  active  fisher  and  instead  of  waiting  for  its  prey  to  come  within 
spearing  distance,  pursues  it  rapidly  through  the  shallow  water. 

199.  Hydranassa   tricolor     ruficollis    (Gosse).     LOUISIANA  HERON. 
Ads. — Upperparts  dark  bluish  slate-color;  back  of  head  and  upper  neck  with 
elongated  chestnut-rufous  and  white  feathers ;  back  with  pale  brownish  gray 
'aigrette'  plumes  reaching  to  tail;  lower  back,  rump  and  belly  white;  neck 
bluish  slate-color;  throat  white,  an  indistinct  rufous  line  down  the  middle 
of  foreneck;  legs  blackish;  base  of  bill  and  lores  bluish.    Im. — Throat,  and 
an  indistinct  line  down  the  foreneck,  white;  rest  of  head  and  neck  brownish 
rufous;  upper  back  and  wings  bluish  slate-color,  more  or  less  washed  with 
brownish  rufous;  no  plumes;  lower  back,  rump  and  belly  white;  breast  with 
more  or  less  slaty  streaks;  legs  yellow  behind,  blackish  before;  lower  mandible 
and  lores  orange;  upper  mandible  black.    L.,  26'00;  W.,  lO'OO;  Tar.,  3'70; 
B.,  3-90. 

Range. — S.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  N.  C.,  and  the  Gulf  States  to  the  West 
Indies,  Mex.  (both  coasts),  and  Cen.  Am.;  winters  from  S.  C.  southward: 
casual  in  Ind.,  N.  J.,  and  L.  I. 

Long  Island,  one  record. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  in  colonies,  in  bushes  or  small  trees  over  water. 
Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  dull  blue,  175  x  1'35.  Date,  s.  Fla.,  Apl.  1 ;  Santee,  S.  C.,  Apl.  20. 

The  Louisiana  Heron  has  fortunately  never  found  favor  with  the 
milliners  and  consequently  is  doubtless  as  abundant  today  as  it  ever 
was;  rookeries  containing  thousands  of  birds  being  not  uncommon  in 
Florida.  It  flies  with  its  neck  less  drawn  in  than  do  our  other  Herons, 
and  its  sharply  defined  white  abdomen  is  a  further  excellent  field-mark. 
It  is  very  noisy  and  excitable  when  mating  and  nesting,  and  when 
challenging  a  rival  the  neck-feathers  are  so  erected  and  ruffled  that  the 
bird  seems  to  be  wearing  a  feather  boa.  It  is  sometimes  a  slow,  stealthy 
feeder,  and  at  others  dashes  for  its  prey. 

1908.   CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  143. 

200.  Florida  cserulea  cserulea  (Linn.).  LITTLE  BLUE  HERON.   Ads.— 
Head  and  neck  maroon-chestnut;  rest  of  plumage  dark  bluish  slate-color;  in 
t^rscapulars  and  lower  neck  feathers  lengthened  and  narrowly  pointed;  lores 
blue;  legs  and  feet  black.    Im. — White,  plumage  sometimes  more  or  less 
washed  with  slaty;  tips  of  the  primaries  always  bluish  slate-color;  legs,  feet 
and  lores  greenish  yellow.   L.,  22'00;  W.,  10'25;  Tar.,  370;  B.,  3'00. 

Remarks. — Between  the  young  and  adult  there  is  every  stage  of  inter- 
gradation  of  color,  some  specimens  being  irregularly  marked  with  blue  and 
white  in  about  equal  proportions.  Young  birds  are  sometimes  mistaken  for 
Snowy  Herons,  but  can  always  be  distinguished  by  the  greenish  yellow  legs 
and  slaty  tips  of  the  primaries.  They  breed  in  the  white  plumage. 


HERONS  AND  BITTERNS  227 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Am.  Formerly  bred  from  Mo.,  Ind.,  Ills.,  and  N.  J.  to 
w.  Mex.  and  s.  to  Argentina  and  Peru ;  in  the  U.  S.  now  breeds  locally  in  the 
Gulf  states  and  n.  to  S.  C.;  after  breeding  season  wanders  casually  to  Nebr., 
Wise.,  Ont.,  New  England,  and  N.  S.;  winters  from  S.  C.  southward. 

Washington,  casual  in  July  and  Aug.;  sometimes  quite  common.  Long 
Island,  rare  from  Apl.-Sept.  Cambridge,  casual. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  in  colonies,  in  bushes  or  small  trees  over  water. 
Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  dull  blue,  T70  x  1*30.  Date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  1;  coast 
S.  C.,  Apl.  23. 

Thanks  to  their  lack  of  'aigrette'  plumes  Little  Blue  Herons  are 
one  of  the  most  common  Herons  in  Florida  today.  They  are  gen- 
erally found  in  flocks,  sometimes  composed  entirely  of  blue  adults, 
sometimes  of  white,  immature  birds,  and  at  others  both  young  and  old 
are  associated.  I  have  seen  a  few  white-plumaged  birds  nesting  in  colon- 
ies composed  of  blue  adults.  The  white  birds  resemble  E.  candidissima, 
but  the  color  of  their  legs  and  feet  serves  as  a  distinguishing  character 
at  some  distance.  They  are  silent  when  feeding,  but  when  undisturbed 
in  their  rookeries,  each  bird  seems  to  have  something  to  say,  and  the 
result  is  a  strange  chorus  of  croaking  voices.  They  feed  by  day,  and 
generally  wait  for  their  prey  to  come  within  striking  distance. 

201.  Butorides  virescens  virescens  (Linn.).  LITTLE  GKEEN  HERON. 
(Fig.  36.)  Ads. — Crown  and  a  short  line  below  eye  glossy  greenish  black; 
throat  buffy  white,  this  color  extending  down  foreneck  as  a  narrow  line 
mixed  with  blackish,  widening  on  breast;  rest  of  head  and  neck  rufous- 
chestnut  glossed  with  vinaceous;  back,  with  lengthened  interscapulars, 
green,  more  or  less  washed  with  bluish  gray;  wing-coverts  green,  margined 
with  white  or  buffy ;  belly  ashy  gray,  more  or  less  washed  with  buffy.  7m. — 
Similar,  but  with  neck  and  underparts  streaked  with  blackish;  back  without 
lengthened  feathers  or  wash  of  blue-gray;  wing-coverts  widely  margined 
with  buffy  ochraceous.  L.,  IT'OO;  W.,  7'25;  Tar.,  1'90;  B.,  2'50. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  S.  D.,  n.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  s.  Que., 
and  N.  S.  s.  to  the  West  Indies;  winters  from  the  West  Indies  southward, 
and  rarely  in  se.  U.  S. ;  casual  in  Colo. 

Washington,  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  9-Sept.  15.  Long  Island,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  to  Oct.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  6-Sept.  26.  Cambridge, 
common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  30.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  14-Nov.  15. 
Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Aug.  31  and  doubtless  later.  SE. 
Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  23-Sept.  25. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks  in  a  bush  or  low  branch  of  a  tree.  Eggs,  3-6, 
pale,  dull  blue,  1'50  x  1'14.  Date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  25;  Chester  Co., 
Pa.,  Apl.  30;  Cambridge,  May  10. 

The  shores  of  wooded  streams  or  ponds  are  frequented  by  this  small 
Heron  in  preference  to  more  exposed  situations.  It  is  most  active  in 
the  early  morning  or  at  nightfall,  during  the  day  it  rests  quietly  in  some 
sheltered  situation.  When  startled,  it  springs  into  the  air  with  a  fright- 
ened skeow  or  explosive  whistle,  and,  alighting  at  a  safe  distance  on  a 
tree  or  on  some  elevated  perch,  with  upstretched  neck  watches  the 
intruder,  betraying  its  apprehension  by  nervous  twitchings  of  the  tail. 
It  is  a  solitary  bird,  and,  unlike  most  Herons,  is  not  found  in  flocks, 
and  usually  nests  alone,  though  as  many  as  a  dozen  pairs  may  sometimes 
be  found  associated.  In  the  mating  season  it  utters  a  surprising  variety 
of  hen-like  notes  and  a  hoarse,  choking  gulp. 
17 


228  HERONS  AND   BITTERNS 

202.  Nycticorax    nycticorax    nsevijis     (Bodd.).        BLACK  -  CROWNED 
NIGHT    HERON.     Ads. — Forehead,    lores,   neck  and  underparts  white  or 
whitish;   crown,   upper  back  and  scapulars  glossy,   greenish  black;  lower 
back,  wings  and  tail  ashy  gray;  legs  and  feet  yellow;  lores  greenish;  two  or 
three  white  rounded  occipital  plumes  about  8*00  in  length.    Im. — Upper- 
parts  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  streaked  or  with  wedge-shaped  spots  of 
white    or    buffy;    outer  web  of  primaries  pale  rufous;  underparts  white, 
streaked  with  blackish.    L.,  24'00;  W.,  12'00;  Tar.,  3'20;  B.,  3'00. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Am.  Breeds  from  n.  Ore.,  s.  Wyoming,  s.  Man.,  n. 
Que.,  and  N.  S.  s.  to  Patagonia;  winters  from  n.  Calif,  and  Gulf  States 
southward;  casual  in  winter  n.  to  Mass,  and  s.  Ills. 

Washington,  not  uncommon  S.  R.,  occasional  in  winter.  Long  Island, 
S.  R.,  Apl.  12-Sept.  29;  a  few  winter.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  6-Oct. 
20.  Cambridge,  formerly  P.  R.,  now  found  sparingly  chiefly  in  late  sum- 
mer and  early  fall;  Apl.  IG-Nov.  1.  N.  Ohio,  occasional  in  summer.  Glen 
Ellyn,  quite  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  8-Oct.  15.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R., 
May  15. 

Nest,  of  sticks,  in  colonies,  in  the  upperparts  of  tall  trees,  sometimes  in 
bushes  or  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-6,  pale,  dull  blue,  2*00  x  1*40.  Date, 
San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  29;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  3;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  7. 

These  birds  live  in  colonies  composed  sometimes  of  thousands  of 
pairs.  Their  day  begins  after  sunset,  when  they  leave  their  roosts  and 
start  for  their  feeding-grounds.  Occasionally  they  utter  a  loud,  hoarse 
quawk,  the  origin  of  their  common  name;  and  looking  up  we  may 
catch  a  glimpse  of  them  hurrying  through  the  gloom.  During  the 
nesting-season  the  demands  of  the  young  force  them  to  feed  both  by 
day  and  night. 

1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  76-85  (nesting  on 
L.I.). 

203.  Nyetanassa  violacea  (Linn.).   YELLOW-CROWNED  NIGHT  HERON. 
Ads. — Crown  white,  generally  washed  with  buffy;  ear-coverts  white;  rest  of 
head  and  throat  black;  neck,  breast  and  belly  blue-gray;  back  the  same; 
the  lengthened  interscapulars,   scapulars  and  wing-coverts  streaked  with 
black ;  two  or  three  black  and  white  rounded  occipital  plumes ;  lores  greenish 
yellow;  legs  greenish.    Im. — Crown  black,  the  feathers  streaked  with  white 
or  buffy;  rest  of  upperparts,  including  wing-coverts,  fuscous-brown  with 
wedge-shaped  buffy  or  white  spots;  primaries  dark  bluish  slate-color  without 
rufous;  underparts  white  or  buffy  streaked  with  blackish.    L.,  23*00;  W., 
12-00;  Tar.,  3'75;  B.,  3'00. 

Remarks. — Young  birds  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding species,  but  differ  in  being  darker,  in  having  the  head  darker  than  the 
back,  and  the  primaries  without  rufous. 

Range. — Warm  temperate  and  tropical  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  L.  Calif., 
Kans.,  s.  Ills.,  s.  Ind.,  and  S.  C.  s.  to  Brazil  and  Peru;  casual  n.  to  Colo., 
Ont.,  Mass.,  Maine,  and  N.  S.;  winters  from  s.  L.  Calif.,  and  s.  Fla., 
southward. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  one  record,  Aug.  1901.  Long  Island,  three  records. 
Cambridge,  A.  V.,  one  record,  July. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  in  pairs  or  small  colonies,  generally  on  a 
branch  over  water.  Eggs,  4-5,  pale  dull  blue,  1*95  x  1*45.  Date,  San  Mateo, 
Fla.,  Apl.  2;  aoast,  S.  C.,  Apl.  20. 

This  is  a  less  common  species  than  the  preceding.  It  nests  in  pairs 
along  the  borders  of  wooded  streams  and  is  also  found  nesting  in  asso- 
ciation with  other  Herons. 


CRANES  229 

VIII.  ORDER  PALUDICOL^S.    CRANES,  RAILS,  ETC. 

21.  FAMILY   GRUID^B.    CRANES.    (Fig.  40.) 

The  Cranes  number  nineteen  species,  of  which  three  are  North 
American,  while  the  remaining  sixteen  inhabit  the  Old  World.  They 
frequent  plains  and  marshes,  and  are  omnivorous  feeders,  eating  frogs, 
lizards,  field-mice,  snakes,  etc.,  and  various  kinds  of  vegetable  food. 
Our  species  migrate  in  flocks,  but  are  solitary  rather  than  gregarious 
at  other  times  of  the  year.  Their  voice  is  loud  and  resonant.  Unlike 
the  Herons,  they  fly  with  the  neck  fully  extended.  The  nest  is  placed 
in  the  ground,  and  the  eggs  number  two  or,  rarely,  three.  The  young, 
again  unlike  Herons,  are  born  covered  with  down  and  leave  the  nest 
shortly  after  birth. 

204.  Grus  americana  (Linn.}.  WHOOPING  CRANE.  Ad. — Top  of 
head,  lores  and  sides  of  the  throat  dull  red,  with  a  thin  growth  of  black 
'hairs';  primaries  black,  rest  of  the  plumage  white.  Im. — Similar,  but 
whole  head  feathered,  and  plumage  more  or  less  washed  with  buffy  ochra- 
ceous.  L.,  50-00;  W.,  25*00;  Tar.,  ll'SO;  B.,  5'00. 

Range. — N.  Am.  Bred  formerly  from  N.  Mackenzie  s.  to  Ills,  and  Iowa; 
now  mainly  restricted  to  s.  Mackenzie  and  n.  Sask. ;  in  migration,  formerly 
not  rare  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New  England  to  Fla.  and  casual  west  to 
Colo,  and  Idaho;  winters  from  the  western  Gulf  States  to  cen.  Mex. 

SE.  Minn.,  T.  V.,  Mch  3. 

Nest,  an  islet  of  grasses  and  weed  stalks,  in  marshy  places.  Eggs,  2, 
olive-gray,  spotted  and  blotched  with  distinct  and  obscure  cinnamon- 
brown  markings,  4*00  x  2*50.  Date,  Dubuque,  Iowa,  Apl.  25,  1868. 

This  is  now  one  of  the  rarest  of  North  American  birds.  There  are 
no  recent  records  of  its  nesting.  "In  flight  their  long  necks  and  stiltlike 
legs  are  stretched  out  in  a  line  with  the  body  to  the  full  extent,  moving 
strongly  with  slowly  beating  wings,  but  not  swiftly,  .  .  .  often  cir- 
cling spiral-like  to  a  great  height.  They  occasionally  bunch  up,  and  I 
have  seen  them  in  triangular  form;  but  as  a  rule  they  travel  in  single 
file,  following  their  leader  in  a  wavy  line,  croaking  as  they  go,  like 
hounds  upon  a  cold  trail."  (Goss). 

The  LITTLE  BROWN  CRANE  (205.  Grus  canadensis)  breeds  from  Hudson 
Bay  to  Alaska,  and  winters  in  Texas  and  Mexico.  There  are  but  two  instances 
of  its  occurrence  east  of  the  Mississippi  (Rhode  Island  and  South  Carolina). 
It  resembles  G.  mexicana,  but  is  smaller;  W.,  18*50;  B.,  4*10. 

206.  Grus  mexicana  (Mull}.  SANDHILL  CRANE.  (Fig.  40.)  Ad. — 
Whole  top  of  the  head  to  below  the  eyes  covered  with  rough,  minutely 
warty,  dull  reddish  skin  thinly  grown  with  short,  black  'hairs';  plumage 
brownish  gray,  with  more  or  less  silvery  gray  and  buffy  ochraceous.  Im. — 
Similar,  but  whole  head  feathered,  and  with  more  buffy  ochraceous  in  the 
plumage.  "L.,  40'00-48'00;  W.,  21'83;  Tar.,  10'25;  B.,  5'47"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N.  A.  Resident  in  La.  and  Fla.;  bred,  formerly,  from  s. 
B.  C.,  Sask.,  Man.,  and  w.  Ont.  s.  to  Calif.,  Colo.,  Nebr.,  Ills.,  and  Ohio; 
formerly  in  migration  e.  to  New  England;  now  rare  e.  of  the  Miss.,  except  in 
Fla.,  and  rare  as  a  breeder  in  the  s.  half  of  its  former  breeding  range;  winters 
from  Calif.,  Tex.,  and  La.  s.  to  Mex. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  one  record.   SE.  Minn.,  T.  V.,  Mch.  29. 


230  COURLANS 

Nest,  an  islet,  of  roots,  rushes,  weed  stalks,  etc.,  in  marshy  places.  Eggs, 
2,  olive-gray,  spotted  and  blotched  with  distinct  and  obscure  cinnamon- 
brown  markings,  3*90  x  2'40.  Date,  Lantana,  Fla.,  Mch.  2;  Dubuque,  Iowa, 
May  11,  1865. 

Thanks  to  the  preserving  influences  of  peninsulation,  this  splendid 
bird  is  still  common  in  south-central  Florida,  where  its  loud,  resonant 
trumpeting  is  one  of  the  characteristic  bird-notes.  It  feeds  about  the 
borders  of  sloughs  in  the  prairies  and  pines  and  particularly  over 
burned  areas,  and  is  one  of  the  most  wary  of  birds. 

"During  courtship  and  the  early  breeding  season  their  actions  and 
antics  at  times  are  ludicrous  in  the  extreme,  bowing  and  leaping  high  in 
the  air,  hopping,  skipping,  and  circling  about  with  drooping  wings  and 
croaking  whoop,  an  almost  indescribable  dance  and  din,  in  which  the 
females  (an  exception  to  the  rule)  join,  all  working  themselves  up  into 
a  fever  of  excitement  only  equaled  by  an  Indian  war  dance,  and,  like 
the  same,  it  stops  only  when  the  last  one  is  exhausted"  (Goss). 

22.  FAMILY  ARAMID^E.    COURLANS.    (Fig.  41.) 

Courlans  might  be  called  large  Rails  with  some  of  'the  habits  of 
Herons.  Two  species  are  known,  Aramus  scolopaceus  of  South  America, 
and  A.  vociferus  of  Central  America,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Florida.  They  frequent  the  borders  of  wooded  streams  and  swamps, 
and  at  times  the  uplands.  Their  flight  is  short,  and  when  on  the  wing 
their  legs  dangle  below  them.  Like  the  Herons,  they  perch  in  trees. 
Their  prolonged,  melancholy  call  has  won  for  them  the  name  "Crying- 
bird."  Their  usual  note  is  a  loud,  rather  high  wah-ree-ow;  the  last 
syllable  is  drawn  out  into  a  wail,  and  the  effect  is  most  grewsome. 
Courlans  feed  to  a  large  extent  on  land  shells  (Ampullaria) ,  and,  as 
Barrows  has  shown,  the  tip  of  the  Courlan's  bill  is  sometimes  turned 
slightly  to  one  side,  an  evident  result  of  forcing  it  into  the  spiral  open- 
ing of  the  shell  to  extract  the  animal. 

207.  Aramus  vociferus  (Lath.).  LIMPKIN.  (Fig.  41.)  Ads. — Glossy 
olive-brown,  the  feathers  of  the  head  and  neck  narrowly,  those  of  the  body 
broadly,  striped  with  white;  wings  and  tail  more  bronzy.  Im. — Similar, 
but  paler  and  duller.  L.,  28'00;  W.,  13'00;  Tar.,  4'50;  B.,  4'25. 

Range. — Fla.  Greater  Antilles,  and  both  coasts  of  Cen.  Am.;  casual  n. 
to  S.  C.;  accidental  in  Tex. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  in  a  bush  or  small  tree.  Eggs,  4-7,  pale  buffy 
white,  blotched,  stained  and  speckled  with  light  cinnamon-brown,  2'30  x  1'70. 
Date,  Ocklawhaha  River,  Fla.,  Mch.  6. 

This  is  a  locally  common  species  in  Florida.  Its  general  habits 
are  described  in  the  remarks  on  the  family  Aramidce. 

23.  FAMILY  RALLID^J.    RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND  COOTS.    (Fig.  39.) 

The  one  hundred  and  eighty  odd  species  contained  in  this  family  are 
distributed  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  world,  fifteen  species 
inhabiting  North  America.  Rails  and  Gallinules  are  not  strictly  gre- 


RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND  COOTS  231 

garious,  but  are  generally  associated  through  a  community  of  interests; 
Coots,  however,  are  usually  found  in  flocks.  Rails  inhabit  grassy 
marshes,  in  which  they  seek  safety  by  running  or  hiding,  taking  to 
wing,  when  pursued,  only  as  a  last  resort.  Their  large,  strong  legs, 
therefore,  have  been  developed  at  the  expense  of  their  weak,  rounded 
wings.  In  several  island  species,  this  degeneracy  of  wing  has  been  carried 
to  such  an  extreme  that  the  birds  have  lost  the  power  of  flight.  At  the 
best,  their  flight  when  flushed  is  short  and  labored,  and  with  dangling 
legs  they  soon  drop  back  into  cover.  Nevertheless,  they  perform 
extended  migrations,  traveling  hundreds  of  miles  without  resting. 

Gallinules  live  near  the  marshy  borders  of  bodies  of  water,  while 
the  more  aquatic  Coots  resemble  some  Ducks  in  habits.  They  are  at 
times  noisy  birds  and  are  more  often  heard  than  seen.  All  the  forms 
nest  on  the  ground,  laying  generally  large  sets  of  eggs,  and  the  young 
are  born  covered  with  (usually  black)  down  and  can  run  soon  after 
hatching. 

KEY    TO    THE     SPECIES 

I.  Bill  over  1-75. 

A.  Cheeks  below  the  eye  einnamon-rufous,  like  the  breast;  flanks  black 

barred  with  white;  upperparts  rich  olive-brown  streaked  with  black. 

208.  KING  RAIL. 

B.  Cheek  below  the  eye  gray;  flanks  generally  gray  or  brownish,  barred 

with  white;  upperparts  generally  grayish,  streaked  with  black. 

211.  CLAPPER  RAIL  and  races. 
II.  Bill  under  1'75. 

A.  Wing  over  6'00. 

a.  General  color  blue,  feet  yellow 218.  PURPLE  GALLINTTLE. 

6.  General  color  slaty,  feet  dark  greenish. 

61.  Toes  with  large  scalloped  webs  or  flaps  at  the  side  .  .  .  221.  COOT. 

b2.  Toes  without  flaps  or  webs 219.  FLORIDA  GALLINULE. 

B.  Wing  under  6'00. 

a.  Wing  under  3'50. 

a1.  Back  blackish,  with  small  round,  white  spots.  216.  BLACK  RAIL. 
a2.  Back  blackish,  barred  with  white  and  margined  with  buffy. 

215.  YELLOW  RAIL. 

b.  Wing  over  3 '50. 

bl.  Bill  over  I'OO 212.  VIRGINIA  RAIL. 

c1.  Bill  under  I'OO. 

c2.  Wing  over  4' 50,  lesser  wing-coverts  rufous  .  217.  CORN  CRAKE. 

c3.  Wing  under  4'50,  lesser  wing-coverts  olive 214.  SORA. 

208.  Rallus  elegans  Aud.  KING  RAIL.  Ads. — Upperparts  varying 
from  olive-brown  to  black,  the  back  and  scapulars  widely  margined  with 
olive-gray;  wings  and  tail  olive-brown;  wing-coverts  rufous;  throat  white; 
neck  and  breast  cinnamon-rufous;  belly  and  sides  fuscous,  sharply  barred 
with  white.  Downy  Young. — Glossy  black.  L.,  15*00;  W.,  6'50;  Tar.,  2'20; 
B.,  2-40. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  Nebr.,  s.  Minn.,  Ont.,  N.  Y.,  and  Conn. 
s.  to  Tex.,  Fla.,  and  Cuba;  winters  mainly  in  the  s.  part  of  its  breeding 
range. 

Washington,  uncommon  S.  R.,  almost  a  P.  R.  Long  Island,  rare  S.  R. 
Cambridge,  casual.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  5.  Glen 
Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  19-Sept.  16.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  15. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground  in  fresh-water  marshes.  Eggs,  7-12, 
buffy  white,  more  heavily  spotted  and  speckled  with  rufous-brown  than 


232  RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND  COOTS 

those  of  the  next  species,  1*68  x  1'20.  Date,  Mercer  Co.,  111.,  May  5;  Raleigh, 
N.  C.,  May  31;  se.  Minn.,  June  6. 

The  King  Rail  is  the  fresh-water  representative  of  the  Clapper  Rail. 
It  is,  however,  a  much  less  common  bird,  and  less  is  known  of  its  habits. 
Like  other  Rails,  it  is  a  skulker,  and  never  flies  when  it  can  escape 
by  running  or  hiding  in  the  dense  grass  of  its  home.  On  three  occasions 
I  have  heard  what  I  am  quite  sure  was  the  King  Rail's  call,  a  loud, 
startling  bup,  bup,  bup,  bup,  bup,  uttered  with  increasing  rapidity 
until  the  syllables  were  barely  distinguishable,  then  ending  somewhat 
as  it  began.  The  whole  performance  occupied  about  five  seconds. 

211.  Rallus  crepitans  crepitans  Gmel.  CLAPPER  RAIL.  (Fig.  39,  a.) 
Ad. — Upperparts  very  pale  greenish  olive,  the  feathers  widely  margined 
with  gray;  wings  and  tail  grayish  brown;  wing-coverts  pale  cinnamon 
much  washed  with  gray;  throat  white;  neck  and  breast  pale,  between  ochra- 
ceous  and  cream-buff,  more  or  less  washed  with  grayish ;  belly  and  sides  gray 
or  brownish  gray,  barred  with  white.  Downy  young — Glossy  black.  L., 
14-50;  W.,  5'00;  Tar.,  2'00;  B.,  2'50. 

Remarks. — The  Clapper  Rail  may  always  be  known  from  the  King  Rail 
by  its  generally  grayish  instead  of  brownish  or  blackish  upperparts,  and  its 
much  paler  breast  and  flanks  and  paler  wing-coverts. 

Range. — Salt  marshes  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  Breeds  from  Conn,  to  N. 
C.;  winters  mainly  s.  of  N.  J.;  casual  n.  to  Maine. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  one  record.  Long  Island,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.-Oct., 
a  few  winter.  Ossining,  A.  V. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  near  or  on  the  ground,  in  grass-grown,  salt-water  marshes. 
Eggs,  8-12,  buffy  white,  spotted  and  speckled  with  rufous-brown,  1*72  x  1*20. 
Date,  Cpbb's  Island,  Va.,  May  19;  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  May  24. 

The  Clapper  Rail  is  an  inhabitant  of  grassy,  salt-water  marshes,  and, 
in  the  southern  parts  of  its  range,  of  mangrove  swamps.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  flush  these  birds  unless  their  haunts  are  invaded  by  an 
unusually  high  tide,  when  a  boat  may  be  pushed  through  the  meadows 
and  the  birds  forced  to  take  wing.  I  have  heard  birds  calling  in  the 
tall  grass  within  a  few  feet  of  me,  and  have  made  a  wild  rush  in  their 
direction,  only  to  be  mocked  a  moment  later  by  apparently  the  same 
bird  calling  from  a  point  almost  within  reach.  They  dodge  about  over 
well-traveled  pathways  like  children  in  a  game  of  blindman's  buff. 

While  not  strictly  gregarious,  they  live  in  colonies,  and  the  call  of 
one  bird  is  sometimes  taken  up  and  repeated  by  others  until  the  marsh 
vibrates  with  their  cries. 

21  la.  R.  c.  saturatus  Hensh.  LOUISIANA  CLAPPER  RAIL.  A  local  race 
of  the  Clapper  Rail  found  in  the  marshes  of  Louisiana.  It  is  much  darker 
than  crepitans,  but  not  so  dark  as  scottii.  "W.,  5*65;  Tar.,  T97;  B.,  2*27" 
(Ridgw.). 

Range. — Coast  of  Louisiana. 

2 lib.  R.  c.  scotti  Senn.  FLORIDA  CLAPPER  RAIL.  Differs  from 
crepitans  in  being  black,  fuscous  or  olive-brown  above,  with  olive-gray  mar- 
gins to  the  feathers;  in  haying  the  neck  and  breast  cinnamon-rufous  washed 
with  brownish,  and  in  having  the  belly  and  flanks  black  instead  of  gray.  In 
fact,  the  general  color  of  scottii  suggests  a  King  Rail,  but  the  latter  may 


RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND   COOTS  233 

always  be  known  by  its  rufous  wing-coverts  and  clear  cinnamon-rufous  neck 
and  breast.   W.,  5'50;  Tar.,  1'90;  B.,  2'40. 

Range. — Salt  marshes  of  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida. 

Nesting  date,  Raccoon  Pass,  La.,  May  19. 

211c.  R.  c.  waynei  (Brewst.}.  WAYNE'S  CLAPPER  RAIL.  "Similar  to 
R.  crepitans,  but  the  general  coloring  much  darker,  the  underparts  with 
more  ashy,  the  under  tail-coverts  with  fewer  markings"  (Brewst.,  Proc. 
N.  E.  Zool.  Club,  I,  1899,  p.  50). 

Range. — Salt  marshes  of  the  s.  Atlantic  coast  from  N.  C.  to  Fla. 

Nesting  date,  Mclntosh,  Ga.,  Mch.  29;  Ft.  Macon,  N.  C.,  May  9. 

212.  Rallus  virginianus  Linn.  VIRGINIA  RAIL.  Ad. — Upperparts 
fuscous  or  black,  the  feathers  bordered  by  pale  grayish  brown;  wings  and 
tail  dark  grayish  brown;  wing-coverts  rufous,  lores  whitish,  cheeks  gray, 
throat  white,  rest  of  the  underparts  cinnamon-rufous;  flanks  and  under  tail- 
coverts  barred  or  spotted  with  black  and  white.  Downy  young. — Glossy 
black.  L.,  9'50;  W.,  4'30;  Tar.,  1'30;  B.,  1'50. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  B.  C.,  s.  Sask.,  s.  Keewatin,  Ont.,  s.  Que., 
and  N.  B.  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  Utah,  Kans.,  Mo.,  Ills.,  N.  J.,  and  e.  N.  C.,  and  in 
Toluca  Valley,  Mex.;  winters  from  Ore.,  Utah,  and  Colo.,  to  L.  Calif,  and 
Guatemala,  also  in  the  Lower  Miss.  States,  and  from  N.  C.  (casually  Mass.) 
to  Fla. ;  occurs  casually  n.  to  n.  Que.  and  N.  F. 

Washington,  probably  P.  R.  Long  Island,  rather  common  S.  R.,  Apl.- 
Oct. ;  a  few  winter.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  to  Sept.  29.  Cambridge, 
locally  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  25.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25- 
Sept.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Sept.  13.  SE.  Minn., 
common  S.  R.,  May  12. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground  in  marshes.  Eggs,  6-12,  pale  buffy  white, 
spotted  and  speckled  with  rufous-brown,  1'26  x  '96.  Date,  Cambridge, 
May  15;  Pewaukee,  Wise.,  May  20;  se.  Minn.,  May  28. 

In  almost  any  extensive  fresh  or  brackish  marsh,  especially  if  it 
has  beds  of  cat-tail  flags  or  scattered  thickets  of  low  bushes  and  briers, 
one  may  hear  in  May  and  June,  particularly  in  the  early  morning,  late 
afternoon,  or  during  cloudy  weather,  a  succession  of  grunting  sounds 
not  unlike  those  of  a  hungry  pig.  Although  by  no  means  loud,  they 
have  a  pentrating  quality  which  makes  them  carry  to  a  considerable 
distance;  and  they  are  apt  to  attract  attention  even  when,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  they  mingle  with  the  songs  of  innumerable  Red-winged  Black- 
birds, Marsh  Wrens,  and  other  swamp-loving  birds.  It  is  no  easy  matter 
to  trace  them  to  their  author,  but  if  you  are  persevering  and  at  the 
same  time  fortunate,  you  may  at  length  discover  him  skulking  under 
a  bush  or  behind  a  tuft  of  grass.  He  is  the  Virginia  Rail,  an  odd-look- 
ing bird  about  the  size  of  a  Snipe.  If  you  remain  motionless,  he  may 
presently  come  out  into  fairer  view  and  walk  slowly  around  the  edge 
of  some  A,  lifting  and  putting  down  his  large  feet  with  curious 
deliberation,  cocking  up  his  absurdly  short  tail  at  each  step,  and  every 
now  and  then  stopping  to  thrust  his  bill  deep  into  the  ooze  in  search  of 
food.  As  he  pauses  to  look  at  you,  you  are  struck  by  his  half-quizzical, 
half-sinister  expression,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  his  eyes  are 
blood-red  and  deeply  sunk  in  their  long,  narrow  head.  Startle  him  by 
some  sudden  movement,  and  he  will  do  one  of  three  things — dart  back 
into  cover  as  swiftly  as  a  frightened  mouse,  skip  across  the  pool  over 


234  RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND  COOTS 

the  floating  leaves  of  the  water  plants,  using  both  wings  and  feet,  or 
rise  with  feebly  fluttering  wings  and  hanging  legs  to  fly  only  a  few 
rods  before  dropping  beyond  some  intervening  screen  of  grass  or  bushes. 
In  any  case  you  are  not  likely  to  find  him  again  on  this  occasion. 

Besides  the  grunting  sound,  the  Virginia  Rail  utters  during  the 
breeding  season,  especially  at  night  and  in  lowering  weather,  a  gut- 
tural cut,  cutta-cutta-cutta,  often  repeated  at  brief  intervals  for  hours 
in  succession.  This  cry  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  male,  and  is,  no 
doubt,  his  love-song.  When  heard  at  a  distance  of  only  a  few  yards  it 
has  a  vibrating,  almost  unearthly,  quality,  and  seems  to  issue  from  the 
ground  directly  beneath  one's  feet.  The  female,  when  anxious  about 
her  eggs  or  young,  calls  ki-ki-ki  in  low  tones,  and  kiu  much  like  a 
Flicker.  The  young  of  both  sexes  in  autumn  give,  when  startled,  a 
short,  explosive  kep  or  kik,  closely  similar  to  that  of  the  Carolina  Rail. 

WILLIAM  BBEWSTEK, 

214.  Porzana  Carolina  (Linn.).  SORA.  (Fig.  39c.)  Ad. — Region 
about  the  base  of  the  bill,  center  of  crown,  and  a  line  down  the  middle  of  the 
neck  black;  rest  of  the  breast  and  throat,  sides  of  the  head,  and  front  part 
of  the  crown  pale  blue-gray;  rest  of  the  upperparts  olive-brown,  most  of  the 
feathers  with  black  centers,  the  scapulars  and  back  streaked  on  each  side 
with  white;  wings  fuscous-brown,  their  coverts  grayish  cinnamon,  outer 
edge  of  first  primary  white;  lower  belly  white,  flanks  barred  with  black  and 
white.  Im. — Similar,  but  without  black  at  the  base  of  the  bill  or  on  the 
throat;  breast  washed  with  cinnamon  and  upperparts  darker.  L.,  8'50; 
W.,  4'30;  Tar.,  1'30;  B.,  '80. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin, 
and  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  Utah,  Colo.,  Kans.,  Ills.,  and  N.  J.; 
winters  from  n.  Calif.,  Ills.,  and  S.  C.  through  the  West  Indies  and  Cen.  Am. 
to  Venezuela  and  Peru;  accidental  in  Bermuda,  Greenland  and  England. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.-May;  July-Nov.  Long  Island,  com- 
mon T.  V.,  Apl.  and  May;  Aug.-Oct. ;  rare  S.  R.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.  May; 
Aug.  19-Oct.  24.  Cambridge,  locally  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  15-Oct.  31.  N. 
Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Oct.  23.  Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  14-Oct.  17.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Dec.  5. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground  in  or  near  marshes.  Eggs,  8-15,  buffy 
white  or  ochraceous-buff,  spotted  and  speckled  with  rufous-brown,  1'24  x 
*90.  Date,  Cambridge,  May  20;  se.  Minn.,  June  3;  Pewaukee,  Wise., 
May  19. 

The  Soras'  summer  home  is  in  fresh-water  marshes,  where,  if  it 
were  not  for  their  notes,  the  reeds  and  grasses  would  long  keep  the 
secret  of  their  presence.  But  knowing  their  calls,  you  have  only  to 
pass  a  May  or  June  evening  near  a  marsh  to  learn  whether  they  in- 
habit it.  If  there,  they  will  greet  you  late  in  the  afternoon  with  a  clear 
whistled  ker-wee,  which  soon  comes  from  dozens  of  invisible  birds 
about  you,  and  long  after  night  has  fallen  it  continues  like  a  spring- 
time chorus  of  piping  hylas.  Now  and  again  it  is  interrupted  by  a 
high-voiced,  rolling  whinny  which,  like  a  call  of  alarm,  is  taken  up  and 
repeated  by  different  birds  all  over  the  marsh. 

They  seem  so  absorbed  by  their  musical  devotions  that  even  when 
calling  continuously  it  requires  endless  patience  and  keen  eyes  to  see 


RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND   COOTS  235 

th3  dull-colored,  motionless  forms  in  places  where  one  would  not  sup- 
pose there  was  sufficient  growth  to  conceal  them. 

Floating  silently  near  the  shore  on  my  back  in  a  canoe,  I  have  seen 
them  venture  out  to  feed.  With  tails  erect  they  step  gingerly  along, 
evidently  aware  of  their  exposed  position,  for  on  the  least  alarm  they 
dart  back  to  cover.  Sometimes  they  cross  small  streams  by  swim- 
ming, and  they  are  expert  divers. 

In  the  fall  they  gather  in  the  wild-rice  or  wild-oat  (Zizania  aquat- 
ica)  marshes,  and  a  well-directed  stone  or  unusual  noise  may  bring  a 
series  of  protesting  interrogative  kuks  or  peeps  from  the  apparently 
deserted  reeds.  At  this  season  "gunners"  in  small  flat-bottomed  boats 
are  poled  through  the  flooded  meadows,  and  the  Soras,  waiting  until 
the  last  moment,  rise  on  feeble  wing — a  mark  which  few  can  miss. 
Numerous  puffs  of  smoke  float  over  the  tall  grasses,  and  the  dull  reports 
come  booming  across  the  marsh  with  fateful  frequency. 

The  SPOTTED  CRAKE  (213.  Porzana  porzana) — an  Old  World  representa- 
tive of  our  Sora — is  recorded  as  "occasional  in  Greenland." 

215.  Coturnicops   noveboracensis    (GmeL).     YELLOW   RAIL.      (Fig. 
39,  6.)    Ads. — Upperparts  black,  the  feathers  bordered  with  ochraceous-buff 
and  with  from  one  to  three  narrow  white  bars;  breast  ochraceous-buff;  mid- 
dle of  the  belly  white;  sides  and  lower  belly  black  or  brownish,  barred  with 
white.    L.,  7-00;  W.,  3'40;  Tar.,  '95;  B.,  '52. 

Range. — Chiefly  e.  N.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin, 
and  s.  Ungava  s.  to  Minn,  and  Maine;  winters  in  the  Gulf  States,  rarely 
in  Calif.,  Ills.,  and  N.  C.;  casual  in  Nev.,  Utah,  and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  Mch.-Apl.  14;  Oct.  4-Nov.  12.  Long  Island,  rare, 
probably  S.  R.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.,  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  rare  S.  R.  SE.  Minn., 
rare,  May  14-Sept.  24. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  in  grassy  marshes.  Eggs,  6-10,  creamy  buff,  densely 
sprinkled  and  speckled  on  larger  end  with  rusty  brown,  1*12  x  '83  (Ridgw.). 
Date,  Winnebago,  Ills.,  May  17. 

This  little  Rail  inhabits  marshes  with  others  of  its  family.  It  seems 
to  know  that  it  can  escape  its  enemies  much  more  easily  by  hiding  in 
the  tangled  grasses  of  its  home  than  by  taking  wing,  and  it  flies  only 
to  avoid  actual  capture.  It  can  be  hunted  successfully,  therefore,  only 
with  dogs. 

Nuttall  describes  its  notes  as  "an  abrupt  and  cackling  cry,  'krek, 
}krek,  'krek,  'krek,  'kuk,  'k'kh,"  and  compares  them  to  the  croaking  of 
the  tree  frog,  while  a  captive  bird  in  the  possession  of  J.  H.  Ames  uttered 
a  scolding  kik-kik-kik-kik-queah.  (Auk,  XIX,  p.  94.) 

216.  Creciscus  jamaicensis  (Gmel).    LITTLE  BLACK  RAIL.    (Fig.  14.) 
Ads. — Head,   breast  and  upper  belly  slate-color;  lower   belly  and  wings 
brownish  black,  barred  or  spotted  with  white;  nape  dark  reddish  brown. 
L.,  5-00;  W.,  2-80;  Tar.,  '80;  B.,  '60. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  Ont.  and  Mass.  s.  to  Kans.,  Ills., 
and  S.  C.;  winters  from  Tex.  e.  through  the  Gulf  States  and  s.  to  Jamaica 
and  Guatemala;  casual  in  Bermuda. 

Washington,  rare,  May,  June,  Sept.  Long  Island,  rare,  probably  S.  R. 
N.  Ohio,  rare  S.  R. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground  in  marshes.    Eggs,  8-10,  white,  thinly 


236  RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND   COOTS 

sprinkled  with  reddish  brown  dots,  more  numerous  at  the  larger  end,  1*00  x 
•80  (Nelson,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  I,  1876,  43).  Date,  Saybrook,  Conn., 
July  10;  Garden  City,  Kans.,  June  6. 

This  bird  is  about  as  difficult  to  observe  as  a  field-mouse.  It  is  said  to 
prefer  grassy  meadows,  where  it  never  flies  when  it  can  escape  by 
running  or  hiding.  Apparently  it  is  not  common.  Wayne  describes  the 
call  of  the  female  as  croo-croo-croo-o,  like  the  beginning  of  the  song  of 
the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo.  To  this  the  male  responded  kik,  kik,  kik,  kik, 
or  kuk,  kuk,  kuk,  kuk. 

1900.  ALLEN,  J.  A.,  Auk,  XVII,  1-8  (historical);  STONE,  W.,  Ibid,  171 
(nesting).— 1901.  BREWSTEB,  W.,  Ibid,  XVIII,  321-328  (in  Mass.).— 1905. 
WAYNE,  A.  T.,  The  Warbler,  No.  2.— 1910.  Bds.  So.  Car.,  39  (nesting), 

The  CORN  CRAKE  (217.  Crex  crex),  a  bird  of  Europe  and  northern  Asia,  is 
casual  in  Greenland,  Bermudas  and  eastern  North  America.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  Clapper  Rail,  but  has  a  bill  no  larger  than  that  of  the  Sora.  The 
general  color  of  the  upperparts  is  between  ochraceous-buff  and  cream-buff, 
the  feathers  with  black  centers;  the  wing-coverts  arid  most  of  the  quills  are 
pale  rufous;  the  breast  is  pale  ochraceous-buff;  the  sides  are  the  same,  barred 
with  white;  the  middle  of  the  belly  is  white. 

218.  lonornis  martinicus  (Linn.).    PURPLE  GALLINULE.    Ad. — Front 
of  crown  with  a  bare,  bluish  plumbeous  plate;  rest  of  Ifead  and  underparts 
rich  dark  purplish  blue;  under  tail-coverts  white;  back  shining  olive-green; 
wings  light  blue  tinged  with  greenish ;  bill  carmine,  tipped  with  pale  greenish 
(in  skins,  reddish  orange,  tipped  with  yellowish) ;  legs  yellow.    Im. — Upper- 
parts  more  or  less  washed  with  brownish;  underparts  more  or  less  mottled 
with  white;  plate  on  the  head  smaller;  bill  without  orange-red.   Downy  young. 
— Glossy  black,  head  with  numerous  white,  hairtike  feathers;  base  of  the  bill 
yellowish,  end  black.    L.,  13'00;  W.,  7*10;  Tar.,  2'40;  B.,  from  posterior 
margin  of  nostril,  '80. 

Range. — Tropical  and  subtropical  Am.  Breeds  from  Tex.,  Tenn.,  and 
S.  C.,  s.  through  Mex.  and  the  West  Indies  to  Ecuador  and  Paraguay;  winters 
from  Tex.,  La.,  and  Fla.  southward;  irregularly  n.  in  summer  to  Ariz., 
Nebr.,  Wise.,  Ont.,  Que.,  N.  S.,  and  N.  B.;  accidental  in  England  and 
Bermuda. 

Long  Island,  two  records. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  reed  stalks  built  in  rushes  over  the  water  or  in  grassy 
marshes.  Eggs,  4-10,  buffy  white,  finely  speckled  with  rufous-brown  1*60  x 
1'15.  Date,  Avery's  Is.,  La.,  Apl.  15;  Coast  S.  C.,  May  21. 

This  is  a  common  species  on  ponds  densely  grown  with  yellow  pond- 
lilies  (in  Florida  known  as  'bonnets')  and  other  aquatic  plants,  where  it 
may  be  seen  walking  daintily  over  the  leaves  or  swimming  when  occasion 
requires.  It  may  be  easily  identified  by  its  bright  colors  and  conspicuous 
white  under  tail-coverts.  The  latter  are  especially  evident  when  the 
bird  takes  wing. 

219.  Gallinula  galeata  galeata  (Licht.).     FLORIDA  GALLINULE.    Ad. 
— Dark  bluish  slate-color;   back  and   scapulars  washed  with  olive-brown; 
belly  whitish;  flanks  with  a  few  conspicuous  white  streaks;  under  tail-coverts 
white;  crown  with  a  bare,  bright-red  plate;  bill  the  same  color  tipped  with 
yellowish ;  legs  bright-red  at  the  tibiae.  Im. — Similar,  but  underparts  grayish 
white;  crown  plate  much  smaller  and  with  the  bill  brownish;  no  red  on  the 
legs.   Downy  young. — "Glossy  black,  the  lowerparts  sooty  along  the  median 
line;  throat  and  cheeks  interspersed  with  silvery  white  hairs"    (Ridgw.). 
L.,  13*50;  W.,  7*00;  Tar.,  215;  B.,  from  posterior  margin  of  nostril,  *8Q. 


RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND  COOTS  237 

Range, — Tropical  and  temperate  Am.  Breeds  from  cen.  Calif.,  Ariz., 
Nebr.,  Minn.,  Ont.,  N.  Y.,  and  Vt.  s.  through  the  West  Indies  and  Mex.  to 
Chile  and  Argentina,  and  in  the  Galapagos  and  Bermuda;  winters  from  s. 
Calif.,  Ariz.,  Tex.,  and  Ga.  southward;  casual  in  Colo.,  Que.,  N.  S.,  N.  B., 
and  Maine. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  Apl.;  Aug.-Oct.  Long  Island,  uncommon  T.  V., 
May;  Sept.  and  Oct. ;  a  few  breed.  Ossining,  rare  S.  R.,  June  5-Nov.  5.  Cam- 
bridge, uncommon  S.  R.,  May  15-Oct.  25.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25- 
Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  and  local  S.  R.,  May  26.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R. 

Nest,  of  rushes  on  a  bed  of  rushes  or  similar  slight  elevation  in  marshes, 
lagoons,  or  swampy  lake  sides.  Eggs,  8-13,  buffy  white  or  ochraceous-buff, 
spotted  and  speckled  with  rufous-brown,  1*80  x  1*25.  Date,  Coast  S.  C., 
May  21;  Cambridge,  June  5;  Pewaukee,  Wise.,  May  20. 

There  is  something  about  the  appearance  and  habits  of  Gallinules 
which  always  suggests  to  me  the  thought  that  they  are  chickens  which 
for  unknown  reasons  have  been  forced  to  adopt  the  ways  of  both  Coots 
and  Rails.  Indeed,  the  names  Water-hen  and  Moor-hen  are  applied 
to  near  relatives  of  our  bird. 

They  frequent  marshy,  reed-  or  bush-grown  shores  of  ponds  and 
lakes,  walking  gracefully  through  the  tangled  vegetation.  Their  flight 
is  short,  and,  like  a  Rail,  with  dangling  legs  they  drop  awkwardly  to  the 
ground.  They  swim  readily,  and  when  on  the  water  resemble  a  Coot, 
though  they  are  by  no  means  so  aquatic.  Their  notes  are  loud  and 
varied,  and  during  the  nesting  season  they  are  unusually  noisy.  Their 
common  note  is  an  explosive  chuck;  other  calls  are  suggestive  of  the 
barnyard,  and  remind  one  of  the  protest  of  a  disturbed  brooding  hen 
or  even  the  squawking  of  a  struggling  fowl. 

BREWSTER,  WM.,  Auk,  VII,  1-7  (nesting  in  Mass.). — 1910.  MILLER, 
R.  F.,  Auk,  XXVII,  181-184  (nesting  in  Pa.). 

The  EUROPEAN  COOT  (220.  Fulica  atra)  inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Old  World,  and  sometimes  occurs  in  Greenland.  It  closely  resembles  the 
American  Coot,  but  lacks  the  white  markings  on  the  edge  of  the  wing  and 
under  tail-coverts. 

221.  Fulica  americana  Gmel.  COOT.  (Figs.  216;  39e.)  Ads. — Head 
and  neck  blackish;  rest  of  plumage  dark,  bluish  slate-color,  paler  below; 
edge  of  wing,  tips  of  secondaries,  and  under  tail-coverts  white ;  bill  whitish, 
two  spots  near  its  tip  and  crown  plate  brownish ;  legs  and  feet  greenish ;  toes 
with  scalloped  flaps.  Im. — Similar,  but  much  whiter  below,  a  slight  brownish 
wash  above;  crown  plate  much  smaller.  Downy  young. — Blackish,  white 
below;  throat  and  upperparts  with  numerous  bright  orange  hairlike  feathers; 
lores  red;  bill  red,  tipped  with  black.  L.,  15*00;  W.,  7'50;  Tar.,  2'25;  B. 
from  posterior  margin  of  nostril,  '80. 

Remarks. — The  Coot  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the  Florida  Gal- 
linule,  but;  aside  from  the  differences  in  color,  the  scalloped  webbed  feet  of 
the  Coot  will  always  serve  to  distinguish  it. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  Man.,  Que.,  and 
N.  B.  s.  to  n.  L.  Calif.,  Tex.,  Tenn.,  and  N.  J.,  and  also  in  s.  Mex.,  s.  West 
Indies,  and  Guatemala;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Nev.,  Utah,  the  Ohio  Valley, 
and  Va.,  s.  to  Colombia;  casual  at  Fort  Yukon,  Alaska,  and  in  Greenland, 
Lab.  and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.-May;  Sept.  1-Oct.  31.  Long  Island, 
uncommon,  T.  V.,  Apl.;  not  uncommon,  Sept.-Nov.  (Butcher).  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  28-May  16;  Sept.  22-Nov.  13.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  rare 
in  Apl.;  not  uncommon,  Sept.  15-Oct.  25.  N,  Ohio,  tolerably  common  T. 


238  RAILS,  GALLINULES,  AND  COOTS 

V.,  Mch.  15-May   5;  Sept.  1-Nov.  1.    Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
14-Oct.  4.   SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  3-Oct.  14. 

Nest,  of  reeds,  grasses,  etc.,  among  reeds  in  fresh-water  marshes.  Eggs, 
8-15,  pale,  buffy  white,  finely  and  uniformly  speckled  with  chocolate  or 
black,  1'85  x  1'25.  Date,  St.  Glair  Flats,  Mich.,  May  17;  se.  Minn.,  May  27. 

As  one  might  imagine  after  seeing  their  lobed  feet,  Coots  are  more 
aquatic  than  either  of  the  Gallinules.  In  the  Middle  States  they  are 
found  in  creeks  and  rivers  with  marshy  and  reed-grown  shores,  while 
in  Florida  they  resort  in  enormous  numbers  to  lakes  covered  with  the 
yellow  lilies  locally  known  as  'bonnets'  (Nymphcea);  and  in  some  of  the 
large,  shallow  rivers,  like  Indian  River,  they  may  be  found  in  myriads, 
associated  with  Lesser  Scaup  Ducks. 

In  my  experience  they  are  as  a  rule  quite  shy;  but  near  the  long 
railway  pier  at  Titusville,  Florida,  where  shooting  is  prohibited,  they 
are  as  tame  as  domestic  Ducks.  They  evidently  know  the  boundary 
line  between  safety  and  danger,  however,  and  when  beyond  the  pro- 
tected limits  show  their  usual  caution. 

Coots  swim  easily,  with  a  peculiar  bobbing  motion  of  the  head  and 
neck.  When  alarmed  they  patter  over  the  water,  using  their  feet  as 
much  as  their  wings.  Both  the  sound  produced  and  the  wake  left  are 
characteristic. 

They  are  noisy  birds,  and  when  alarmed  break  out  into  a  great 
chorus  of  high,  cackling  notes  which  I  have  heard  at  a  distance  of  half 
a  mile.  Their  ivory-white  bill  is  an  excellent  field-mark,  and  readily 
serves  to  distinguish  Coots  from  Gallinules. 

1902.  EVERMANN,  B.  W.,  The  Osprey,  57  (feeding  habits). 


IX.  ORDER   LIMICOUE.    SHORE   BIRDS 

Although  placed  in  several  well-defined  family  groups,  the  Limicolae 
have  many  traits  in  common.  Their  center  of  abundance  is  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  a  large  number  of  species  nesting 
in  the  Arctic  zone.  Many  of  these  winter  in  the  southern  portions  of  the 
Southern  Hemisphere,  their  migrations,  therefore,  being  the  most  ex- 
tended of  those  performed  by  birds.  With  the  exception  of  the  European 
Green  Sandpiper  and  its  American  representative,  our  Solitary  Sand- 
piper, the  Limicolae  all  nest  on  the  ground,  the  nest  being  more  or  less 
simple  in  structure.  The  eggs,  usually  four  in  number,  are  large  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bird,  and  are  decidedly  conical  in  shape, 
and  some  species,  at  least,  arrange  them  in  the  nest,  point  down,  in 
order  that  the  exposed  upper  surface  may  be  decreased  in  extent  and 
thus  be  more  easily  and  fully  covered  by  the  sitting  bird.  The  young 
are  born  with  a  downy  covering,  usually  of  soft  browns,  grays  and  buffs, 
and  with  more  or  less  pronounced  markings,  and  can  run  about  actively, 
shortly  after  hatching.  This  natal  down  is  soon  followed  by  the  Juvenal 
plumage,  to  the  tips  of  which  it  may,  in  places,  be  seen  adhering. 


PHALAROPES  239 

With  some  species  (e.  g.,  Spotted  and  Solitary  Sandpipers)  there  is 
no  post  Juvenal  molt,  the  post  Juvenal  plumage  being  also  the  first 
winter  plumage.  The  larger  number,  however,  acquire  a  winter  plumage 
by  post  Juvenal  molt  during  the  fall  migration.  At  the  postnuptial 
molt,  which  often  occurs  during  migration,  the  adults  assume  a  plumage 
similar  to  the  first  winter  plumage  of  the  immature  bird,  when,  as  a  rule, 
old  and  young  birds,  males  and  females,  are  alike  in  color.  The  spring 
or  prenuptial  molt  often  begins  in  January  or  February,  which  involves 
all  the  body  feathers,  and,  in  some  cases,  also  the  wings  and  tail  (see 
Dwight). 

1888.  SEEBOHM,  H.,  Distribution  of  the  Family  Charadriidse,  4to,  pp.  524, 
plls.  21. — 1895.  ELLIOT,  D.  G.,  North  American  Shore  Birds,  8vo,  pp.  268; 
plls.  74  (Francis  Harper). — 1897.  CORY,  C.  B.,  How  to  Know  the  Shore 
Birds,  8vo,  pp.  89;  many  ills. — 1900.  DWIGHT,  J.,  JR.,  The  Moult  of 
the  North  American  Shore  Birds,  Auk,  XVII,  368-385. — 1903.  HUNT- 
INGTON,  D.  W.,  Our  Feathered  Game,  8vo,  pp.  396,  plls.  37.  — 1903. 
SANFORD,  L.  C.,  BISHOP,  L.  B.,  VAN  DYKE,  T.  S.,  The  Water-Fowl  Family, 
12mo,  pp.  ix  +  598,  plls.  20  (Macmillan). — 1905.  JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild  Wings, 
203-255.  (Hough ton,  Mifflin.) — 1905.  CLARK,  A.  H.,  Migrations  of  Certain 
Shore  Birds,  Auk,  XXII,  134-140.— 1907.  RICH,  W.  H.,  Feathered  Game  of 
the  Northeast,  8vo,  pp.  432,  plls.  87. — 1910.  COOKE,  W.  W,  Distribution 
and  Migration  of  North  American  Shore  Birds,  Bull.  35,  Biol.  Surv.  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.,  plls.  4,  pp.  100. 

24.  FAMILY  PHALAROPODIDJE.    PHALAROPES.  (Fig.  43a.) 

There  are  three  known  members  of  this  family:  one  is  confined  to 
the  interior  of  North  America,  the  other  two  may  be  called  Sea  Snipe, 
and  are  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The 
lobate  feet  of  these  pelagic  species  enable  them  to  swim  with  ease,  and 
during  their  migrations  they  may  be  found  in  flocks  resting  upon  the 
sea,  far  from  land.  After  nesting,  their  presence  on  land  is  largely  depend- 
ent upon  the  weather,  severe  storms  sometimes  bringing  them  to  our 
coasts  in  numbers.  Contrary  to  the  usual  rule,  the  female  in  this  family 
is  the  larger  and  more  brightly  colored — indeed,  in  the  domestic  economy 
of  the  Phalarope  household,  the  female  is  male,  except  in  the  prime 
essentials  of  sex.  She  does  the  wooing,  takes  the  lead  in  selecting  the 
nesting-site,  and,  although  she  lays  the  eggs,  the  duties  of  incubation 
fall  upon  the  male. 

1908.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  268-271 ;  321,  322. 

KEY   TO   THE    SPECIES 

A.  Bill  over  1*10 224.  WILSON'S  PHALAROPE. 

B.  Bill  under  I'lO. 

a.  Bill  very  slender ;  wing  under  4*75  .     .     223.  NORTHERN  PHALAROPE. 

b.  Bill  stout;  wing  over  4*75 222.  RED  PHALAROPE. 

222.  Phalaropus  fulicarius  (Linn.}.  RED  PHALAROPE.  Toes  webbed 
at  base  and  with  scalloped  lobes  terminally;  bill  heavy,  wider  than  deep. 
Ad.  9  in  summer. — Crown  and  chin  fuscous;  cheeks  white;  back  black,  the 
feathers  bordered  with  cream-buff;  wings  gray;  some  of  the  secondaries  and 


240  PHALAROPES 

tips  of  greater  coverts  white;  upper  tail-coverts  rufous;  underparts  dull, 
reddish  brown,  often  with  scattered  white  feathers.  Ad.  <f  in  summer. — 
Similar,  but  smaller,  crown  striped  like  back,  little  or  no  white  in  cheeks. 
Juv. — Similar  to  ads.  in  winter  but  upperparts  margined  with  buff,  chest 
washed  with  buff.  Ads.  and  juv.  in  winter. — Top  of  head  and  underparts 
white;  region  about  eye  and  back  of  neck  fuscous;  back  and  scapulars  dark 
pearl-gray;  wings  grayish  fuscous,  the  coverts  and  secondaries  tipped  with 
white;  rump  and  tail  fuscous.  L.,  8' 12;  W.,  5'37;  B.,  '87;  Tar.,  '82. 

Remarks. — The  Juvenal  plumage  is  worn  until  October  or  November. 
Molting  spring  birds  are  strikingly  pied  below. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Hemispheres.  In  N.  A.  breeds  from  n.  Alaska, 
Melville  Island,  and  n.  Ellesmere  Land  s.  to  mouth  of  the  Yukon,  n.  Macken- 
zie, cen.  Keewatin,  Hudson  Strait,  and  s.  Greenland;  winter  home  unknown 
but  probably  on  the  oceans,  at  least  as  far  s.  as  Falkland  and  Juan  Fernandez 
Islands ;  migrates  along  both  coasts  of  U.  S. ;  casual  in  migration  in  interior 
s.  to  Colo.,  Kans.  Ills.,  and  Md. 

Washington,  casual,  one  record,  Oct.  Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  Apl.  30- 
June  5;  Sept.  24-Nov.  27.  Cambridge,  one  record,  Aug. 

Nest,  a  slight  hollow  in  the  ground  lined  with  a  few  bits  of  moss  and 
grasses.  Eggs,  3-4,  similar  to  those  of  the  following  species,  1'25  x  '90. 
Date,  Pt.  Barrow,  Alaska,  June  14. 

This  pelagic  species  is  found  in  numbers  some  distance  off  the 
coast;  it  occurs  on  our  shores  rarely,  and  generally  only  after  storms. 

223.  Lobipes  lobatus  (Linn.}.  NORTHERN  PHALAROPE.  Toes  webbed 
at  base  and  with  scalloped  lobes  terminally;  bill  very  slender  and  sharply 
pointed.  Ad.  9  in  summer. — Upperparts  slaty  gray;  back  and  scapulars 
edged  with  ochraceous-buff ;  sides  and  front  of  the  neck  rufous,  more  or  less 
mixed  with  slaty  gray;  rest  of  underparts  white.  Ad.  <?  in  summer. — Similar, 
but  upperparts  black,  and  with  more  ochraceous ;  sides  and  front  of  the  neck 
mixed  with  fuscous.  Ads.  in  winter  and  juv. — Upperparts  grayish,  more  or 
less  mixed  with  white;  tips  of  greater  wirig-co verts  and  sometimes  part  of 
the  secondaries  white,  occasionally  (in  ads.)  with  traces  of  rufous  on  the 
sides  of  the  neck ;  underparts  white,  more  or  less  mottled  with  grayish  on  the 
breast.  Juv. — Upperparts  black,  edged  with  straw-color;  forehead  white; 
underparts  white,  chest  sometimes  lightly  washed  with  buffy.  L.,  7*75;  W.f 
4'50;  Tar.,  '80;  B.,  '85. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Hemispheres.  In  N.  A.  breeds  from  n.  Alaska, 
Melville  Island,  and  cen.  Greenland  s.  to  Aleutian  Islands  (including  Near 
Islands),  valley  of  the  Upper  Yukon,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  s.  James 
Bay,  and  n.  Ungava;  winter  home  unknown,  but  probably  the  oceans  s.  of 
the  equator;  in  migration  occurs  nearly  throughout  the  U.  S.  and  in  Mex., 
Cen.  Am.,  Bermuda,  and  Hawaii. 

Washington,  casual,  one  record,  Sept.  Long  Island,  uncommon,  T.  V., 
Apl.  27-May  29;  Aug.  5-Oct.  22.  Cambridge,  of  rare  occurrence  in  spring. 
SE.  Minn.,  T.  V. 

Nest,  a  slight  hollow  in  the  ground  lined  with  grass  and  mosses.  Eggs, 
3-4,  pale  olive-gray  heavily  blotched  with  deep  chocolate,  1*18  x  "83.  Date, 
Ft.  Yukon,  Alaska,  June  7. 

During  its  presence  off  our  coasts  this  species  resembles  the  preceding 
in  habits.  It  is,  however,  more  common,  and  under  proper  conditions 
sometimes  occurs  in  larger  flights.  I  have  seen  it  in  great  numbers 
about  one  hundred  miles  off  Barnegat,  New  Jersey,  in  May.  For 
several  hours  the  steamer  passed  through  flocks  of  these  'Sea  Snipe/ 
which  were  swimming  on  the  ocean.  They  arose  in  a  body  at  our 
approach,  and  in  close  rank  whirled  away  to  the  right  or  left  in  search 


AVOCETS  AND  STILTS  241 

of  new  feeding-grounds.    On  March  10,  when  sailing  to  Florida,  I  saw 
Phalaropes  in  numbers,  doubtless  of  both  this  and  the  preceding  species, 
•  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina. 

224.  Steganopus    tricolor  Vieill.     WILSON'S  PHALAROPE.     Ad.   9  in 
summer. — Top  of  the  head  and  middle  of  the  back  pearl-gray,  nape  white; 
a  black  streak  passes  through  eye  to  side  of  neck,  and,  changing  to  rufous- 
chestnut,  continues  down  the  sides  of  the  back  and  on  scapulars;  neck  and 
upper  breast  washed  with  pale,  brownish  rufous;  rest  of  underparts  and 
upper  tail-coverts  white.    Ad.  <?  in  summer. — Upperparts  fuscous-brown, 
bordered  with  grayish  brown;  upper  tail-coverts,  nape,  and  a  line  over  the 
eye  white  or  whitish;  sides  of  the  neck  and  breast  washed  with  rufous;  rest 
of   the   underparts    white.     Ads.    and  juv.m  in   winter. — Upperparts   gray, 
margined  with  white;  upper  tail-coverts  white;  wings  fuscous,  their  coverts 
margined  with  buffy;  underparts  white.    Juv. — "Top  of  head,  back,  and 
scapulars  dusky  blackish,  the  feathers  distinctly  bordered  with  buff;  wing- 
cpyerts  also  bordered  with  pale  buff  or  whitish;  upper  tail-coverts,  super- 
ciliary stripe,  and  lowerparts  white,  the  neck  tinged  with  buff"  (Ridgw.). 
cfL.,  8'75;  W.,  4'75;  Tar.,  1'20;  B.,  1«.    9  L.,  9'50;  W.,  5'25;  Tar.,  1'30; 
B.,  1*30. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  Wash.,  cen.  Alberta,  and  Lake 
Winnipeg  s.  to  cen.  Calif.,  s.  Colo.,  s.  Kans.,  n.  Iowa,  and  nw.  Ind.;  winters 
from  cen.  Chile  and  cen.  Argentina  s.  to  Falkland  Islands;  casual  in  migra- 
tion on  Pacific  coast  from  s.  B.  C.  to  L.  Calif.,  and  on  Atlantic  coast  from 
Maine  to  N.  C. 

Long  Island,  three  records,  Aug.,  Sept.  and  Oct.  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  12-Sept.  13. 

Nest,  a  shallow  depression  in  soft  earth  lined  with  a  thin  layer  of  frag- 
ments of  grass.  Eggs,  3-4,  cream-buff  or  buffy  white,  heavily  blotched  with 
deep  chocolate,  1'28  x  "94.  (See  Nelson,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  II,  1879, 
38-43.)  Date,  Minor  Co.,  S.  D.,  May  25;  s.  Saskatchewan,  June  15,  downy 
young. 

This  beautiful  bird  is  a  common  summer  resident  of  our  interior 
prairie  sloughs,  and  ranges  westward  as  far  as  the  San  Joaquin  valley 
of  California.  It  feeds  about  the  shores  and  often  swims  gracefully 
with  a  nodding  motion  of  the  head.  Although  the  female  does  not 
incubate,  she  appears  to  be  keenly  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  nest, 
and  when  I  have  flushed  a  sitting  male,  he  has  soon  been  joined  by  his 
mate  who  seemed  to  share  his  anxiety.  Pairs  of  birds  which  evidently 
had  young  would  utter  a  soft  qua  or  quok  and  fly  about  me  with  a 
slow,  jerky,  halting  flight  and  a  peculiar  sinuous  stretching  of  the  neck. 
Usually  the  female  led. 

25.  FAMILY  RECURVIROSTRID^B.  AVOCETS  AND  STILTS. 

The  twelve  species  comprising  this  family  are  distributed  through- 
out the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  They  are  generally  found  in  flocks, 
and  may  be  called  Wading  Snipe.  They  feed  in  shallow  water,  wading 
to  their  heels,  and  when  necessary  swim  with  ease. 

225.  Recurvirostra  americana  Gmel.    AMERICAN  AVOCET.     (Fig.  12.) 
Bill  slender,  recurved.    Ads.  in  summer. — Head  and  neck  cinnamon-rufous, 
back  and  tail  white,  scapulars  and  primaries  black;  middle  coverts,  tips  of 
the  greater  ones,  and  part  of  secondaries  white;   belly  white,  bill  turned 


242  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

upward.  Ads.  in  winter  and  juv. — Generally  similar,  but  head  and  neck 
white  or  pearl-gray.  L.,  16'50;  W.,  9'00;  Tar.,  3'75;  B.,  3'75. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  e.  Ore.,  cen.  Alberta,  and  s.  Man.  (rarely  n. 
to  Great  Slave  Lake)  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  N.  Mex.,  nw.  Tex.,  n.  Iowa,  and  cen. 
Wise.;  winters  from  s.  Calif.,  and  s.  Tex.  to  s.  Guatemala;  casual  from  Ont. 
and  N.  B.  to  Fla.  and  the  West  Indies,  but  rare  e.  of  the  Miss.  River. 

Long  Island,  two  records. 

Nest,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground,  near  water.  Eggs,  3-4,  pale  olive 
or  buffy  clay-color,  thickly  spotted  with  chocolate,  1*95  x  1*35.  Date, 
Loveland,  Colo.,  June  3. 

Avocets  are  common  birds  in  parts  of  the  interior,  but  are  rare  on 
the  Atlantic  coast.  They  frequent  shores  and  shallow  pools,  and  in 
searching  for  shells,  crustaceans,  etc.,  their  peculiar  recurved  bill  is 
used  in  a  most  interesting  manner.  Dropping  it  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  water  until  its  convexity  touches  the  bottom,  they  move  rapidly 
forward,  and  with  every  step  swing  their  bill  from  side  to  side,  as  a 
mower  does  his  scythe.  In  this  way  they  secure  food  which  the  muddy 
water  would  prevent  them  from  seeing.  They  are  very  noisy  when 
nesting  and  with  a  loud,  sharp  plee-eek  charge  bravely  toward  one, 
swinging  aside  only  when  a  few  feet  away. 

226.  Himantopus  mexicanus  (Mull).  BLACK-NECKED  STILT.  Ad. 
cT. — A  white  spot  above  and  another  below  eye;  front  of  head,  front  of  neck, 
lower  back,  rump,  and  underparts  white;  tail  grayish;  rest  of  plumage  glossy 
greenish  black.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with  back  fuscous-brown.  Juv. — 
Similar,  but  whole  upperparts  margined  with  rusty.  L.,  15*00;  W.,  9'00; 
Tar.,  4-15;  B.,  2'00. 

Range. — Temperate  N.  A.  and  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  Ore.,  n.  Utah, 
and  s.  Colo,  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  N.  Mex.,  s.  Tex.,  coast  of  La.,  and  in  Mex.,  and 
from  cen.  Fla.,  and  Bahamas  throughout  the  West  Indies  to  n.  Brazil  and 
Peru;  formerly  bred  to  N.  J. ;  winters  from  s.  L.  Calif.,  s.  Tex.,  s.  La.,  and  s. 
Fla.  s.  through  Cen.  Am.  and  the  West  Indies  to  n.  Brazil,  Peru,  and  the 
Galapagos;  casual  north  in  migration  to  Nebr.,  Wise.,  and  N.  B. 

Long  Island,  two  records. 

Nest,  near  water,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground  lined  with  grasses. 
Eggs,  3-4,  olive  or  buffy  clay-color,  thickly  spotted  with  chocolate,  1'70  x 
1'25.  Date,  Fla.  Keys,  Apl.  25;  Brownsville,  Tex.,  Apl.  26. 

Stilts  are  fond  of  wading  in  shallow  ponds  in  both  fresh  and  salt 
marshes,  and  are  graceful  and  alert  in  their  movements.  During  the 
nesting  season  they  become  very  noisy,  and  express  their  solicitude  for 
their  eggs  or  young  by  the  most  surprising  demonstrations.  After 
nightfall  I  have  heard  Stilts  utter  their  sharp  ip-ip-ip  as  they  darted 
erratically  about  over  the  marshes. 

1908.   CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  288  (nesting). 

26.  FAMILY  SCOLOPACID^E.    SNIPES,  SANDPIPERS,  ETC. 
(Figs.  42  a,  6.  43  6,  c.) 

About  one  hundred  species  are  considered  as  belonging  to  this 
family.  They  are  distributed  throughout  the  world,  but  during  the 
breeding  season  are  mostly  confined  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere.  Some  forty-five  species  are  found  in  North  America. 


SNIPES   AND  SANDPIPERS  243 

With  the  Plovers  they  constitute  the  great  group  known  as  Shore 
Birds  or  Bay  Birds,  and  with  few  exceptions  they  are  rarely  found  far 
from  the  vicinity  of  water.  Generally  speaking,  they  are  more  abundant 
on  the  coast  than  in  the  interior,  but  many  species  are  quite  as 
numerous  inland  as  they  are  near  the  sea.  As  a  rule,  they  migrate  and 
pass  the  winter  in  flocks,  but  they  are  not  gregarious  during  the  nesting 
season. 

Their  long  bills  serve  the  purpose  of  both  probes  and  forceps.  Most 
of  the  species  probe  the  soft  mud  for  food,  while  some  are  known  to 
have  the  power  of  moving  the  upper  mandible  independently  of  the 
lower  one,  curving  it  at  the  tip  as  one  would  a  finger. 

Snipes  are  not  supposed  to  be  song  birds,  but  during  the  breeding 
season  many  species  are  highly  and  peculiarly  musical,  and  at  other 
times  of  the  year  they  utter  characteristic  whistles,  to  an  imitation 
of  which  the  birds  are  quick  to  respond. 

KEY  TO   THE    SPECIES 

I.  Bill  2*00  or  over. 

A.  Axillars*  barred  with  black. 
a.  Bill  curved  downward. 

a1.  Bill  over  3'00,  under  4*50 265.  HUDSONIAN  CURLEW. 

a2.  Bill  under  3 '00 266.  ESKIMO  CURLEW. 

a3.  Bill  over  4'50 264.  LONG-BILLED  CURLEW. 

6.  Bill  straight  or  curved  slightly  upward. 

61.  Tail-feathers  with  numerous  black  bars. 

62.  Wing  over  7'00,  primaries  black  or  fuscous. 

254.  GREATER  YELLOW-LEGS. 

63.  Wing  over  7'00,  inner  web  of  primaries  buff  or  rufous. 

249.  MARBLED  GODWIT. 
b4.  Wing  under  7'00,  bill  widened  and  pitted  at  the  tip. 

231.  DOWITCHER.    232.  LONG-BILLED  DOWITCHER. 
c1.  Tail  black  with  a  broad  rufous  tip  or  marked  with  rufous. 
c2.  Outer  web  of  primaries  with  rufous  bars. 

227.  EUROPEAN  WOODCOCK. 
c3.  Primaries  not  barred 230.  WILSON'S  SNIPE. 

B.  Axillars  not  barred. 

a.  Axillars  rufous  or  ochraceous-buff. 

a1.  Bill  over  5'00,  much  curved  downward. 

264.  LONG-BILLED  CURLEW. 
a2.  Bill  nearly  straight,  between  3*50  and  5'00. 

249.  MARBLED  GODWIT. 

a3.  Bill  straight,  under  3*50    ....     228.  AMERICAN  WOODCOCK. 
6.  Axillars  black. 

ft1.  Underparts  chestnut-rufous,  barred  with  black. 

251.  HUDSONIAN  GODWIT. 

62.  Underparts  white,  with  or  without  blackish  bars. 

258.  WILLET.     258a.  WESTERN  WILLET. 
II.  Bill  under  2'00. 

1.  Tail  with  cross-bars. 
A.  Wing  over  5'75. 

a.  Outer  tail-feathers  white,  more  or  less  barred;  outer  primary  with- 
out bars        . 255.  YELLOW-LEGS. 

6.  Outer  primary  with  numerous  black  bars.   261.  UPLAND  PLOVER. 

*See  Fig.  82. 
18 


244  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

B.  Wing  under  5*75. 

a.  Underparts  white,  with  numerous  round  blackish  spots;  upper- 
parts  brownish  gray,  barred  with  blackish. 

263.  SPOTTED  SANDPIPER. 

/     Underparts  white,  breast  streaked  with  blackish;  upperparts  fus- 
cous,  spotted  with   white      .     .     .     256.  SOLITARY  SANDPIPER. 

c.  Underparts  tinged  with  buffy,  inner  web  of  outer  primary  speckled 

with  blackish 262.  BUFF-BREASTED  SANDPIPER. 

d.  Underparts  white,  breast  washed  with  grayish,  inner  primaries 

and  secondaries  with  a  concealed  white  patch. 

263.  SPOTTED  SANDPIPER  (Im.). 
2.  Tail  without  cross-bars. 

A.  Toes  4. 

a.  Bill  over  I'lO. 

a1.  Middle  upper  tail-coverts  with  cross-bars  or  streaks. 

a2.  Tarsus  over  1*50 233.    STILT  SANDPIPER. 

a3.  Tarsus  under  1'50,  wing  under  6*00  244.  CURLEW  SANDPIPER. 

a4.  Tarsus  under  1*50,  wing  over  6*00 234.    KNOT. 

61.  Middle  upper  tail-coverts  without  cross-bars  or  streaks. 

62.  Middle  upper  tail-coverts  black  or  fuscous,  without  bars;  bill 
straight. 

63.  Tarsus  under  1*50;  upperparts  blackish,  more  or  less  mar- 

gined with  gray 235.  PURPLE    SANDPIPER. 

64.  Tarsus  under  1'50;  upperparts  more  or  less  margined  with 

rufous 239.  PECTORAL  SANDPIPER. 

¥.  Tarsus  over  1'50  .     .     . 260.  RUFF. 

c2.  Middle  upper  tail-coverts  grayish,  bill  curved  slightly  down- 
ward       243o.  RED-BACKED  SANDPIPER. 

6.  Bill  under  I'lO. 
fe1.  Wing  under  4'00. 

62.  Toes  partly  webbed. 

246.  SEMIPALMATED  SANDPIPER.  247.  WESTERN  SANDPIPER. 

63.  Toes  not  webbed 242.    LEAST  SANDPIPER. 

c1.  Wing  over  4*00. 

c2.  Inner  webs  of  primaries  plain. 

c3.  Breast  white  or  whitish,  streaked  or  spotted  with  blackish; 
middle  upper  tail-coverts  white  . 

240.  WHITE-RUMPED  SANDPIPER. 

c4.  Breast  buffy,  heavily  spotted  or  streaked  with  blackish ;  mid- 
dle upper  tail-coverts  black,  slightly  margined  with  rufous. 
239.  PECTORAL  SANDPIPER. 

c6.  Breast  buffy  lightly  spotted  or  streaked  with  black;  middle 
upper  tail-coverts  fuscous,  lightly  margined  with  buffy. 

241.  BAIRD'S  SANDPIPER. 
d2.  Inner  webs  of  primaries  speckled. 

262.  BUFF-BREASTED  SANDPIPER. 

B.  Toes  3 248.  SANDERLING. 

228.  Philohela  minor  (Gmel).  AMERICAN  WOODCOCK.  (PL  VIII.  Figs. 
11,  15.)  Ads. — Front  of  crown  slaty,  washed  with  buff,  an  indistinct  black- 
ish line  in  its  center,  and  another  from  eye  to  bill ;  back  of  head  black,  with 
two  or  three  bars  of  ochraceous-buff;  rest  of  upperparts  black,  mar- 
gined with  slaty  and  barred  and  mottled  with  rufous  or  ochraceous-buff;  tip 
of  tail  ashy  gray  above,  silvery  beneath;  Underparts  between  ochraceous 
buff  and  rufous;  outer  three  primaries  very  narrow  and  much  stiffened. 
L.,  ll'OO;  W.,  5'40;  Tar.,  1'25;  B.,  2'90. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  r.-om  ne.  N.  D.,  s.  Man.,  n.  Mich.,  s.  Que. 
and  N.  S.  s.  to  s.  Kans.,  s.  La.,  and  n.  Fla.;  winters  from  s.  Mo.,  the  Ohio 
Valley,  and  s.  N.  J.  (rarely  Mass.)  s.  to  Tex.  and  s.  Fla.;  ranges  casually  to 
Bask.,  Keewatin,  Colo.,  N.  F.,  and  Bermuda. 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  245 

Washington,  rather  common  from  Feb.  to  Nov.;  a  few  winter.  Long 
Island,  rare  S.  R.  Apl.-Nov.,  a  few  winter.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Feb. 
19-Dec.  2.  Cambridge,  rare  S.  R.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Mch.  15-Nov.  10. 
N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common,  S.  R.,  Mch.  10-Oct.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  com- 
mon S.  R.,  May  17  (doubtless  earlier)  to  Sept.  18.  SE.  Minn.,  Apl.  5-Oct.  18. 

Nest,  of  a  few  dry  leaves,  on  the  ground  in  the  woods.  Eggs,  4,  buffy, 
distinctly  and  obscurely  spotted  with  shades  of  rufous,  1*60  x  T23.  Date, 
(  aper's  Is.,  S.  C.,  Feb.  13;  Lower  Cedar  Point,  Md.,  Feb.  25;  Cambridge, 
Apl.  15;  Wheatland,  Ind.,  Mch.  4;  Petersburg,  Mich.,  Apl.  16. 

During  the  spring  and  early  summer  this  Owl  among  Snipe  haunts 
low,  wooded  bottom-lands;  in  August,  while  molting,  it  resorts  to  corn- 
fields near  woods,  and  in  the  fall  migrating  birds  frequent  wooded 
uplands.  But  at  all  times  it  requires  a  soft,  moist  earth  in  which  it  may 
easily  probe  with  its  long  bill  for  its  fare  of  earthworms.  The  holes 
it  makes  are  known  as  'borings.'  They  are  generally  found  in  little 
groups,  and  are,  of  course,  certain  evidence  of  the  presence  of  Wood- 
cock. Gurdon  Trumbull  discovered  that  the  Woodcock  can  move  the 
tip  of  its  upper  mandible  independently  of  the  lower  one,  and  this 
organ  is  made  to  act  as  a  finger  to  assist  the  bird  in  drawing  its  food 
from  the  ground.  (Forest  and  Stream,  XXXV,  1890,  412.) 

The  flight  of  the  Woodcock  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  high, 
whistling  sound  produced  by  its  narrow,  stiffened  primaries  in  beating 
the  air.  When  flushed  near  its  nest  or  young,  the  parent  bird  gen- 
erally feigns  lameness  or  a  broken  wing,  and  leads  the  intruder  some 
distance  from  its  treasures  before  taking  wing. 

The  cloak  of  night  always  lends  a  certain  mystery  to  the  doings  of 
nocturnal  birds,  and  more  often  than  not  their  habits  justify  our  unusual 
interest  in  them.  Few  of  the  mating  evolutions  of  our  birds  are  more 
remarkable  than  the  sky  dance  of  the  Woodcock.  He  begins  on  the 
ground  with  a  formal,  periodic  peent,  peent,  an  incongruous  preparation 
for  the  wild  rush  that  follows.  It  is  repeated  several  times  before  he 
springs  from  the  ground,  and  on  whistling  wings  sweeps  out  on  the  first 
loop  of  a  spiral  which  may  take  him  three  hundred  feet  from  the  ground. 
Faster  and  faster  he  goes,  louder  and  shriller  sounds  his  wing-song; 
then,  after  a  moment's  pause,  with  darting,  headlong  flight,  he  pitches 
in  zigzags  to  the  earth,  uttering  as  he  falls  a  clear,  twittering  whistle. 
He  generally  returns  to  near  the  place  from  which  he  arose,  and  the 
peent  is  at  once  resumed  as  a  preliminary  to  another  round  in  the  sky. 
In  the  gray  of  early  morning  this  strange  performance  is  repeated. 

1894.   BREWSTER,  W.,  Auk,  XI,  291-298  (song). 

The  EUROPEAN  WOODCOCK  (227.  Scolopax  rusticola)  bears  a  general  re- 
semblance to  our  Woodcock,  but  is  much  larger;  the  underparts  are  barred 
with  black,  the  wings  are  barred  with  rufous,  and  the  outer  primaries  are  not 
emarginate.  It  is  of  accidental  occurrence  in  eastern  North  America. 

230.  Gallinago  delicata  (Ord).  WILSON'S  SNIPE.  Ads. — Upperparts 
black,  barred,  bordered,  and  mottled  with  different  shades  of  cream-buff; 
wings  fuscous;  outer  edge  of  outer  primary  and  tips  of  greater  coverts  white; 
throat  white;  neck  and  breast  ochraceous-buff,  indistinctly  streaked  with 
blackish;  belly  white,  sides  barred  with  black;  under  tail-coverts  buffy, 


246  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

barred  with  black;  outer  tail-feathers  barred  with  black  and  white,  inner 
ones  black,  barred  with  rufous  at  their  ends  and  tipped  with  whitish.  L., 
11-25;  W.,  5-00;  Tar.,  1'20;  B.,  2'50. 

Range. — N.  A.  and  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie, 
cen.  Keewatin,  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  n.  Calif.,  s.  Colo.,  n.  Iowa,  n.  liis.,  Pa., 
and  n.  N.  J. ;  winters  from  n.  Calif.,  N.  Mex.,  Ark.,  and  N.  C.,  through  Cen. 
Am.  and  West  Indies  to  Colombia  and  s.  Brazil;  remains  in  winter  casually 
and  locally  n.  to  Wash.,  Mont.,  Nebr.,  Ills.,  and  N.  S.;  accidental  in  Hawaii, 
Bermuda,  and  Great  Britain. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  9-May  11;  Aug.  30-Nov.  18,  occasional 
in  winter.  Long  Island,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  and  Apl. ;  Aug.-Oct.,  a  few 
winter.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  20-May  6;  Oct.  6-Nov. 
20.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  6-May  6;  Sept.  12-Nov.  15.  N.  Ohio, 
common  T.  V.,  Mch.  19-May  15;  Sept.  15-Oct.  30.  Glen  Ellyn,  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  26-May  11;  Sept.  1-Nov.  4.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch. 
11-Oct.  31.,  A.  V.  in  winter. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground  in  marshy  places.  Eggs,  3-4,  olive,  clay- 
color,  or  brownish  ashy,  heavily  marked  with  chocolate,  principally  at  the 
larger  end,  1'60  x  1*17.  Date,  Lake  Co.,  Ills.,  Apl.  24;  se.  Minn.,  May  10. 

Wilson's  Snipe  frequents  fresh-water  meadows  and  swamps,  and 
in  spring  is  often  found  in  low-lying  swales  in  meadows  or  mowing 
fields,  but,  excepting  in  very  dry  seasons,  it  seldom  alights  on  salt 
marshes.  At  times,  especially  in  winter  or  early  spring,  when  the 
meadows  are  covered  with  snow  or  ice,  it  resorts  to  springy  runs  wooded 
with  alders,  birches,  and  maples,  but  as  a  rule  it  prefers  open  places. 
Two  things  are  essential  to  its  requirements — ground  so  thoroughly 
water-soaked  as  to  afford  slight  resistance  to  its  long  and  highly  sen- 
sitive bill  when  probing,  and  such  concealment  as  tussocks,  hillocks, 
or  long  grass  afford,  for,  unlike  the  Sandpipers,  the  Snipe  rarely  ven- 
tures out  on  bare  mud  flats,  save  under  cover  of  darkness.  Although 
less  strictly  nocturnal  than  the  Woodcock,  it  feeds  and  migrates  chiefly 
by  night  or  in  'thick'  weather.  Its  migratory  movements  are  noto- 
riously erratic,  and  meadows  which  one  day  are  alive  with  birds  may  be 
quite  deserted  the  next,  or  the  reverse. 

Dear  to  our  sportsmen  is  Wilson's  Snipe,  partly  because  of  the 
excellence  of  its  flesh,  but  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  it  furnishes  a  mark 
which  taxes  their  skill  to  the  utmost,  and  which  no  mere  novice  need 
hope  to  hit,  unless  by  accident;  for  the  bird's  flight  is  swift  and  tortu- 
ous, and  it  springs  from  the  grass  as  if  thrown  by  a  catapult,  uttering 
\  succession  of  hoarse,  rasping  scaipes  which  have  a  peculiarly  start- 
ing effect  on  inexperienced  nerves. 

In  the  springtime — and  occasionally  in  autumn  also — Wilson's 
^nipe  mounts  to  a  considerable  height  above  his  favorite  meadows  and 
darts  downward  with  great  velocity,  making  at  each  descent  a  low,  yet 
penetrating,  tremulous  sound  which  suggests  the  winnowing  of  a  domes- 
tic Pigeon's  wings,  or,  if  heard  at  a  distance,  the  bleating  of  a  goat,  and 
which  is  thought  to  be  produced  by  the  rushing  of  the  air  through  the 
wings  of  this  Snipe.  The  performance  may  be  sometimes  witnessed  in 
broad  daylight  when  the  weather  is  stormy,  but  ordinarily  it  is  reserved 
for  the  morning  and  evening  twilight  and  for  moonlight  nights, 
when  it  is  often  kept  up  for  hours  in  succession. 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  247 

Besides  this  'drumming'  or  'bleating,'  as  it  is  called,  the  Snipe, 
while  mating,  sometimes  makes  another  peculiar  sound,  a  kuk-kuk-kuk- 
kuk-kup,  evidently  vocal  and  occasionally  accompanying  a  slow,  labored, 
and  perfectly  direct  flight,  at  the  end  of  which  the  bird  alights  on  a 
tree  or  fence-post  for  a  few  moments.  WILLIAM  BREWSTER. 

1902.    GAULT,  B.  T.  Wilson  Bull.,  7-10  (food  habits). 

The  EUROPEAN  SNIPE  (229.  Gallinago  gallinago)  inhabits  the  northern 
parts  of  the  Old  World,  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Greenland,  and  accidental 
in  the  Bermudas. 

The  GREAT  SNIPE  (230.1  Gallinago  media],  an  Old  World  species,  has 
been  taken  once  on  Hudson  Bay  (Coues,  Auk,  XIV,  1897,  209). 

231.  Macrorhamphus  griseus  griseus  (GmeL).    DOWITCHER.    (Figs. 
42a,  43c.)   Ads.  in  summer. — Upperparts,  tertials,  and  wing-coverts  black, 
the  feathers  edged  or  barred  with  ochraceous-buff  or  rufous;  rump,  upper 
tail-coverts,  and  tail  barred  with  black  and  more  or  less  ochraceous-buff; 
primaries  fuscous;  underparts  dull,  pale  rufous,  whitish  on  belly,  more  or 
less  spotted  and  barred  with  black.    Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Upperparts 
brownish  gray;  rump  and  tail  barred  with  black  and  white;  throat  and  breast 
washed  with  ashy,  belly  white,  sides  and  under  tail-coverts  barred  with 
black.    Juv. — Upperparts  black,  the  feathers  edged  with  rufous;  rump  and 
tail  barred  with  black  and  white,   and   sometimes  washed  with  rufous; 
secondaries  widely  edged  with  white;  underparts  more  or  less  washed  with 
ochraceous-buff  and  obscurely  spotted  with  blackish.    L.,  10*50;  W.,  5'75; 
Tar.,  1'30;  B.,  2*05-2*50. 

Remarks. — The  barred  tail  and  tail-coverts,  with  the  peculiar  flattened, 
pitted  tip  of  the  bill,  are  characteristic  of  this  species. 

Range. — E.  N.  and  S.  Am.  Breeding  range  unknown,  but  probably  n. 
Ungava ;  winters  from  Fla.  and  the  West  Indies  s.  to  n.  Brazil ;  in  migration 
regularly  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  occasionally  in  Ills.,  Ind.,  and  Ont.; 
accidental  in  Greenland,  Bermuda,  Great  Britain,  and  France. 

Washington,  casual,  one  specimen,  Sept.  Long  Island,  common  T.  V., 
May  15-30;  July  12-Sept.  29. 

Eggs,  4,  light  buffy  olive,  distinctly  spotted  and  speckled  especially 
about  the  larger  end,  with  deep  brown,  1*65  x  1*13  (Ridgw.). 

The  Dowitchers  are  among  our  best-known  Bay  Birds.  They 
migrate  in  compact  flocks  which  are  easily  attracted  to  decoys  by  an 
imitiation  of  their  call.  Mud-flats  and  bars  exposed  by  the  falling  tide 
are  their  chosen  feeding-grounds.  On  the  Gulf  coast  of  Florida  I  have 
seen  several  hundred  gathered  in  such  close  rank  that  they  entirely 
concealed  the  sandbar  on  which  they  were  resting. 

232.  M.  g.  scolopaceus  (Say).  LONG-BILLED  DOWITCHER.  Ads.  in  summer. 
— Similar  to  the  preceding,  but  averaging  larger;  the  bill  especially  is  longer, 
the  underparts  are  more  uniformly  rufous,  and  the  sides  are  more  heavily 
barred  with  black.    Ads.  in  winter  and  Juv. — To  be  distinguished  from  the 
corresponding  stages  of  griseus  only  by  their  larger  size.   W.,  6*00;  Tar.,  1*50; 
B.,  2-10-2-90. 

Range. — W.  N.  and  S.  Am.  Breeds  from  Point  Barrow  to  mouth  of 
the  Yukon,  e.  to  nw.  Mackenzie;  winters  from  La.,  Fla.,  and  Mex.  s., 
probably  to  S.^  A.;  in  migration  most  abundant  in  w.  Miss.  Valley;  casual 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Mass,  southward  and  on  the  n.  coast  of  e. 
Siberia. 

Washington,  casual,  seven  shot  in  Apl.  Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  in  fall, 
July  23-Oct.  13 ;  one  record  in  spring. 


248  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

Eggs,  4,  not  distinguishable  from  those  of  the  preceding  species.  Date, 
St.  Michael's,  Alaska,  May  23. 

This  is  a  bird  of  the  interior  and  Western  States,  and  occurs  on  OUT 
coasts  as  a  rare  but  regular  late  fall  migrant.  It  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding species  in  habits,  but  the  baymen  who  'gun'  for  Snipe  say 
they  can  recognize  it  by  its  somewhat  different  notes.  Like  the  Wood- 
cock, Wilson's  Snipe,  and  its  near  ally,  M.  g.  griseus,  the  male  utters  a 
flight  song  in  the  nesting  season.  It  is  well  described  by  Mr.  E.  W. 
Nelson  in  his  Report  on  Collections  made  in  Alaska,  p.  101. 

233.  Micropalama  himantopus  (Bonap.).     STILT  SANDPIPER.    Ads. 
in  summer. — Upperparts   black,    bordered   with   grayish   and   buffy;   ear- 
coverts  and  an  indistinct  line  around  back  of  head  rufous;  secondaries  gray- 
ish, edged  with  white;  primaries  fuscous;  rump  ashy;  upper  tail-coverts 
barred  with  black  and  white;  outer  tail-feathers  with  broken  dusky  bars, 
inner  ones  with  central  streaks  or  margins  of  brownish  gray  or  white ;  under- 
parts  white,  heavily  barred  with  fuscous.    Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Upper- 
parts  brownish  gray;  upper  tail-coverts  white;  tail  white,  margined  with 
brownish  gray;  underparts  white;  throat,  neck  and  sides  indistinctly  streaked 
or  washed  with  grayish.    Juv. — Similar,  but  upperparts  blackish,  margined 
with  ochraceous-buff.   L.,  8*25;  W.,  5'00;  Tar.,  1'60;  B.,  1*55. 

Remarks. — The  distinguishing  characters  of  this  species  are  the  flattened, 
pitted  tip  of  the  bill,  in  connection  with  the  very  long  tarsi. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  near  the  coast  of  Mackenzie  and  probably 
s.  to  cen.  Keewatin;  winters  in  S.  A.  s.  to  Uruguay  and  Chile;  casual  in 
winter  in  s.  Tex.,  and  Mex. ;  in  migration  occurs  in  w.  Miss.  Valley,  West 
Indies,  and  Cen.  Am. ;  less  common  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  casual  in  B. 
C.,  N.  F.  and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  casual,  one  record,  Sept.  Long  Island,  not  uncommon  T. 
V.,  May;  July  to  Oct.  10  (Butcher).  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  14- 
Aug.  20. 

Eggs,  3-4,  pale  grayish  buff,  or  grayish  buffy  white,  boldly  spotted  with 
rich  vandyke-brown  and  purplish  gray,  1*42  x  1*00  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Ander- 
son River,  Mack.,  June  23. 

Colonel  N.  S.  Goss,  in  his  admirable  "Birds  of  Kansas,"  writes  that 
he  has  observed  this  species  along  the  edges  of  old  channels  of  rivers 
or  muddy  pools  of  water,  in  which  it  wades  while  feeding;  immersing 
the  head  and  feeling  with  its  sensitive  bill  in  the  thin  mud  for  food. 
It  moves  about  rather  slowly  as  compared  with  the  true  Sandpipers, 
and  at  times  will  try  to  avoid  detection  by  squatting  close  to  the 
ground,  flying  only  as  a  last  resort,  and  then  darting  swiftly  away 
with  a  sharp  tweet,  tweet. 

234.  Tringa    canutus    Linn.     KNOT.     (See    Figs.   426,   436.)     Ads. 
in  summer. — Upperparts  barred  and  streaked  with  black  and  white  and 
rufous;  tail  ashy  gray,  narrowly  margined  with  whitish;  underparts  dull 
rufous;  lower  belly  white  or  whitish,  sides  sometimes  with  black  bars.    (See 
Auk,  X,  1893,  p.  25.)    Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Upperparts  plain  brownish 
gray;    upper   tail -coverts   barred    with    black    and    white,    tail    brownish 
gray;  breast  and  sides  barred  with  black,  belly  white.    Juv. — Upperparts 
pale  brownish  gray;  head  streaked  with  blackish;  back,  wing-coverts,  and 
scapulars  with  distinct  black  and  white  borders;  upper  tail -coverts  barred 
with  blackish;  tail  ashy  gray,  narrowly  margined  with  white;  underparts 
white;  breast  finely  streaked  or  spotted  with  blackish;  flanks  barred  or 
streaked  with  blackish.  LM  10'50;  W.,  6*75;  Tar.,  T20;  B.,  1'30. 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  249 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Hemispheres.  Breeds  from  n.  Ellesmere  Land  s.  to 
Melville  Peninsula  and  Iceland,  and  also  on  Taimyr  Peninsula,  Siberia; 
winters  s.  to  s.  Patagonia,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  S.  Africa,  India, 
Australia,  N.  Zealand;  casual  in  winter  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  U.  S. ;  in 
migration  occurs  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  N.  A.,  and  over  most  of  the  E. 
Hemisphere;  rare  in  the  interior  of  N.  A.,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Long  Island,  not  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  15- June  10;  July  15-Nov. 
(Butcher).  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Sept.  7. 

Eggs,  one  specimen  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Conger  by  General 
Greely,  is  described  as  "light  pea-green,  closely  spotted  with  brown  in  small 
specks  about  the  size  of  apinhead,"  I'lO  x  I'OO  (see  Merriam,  Auk,  II,  1885, 
313).  A  breeding-place  of  thirty  pairs  was  discovered  in  northeast  Green- 
land by  the  Danish  expedition  of  1906-8.  (See  Geog.  Journ.,  XXXV,  541 
and  Ibis,  1910,  766.) 

Knots  feed  along  the  beaches  on  the  small  crustaceans  and  mol- 
lusca  brought  in  by  the  waves,  and  they  also  frequent  muddy  places 
where,  like  the  true  Snipe,  they  probe  the  ground  for  food.  They 
decoy  with  ease,  'bunching'  so  closely  as  they  wheel  into  the  stools 
that  the  entire  flock  is  sometimes  killed  by  a  single  discharge.  Mr. 
George  H.  Mackay,  in  one  of  his  careful  and  detailed  studies  of  our 
Shore  Birds,  describes  their  notes  as  a  soft  wah-quoit  and  a  little  honk. 
The  first  is  particularly  noticeable  when  flocks  are  coming  to  the  decoys 
(see  Auk,  x,  1893,  25-35). 

235.  Arquatella  maritima  maritima  (Brunn.}.  PURPLE  SANDPIPER. 
Ads.  in  summer. — Upperparts  black,  margined  with  ochraceous-buff  and 
cream-buff;  wings  fuscous-gray,  greater  coverts  margined  with  white  and 
some  secondaries  entirely  white;  upper  tail-coverts  fuscous,  outer  tail- 
feathers  ashy  gray,  inner  ones  fuscous;  throat  and  breast  brownish  gray, 
streaked  with  black;  belly  white,  sides  and  under  tail-coverts  streaked  with 
brownish  gray.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Head,  neck,  breast,  and  sides 
ashy,  the  two  latter  margined  with  white;  back  fuscous,  margined  with  ashy; 
wings  fuscous,  the  coverts,  secondaries,  and  tertials  distinctly  bordered  with 
white;  upper  tail-coverts  and  middle  tail-feathers  black  or  fuscous,  outer 
tail-feathers  ashy;  belly  and  linings  of  the  wings  white.  L.,  9'00;  W.,  5'00; 
Tar.,  9-00;  B.,  1'40. 

Remarks. — The  brownish  gray  or  ashy  breast  of  this  species  is  a  good 
distinguishing  character. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  Melville  Is.,  Ellesmere  Land,  and 
n.  Greenland  s.  to  Melville  Peninsula,  Cumberland  Sound,  and  s.  Greenland, 
and  in  Norway,  Russia,  Siberia,  Iceland,  and  Faroe  Islands;  winters  from  s. 
Greenland  and  N.  B.,  to  L.  I.;  casual  in  migration  to  the  Great  Lakes,  Ga., 
Fla.,  and  Bermuda,  and  in  the  E.  Hemisphere  s.  to  Great  Britain  and  the 
Mediterranean. 

Long  Island,  uncommon  W.  V.,  Nov.  1-Mch.  1  (Dutcher).  Cambridge, 
one  instance,  Oct. 

Eggs,  3—4,  olive  clay-color  or  brownish  ashy,  heavily  marked  with  rufous- 
brown,  1'45  x  1*08.  Date,  Umanak,  Greenland,  June  19;  Faroe  Ids.,  May  31. 

This  bird  might  be  called  Winter  Snipe  or  Rock  Snipe.  Indeed,  I 
find  the  latter  name  has  been  applied  to  it  from  its  habit  of  frequent- 
ing rocky  coasts,  where  it  secures  its  food  in  the  algae  attached  to  rocks 
exposed  by  the  falling  tide. 

239.  Pisobia  maculata  (VieilL).  PECTORAL  SANDPIPER.  Ads.  in 
summer. — Upperparts  black,  the  feathers  all  heavily  bordered  with  pale 


250  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

ochraceous-buff;  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  black,  lightly  tipped  with 
ochraceous-buff;  middle  tail-feathers  longest,  pointed  and  margined  with 
buffy;  outer  tail-feathers  brownish  gray,  narrowly  margined  with  white; 
throat  white,  neck  and  breast  heavily  streaked  with  black  and  buffy;  rest  of 
underparts  white.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  ochraceous-buff 
of  upperparts  replaced  by  rufous,  and  breast  heavily  washed  with  buffy.  L. 
9-00;  W.,  5'40;  Tar.,  I'lO;  B.,  1'15. 

Remarks. — This  bird  somewhat  resembles  both  P.  fuscicollis  and  P. 
bairdi,  but  it  differs  from  them  in  its  larger  size,  black  instead  of  white  or 
fuscous  upper  tail-coverts,  and  longer,  more  pointed  middle  tail-feathers. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  on  the  Arctic  coast  from  n.  Alaska  to 
mouth  of  Yukon  and  ne.  Mackenzie;  winters  in  S.  A.  from  Peru  and  Bolivia 
to  n.  Chile,  Argentina,  and  cen.  Patagonia ;  in  migration  very  rare  on  Pacific 
coast  south  of  B.  C.,  except  in  L.  Calif.;  common  in  fall  migration  in  Miss. 
Valley  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  rare  in  spring;  casual  in  ne.  Siberia,  Un- 
alaska,  and  Greenland;  accidental  in  Hawaii  and  England. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.;  Aug.  23-Oct.  22.  Long  Island,  T.  V., 
rare  in  May,  common  from  July  15  to  Nov.  1.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Sept. 
10-Oct.  16.  Cambridge,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Oct.  5-20.  N.  Ohio,  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  1-May  5.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  4-May  10;  Aug.  5- 
Sept.  28.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  23;  Sept.  15. 

Eggs,  4,  drab,  sometimes  with  a  greenish  tinge,  blotched  with  clear 
umber-brown  markings,  more  numerous  at  the  larger  end,  1*50  x  1*09  (Mur- 
doch). Date,  Pt.  Barrow,  June  18. 

The  names  Grass  Snipe  and  Krieker  describe  with  equal  truth  and 
conciseness  the  haunts  and  notes  of  this  Snipe.  It  frequents  wet, 
grassy  meadows  rather  than  beaches,  and,  although  it  flies  in  flocks, 
the  birds  scatter  while  feeding  and  take  wing  one  or  more  at  a  time. 
They  thus  remind  one  of  Wilson's  Snipe.  Their  note  is  a  squeaky, 
grating  whistle.  They  will  respond  to  an  imitation  of  it,  but  do  not 
decoy  so  readily  as  the  larger  Bay  Birds.  Mr.  E.  W.  Nelson  writes 
that  during  the  breeding  season  the  male  inflates  its  breast  and  throat 
until  they  are  double  their  normal  size,  and  utters  a  deep,  hollow,  reso- 
nant note.  (Rep.  on  Nat.  Hist.  Coll.  made  in  Alaska,  p.  108.) 

240.  Pisobia  fuscicollis  (Vieill.*).  WHITE-RUMPED  SANDPIPER.  Ads.  in 
summer. — Upperparts  black,  edged  with  rufous;  rump  grayish  fuscous,  mar- 
gined with  ashy;  longer  upper  tail-coverts  white,  with  sometimes  brownish 
gray  markings;  central  tail-feathers  fuscous,  outer  ones  brownish  gray,  upper 
throat  white;  neck,  breast,  and  sides  distinctly  streaked  and  spotted  with 
black  and  more  or  less  washed  with  ochraceous-buff.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. 
— "Upperparts  plain  brownish  gray,  with  indistinct,  narrow  mesial  streaks 
of  dusky;  otherwise  as  in  summer,  but  streaks  on  chest,  etc.,  less  distinct" 
(Ridgw.).  Juv. — Similar  to  summer  examples,  but  the  feathers  of  the  upper- 
parts  with  rounded  whitish  or  ochraceous-buff  tips;  breast  less  distinctly 
streaked.  L.,  7'50;  W.,  4'90;  Tar.,  '90;  B.,  '95. 

Remarks. — The  white  upper  tail-coverts  distinguish  this  species. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  along  the  Arctic  coast  from  nw.  Mack- 
enzie to  Cumberland  Is. ;  has  occurred  in  summer  w.  to  Point  Barrow  and  e.  to 
Greenland;  winters  from  Paraguay  to  s.  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland  Islands; 
in  migration  most  abundant  in  the  Miss.  Valley,  less  so  on  the  Atlantic 
coast;  casual  in  Bermuda,  Great  Britain,  the  West  Indies,  and  Cen.  Am. 

Long  Island,  not  uncommon,  T.  V.,  July  20-Oct.  10.  Ossining,  casual 
T.  V.,  Sept.  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V. 

Eggs,  3-4,  light  olive,  or  olive  brownish,  spotted  (usually  rather  finely) 
with  deep  brown  and  dull,  purplish  gray,  1*37  X  *94  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Herschel 
Is.,  June  10  (Thayer  Coll.). 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  251 

"They  frequent  the  sandy  beach  as  well  as  the  marshy  shores 
upon  the  coast,  but  inland  seem  to  prefer  the  edges  of  pools  of  water 
upon  the  uplands.  They  move  in  small  flocks,  are  very  social,  often 
associating  with  other  waders,  are  not  as  a  rule  shy  or  timid,  and,  when 
startled,  usually  fly  but  a  short  distance,  drop  back,  and  run  about 
in  an  unconcerned  and  heedless  manner,  picking  up  the  minute  forms 
of  life  that  usually  abound  in  such  places,  occasionally  uttering  a 
rather  sharp,  piping  weet,  weet.  Their  flight  is  swift  and  well  sustained' ' 
(Goss). 

241.  Pisobia  bairdi  (Coues}.    BAIRD'S  SANDPIPER.    Ads.  in  summer. — 
Upperparts  fuscous;  feathers  of  crown  and  nape  margined  laterally  with 
pale  buffy;  back  and  scapulars  tipped  with  pale  buffy  or  brownish  gray; 
middle  upper  tail-coverts  fuscous,  sometimes  tipped  with  buffy;  central  tail- 
feathers  fuscous,  margined  with  whitish,  outer  ones  pale  brownish  gray; 
throat  white;  breast  washed  with  buffy  and  lightly  spotted  or  streaked  with 
fuscous  sides  and  belly  white.    Juv. — Similar,  but  the  back,  scapulars,  and 
wing-coverts  with  rounded  white  tips.    (In  the  winter  these  tips  are  more  or 
less  worn  off.)   L.,  7'40;  W.,  4'90;  Tar.,  '90;  B.,  '85. 

Remarks. — This  bird  most  closely  resembles  P.  fuscicollis.  In  any  plu- 
mage it  may  be  known  from  that  species  by  the  fuscous  instead  of  white  middle 
upper  tail-coverts.  In  summer  it  differs  also  in  the  absence  of  rufous  above, 
the  less  heavily  spotted  throat,  and  the  white  instead  of  spotted  sides.  In 
winter  the  chief  distinguishing  marks  of  the  two  species,  aside  from  the  dif- 
ferently colored  upper  tail-coverts,  are  the  buffy  breast  and  generally  paler 
upperparts  of  bairdi. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  along  the  Arctic  coast  from  Point  Barrow 
to  n.  Keewatin;  winters  in  Chile,  Argentina,  and  Patagonia;  occurs  regularly 
in  migration  from  the  Rocky  Mts.  to  the  Miss.  River,  and  in  Cen.  Am.,  and 
n.  S.  A.,  and  irregularly  in  autumn  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  Alaska  to 
L.  Calif.,  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  N.  S.  to  N.  J. ;  casual  in  summer  in 
Guerrero,  Mex. ;  accidental  in  England  and  S.  Africa. 

Washington,  casual,  one  record,  Sept.  Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  in  fall, 
Aug.  14-Oct.  31.  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V.,  May  10. 

Eggs,  3-4,  light,  creamy  buff,  sometimes  tinged  with  rusty,  thickly 
speckled  and  spotted  with  deep  reddish  brown  or  chestnut,  1'30  x  "93 
(Ridgw.).  Date,  Pt.  Barrow,  June  20. 

"In  habits  they  are  similar  to  the  White-rumped  (which  they  so 
closely  resemble),  but  are  more  inclined  to  wander  from  the  water's 
edge.  I  have  flushed  the  birds  on  high  prairie  lands,  at  least  a  mile 
from  the  water"  (Goss). 

242.  Pisobia    minutilla    (Vieill). 
LEAST  SANDPIPER.    Ads.  in  summer. — 
Upperparts  black  or  fuscous,  edged  and  . 
tipped  with  buffy  or  rufous;  rump  and 
middle  upper  tail-coverts  plain  black  or 
fuscous;    central    tail-feathers  black  or 
fuscous,   outer  ones   ashy  gray;  upper 
throat  white ;  neck  and  breast  white  or 
buffy,  streaked  with  fuscous;  belly  and 
sides  white.    Juv. — Similar,  but  feathers 
of  the  back  with  rounded  rufous  or  buffy 
tips;     breast    not    distinctly    streaked. 

Ads.  and   Juv.  in  winter.— Upperparts  FIG.  80.    Least  Sandpiper, 

brownish    gray,    sometimes  with   more  (Natural  size.) 


252  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

or  less  black  in  the  centers  of  the  feathers;  breast  white  or  ashy,  not  dis- 
tinctly streaked.  L.,  6'00;  W.,  3'50;  Tar.,  '70;  B.,  '75. 

Remarks. — This  is  the  smallest  of  our  Sandpipers,  and  can  be  confused 
only  with  Ereunetes  pusillus,  from  which,  however,  it  may  always  be  distin- 
guished by  the  absence  of  webs  between  the  bases  of  the  toes. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  s.  Arctic  islands,  and  n. 
Ungava  to  Yakutat  Bay,  Alaska,  valley  of  the  Upper  Yukon,  n.  Mackenzie, 
cen.  Keewatin,  s.  Ungava,  N.  S.,  and  Sable  Is.;  winters  from  Calif.,  Tex., 
and  N.  C.,  through  the  West  Indies  and  Cen.  Am.,  to  Brazil,  Chile,  and  the 
Galapagos;  in  migration  occurs  throughout  the  U.  S.,  and  w.  to  ne.  Siberia 
and  the  Commander  Islands,  n.  to  Greenland,  and  in  Bermuda;  accidental 
in  Europe. 

Washington,  uncommon  T.  V.,  May;  Aug.-Oct.  Long  Island,  abundant 
T.  V.,  Apl.  25  through  May;  July  through  Sept.  Ossining,  tolerably  com- 
mon T.  V.,  May  9-May  22;  Oct.  3.  Cambridge,  very  common  T.  V.,  May 
15-May  28;  July  20-Sept.  1.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  May  5-20;  Sept.  1-30. 
Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  4-15;  Aug.  2-Sept.  5.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  T.  V.  May  9;  Sept.  15. 

Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  grayish  buffy,  varying  to  pale  brownish,  thickly  spotted, 
speckled,  or  sprinkled  with  deep  chestnut  and  dull,  purplish  gray,  1*15  x  '83 
(Ridgw.).  Date,  Kadiak  Islands,  June  25  (Thayer  Coll.). 

This,  the  smallest  of  our  Sandpipers,  is  frequently  associated  with 
its  larger  cousin,  the  Semipalmated  Sandpiper,  on  the  shores  and 
beaches,  but  it  also  visits  the  grassy  meadows,  and  for  this  reason  is 
known  by  baymen  as  the  ' Meadow  Oxeye.' 

24 3a.  Pelidna  alpina  sakhalina  (VieilL).  RED-BACKED  SANDPIPER. 
Ads.  in  summer.-^- Upperparts  broadly  margined  with  rufous,  centers  of  the 
feathers  black,  wings  brownish  gray;  breast  whitish,  lightly  streaked  with 
blackish;  middle  of  the  belly  with  a  large  black  patch,  lower  belly  white.  Juv. 


FIG.  81.   Red-backed  Sandpiper.    (Natural  size.) 

• — Upperparts  blackish,  the  feathers  with  rounded  tips  of  rufous  or  buffy; 
breast  washed  with  buffy  and  indistinctly  streaked  with  blackish;  belly 
spotted  with  black.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Upperparts  brownish  gray; 
middle  upper  tail-coverts  fuscous ;  wing-coverts  brownish  gray  margined  with 
buffy;  throat  white;  breast  ashy,  indistinctly  streaked;  belly  white,  the  sides 
sometimes  spotted  with  black.  L.,  8*00;  W.,  4'75;  Tar.,  TOO;  B.,  1'50. 

Remarks. — There  is,  of  course,  every  degree  of  intergradation  between 
summer  and  winter  plumage,  but  the  species  may  always  be  known  by  its 
slightly  curved  bill. 

Range. — N.  A.  and  E,  Asia.    Breeds  on  the  n.  coast  of  Siberia  w.  to 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  253 

mouth  of  the  Yenisei,  and  from  Point  Barrow  to  mouth  of  Yukon,  and  in 
Boothia  and  Melville  Peninsulas  and  n.  Ungava;  winters  on  the  Pacific 
coast  from  Wash,  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  and  from  N.  J.  (rarely  Mass.)  s.  to  La.  and 
s.  Tex.,  and  in  Asia  from  China  and  Japan  to  the  Malay  Archipelago;  rare 
in  migration  in  the  interior  of  the  U.  S.  except  about  the  s.  end  of  Lake  Mich- 
igan. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  ApL;  Sept.-Noy.  Long  Island,  T.  V.,  uncom- 
mon in  spring,  Apl.  1-May  15;  common  in  fall,  Aug.  31  through  Oct. 
(Dutcher).  Ossining,  tolerably  common,  T.  V.  in  fall,  Oct.  3-24.  Cambridge, 
casual,  one  instance,  Oct.  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V.,May  14.. 

Eggs,  3-4,  varying  from  pale,  bluish  white  to  ochraceous-buff,  heavily 
marked  with  chocolate,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  1*43  x  I'Ol.  Date,  Pt. 
Barrow,  Alaska,  June  21. 

Generally  speaking,  this  is  a  shore  or  beach  bird,  though  it  also 
visits  grassy  marshes.  It  flies  and  feeds  in  flocks,  and  is  an  unsus- 
picious, rather  stupid  little  Snipe,  less  active  than  most  members  of 
this  family.  The  gray-plumaged  fall  birds  are  known  as  'Leadbacks,' 
while  in  the  spring  they  go  by  the  names  'Blackbreast'  or  'Redback.' 

The  DUNLIN  (248.  Pelidna  alpina  alpina)  is  the  Old  World  representa- 
tive of  our  Red-backed  Sandpiper,  from  which  it  differs  only  in  being  less 
brightly  colored  and  somewhat  smaller.  L.,  about  7*40;  W.,  4*  12-4*50;  Tar., 
'78-90;  B.,  1'05-1*25.  It  is  of  casual  occurrence  in  North  America. 

244.  Erolia  ferruginea  (Brunn.).  CURLEW  SANDPIPER.  Bill  slightly 
decurved.  Ads.  in  summer. — Below  reddish  brown,  above  rusty  and  black. 
Juv. — Above  brownish  gray,  margined  with  whitish,  back  blacker;  below 
white.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Above  plain  brownish  gray;  below  white. 
L.,  8-00;  W.,  5'00;  B.,  1'50;  T.,  I'lO. 

Range. — Chiefly  E.  Hemisphere;  occasional  in  N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  in 
the  Yenisei  delta  and  on  the  Taimyr  Peninsula,  Siberia;  winters  in  Africa, 
India,  Malay  Archipelago,  and  Australia;  in  migration  occurs  from  Great 
Britain  to  China  and  the  Philippines;  occasional  in  N.  A.;  Alaska  (Pt. 
Barrow),  Ont.,  N.  S.,  Maine.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  and  N.  J.,  and  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Patagonia. 

246.  Ereunetes  pusillus  (Linn.}.  SEMIPALMATED  SANDPIPER.  Ads. 
in  summer. — Upperparts  black  or  fuscous,  margined  with  brownish  gray  and 
a  small  amount  of  rufous ;  rump  grayish  brown ;  upper  tail-coverts  blackish ; 
tail-feathers  brownish  gray,  central  ones  darkest;  breast  streaked  or  spotted 
with  blackish.  Juv. — Similar,  but  upperparts  and  wing-coverts  blackish, 
with  rounded  rufous  or  buffy  tips  to  the  feathers;  breast  unstreaked,  tinted 
with  buffy.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Upperparts  brownish  gray,  with 
darker  shaft  streaks;  upper  tail-coverts  darker;  underparts  white,  sometimes 
with  faint  streaks  on  the  breast.  L.,  6'30;  W.,  375;  Tar.,  '75;  B.,  '65-'80. 

Remarks. — The  small  size  of  this  and  the  next  species  prevents  their  be- 
ing confused  with  any  other  except  Pisobia  minutilla,  from  which  they  may 
always  be  known  by  their  partially  webbed  toes. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  the  Arctic  coast  of  N.  A.  s.  to  mouth 
of  Yukon  and  to  s.  Ungava;  winters  from  Tex.  and  S.  C.  through  West 
Indies  and  Cen.  Am.  to  Patagonia;  migrates  mainly  e.  of  the  Rocky  Mts. ; 
casual  in  B.  C.,  Pribilof  Islands,  and  ne.  Siberia;  accidental  in  Europe. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  May;  Aug.  10-Oct.  26.  Long  Island,  abundant 
T.  V.,  May;  July  through  Sept.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  in  fall,  Aug.  14- 
Oct.  20.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  in  fall,  Aug.  10-Sept.  15.  N.  Ohio,  common  T. 
V.,  May  5-May  25;  Sept.  1-25.  Glen  Ellyn,  T.  V.,  May;  Aug.  and  Sept. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  22;  Sept.  15. 

Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  dull  grayish»buff,  sprinkled,  speckled,  or  spotted  with 
dark  brown  and  purplish  gray,  1'21  x  *85  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Lab.,  June  12P 


254  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

The  thought  of  these  little  Sandpipers  always  creates  a  mental  pic- 
ture of  a  long  stretch  of  dazzling  beach  with  its  ever-changing  surf- 
line.  I  hear  the  oft-repeated  booming  of  the  rolling,  tumbling  breakers, 
and  in  the  distance  see  a  group  of  tiny  forms  hurrying  to  and  fro  over 
the  sand  smoothed  by  the  frothy  waves.  With  what  nimble  grace- 
fulness they  follow  the  receding  waves,  searching  for  treasures  cast  up 
by  the  sea!  What  contentment  and  good-fellowship  are  expressed  by 
their  cheery,  conversational  twitterings!  Up  and  down  the  beach  they 
run,  now  advancing,  now  retreating,  sometimes,  in  their  eagerness,  ven- 
turing too  far,  when  the  waters  threaten  to  engulf  them,  and  in  momen- 
tary confusion  they  take  wing  and  hover  back  to  a  place  of  safety 
Suddenly,  as  though  at  a  signal,  they  are  off;  a  compact  flock  moving 
as  one  bird,  twisting  and  turning  to  right  and  left,  now  gleaming  white 
as  the  sun  strikes  their  snowy  bodies,  now  dark  again  like  a  wisp  of 
sunless  cloud  flying  before  the  wind. 

247.  Ereunetes   mauri    (Cab.).     WESTERN   SANDPIPER.      This   bird 
closely  resembles  the  preceding,  from  which,  in  summer  plumage,  it  differs 
in  having  the  upperparts  conspicuously  margined  with  rufous  and  the  breast 
more  heavily  streaked.    In  fall  and  winter  plumage  the  differences  in  color- 
ation are  not  so  apparent,  but  the  birds  are  to  be  distinguished  at  any  season 
by  the   size   of   the   bill,  which   in   the  western  species  is  always  longer. 
W.,  3'80;  Tar.,  80;  B.,  '85-l'20. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  along  the  Alaska  coast  from  Kotzebue 
Sound  to  mouth  of  Yukon;  winters  from  N.  C.  to  Fla.,  and  from  s.  L.  Calif, 
to  Venezuela;  in  migration  occurs  mainly  w.  of  the  Rocky  Mts.,  but  also 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far  n.  as  Mass.,  and  in  the  West  Indies. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.-Sept.  Long  Island,  uncommon  T.  V.,  in 
'all,  occurring  with  E.  pusillus. 

Eggs,  3-4,  deep  cinnamon  buffy,  sprinkled,  speckled,  or  thickly  spotted 
\vith  bright  rusty  brown  or  chestnut,  the  general  aspect  decidedly  rusty, 
i'24  x  "87  (Ridgw.).  Date,  St.  Michael's,  Alaska,  May  28. 

This  western  representative  of  the  preceding  species  is  found  on 
our  coasts  associated  with  its  eastern  relative.  According  to  Wayne 
(Birds  So.  Car.)  this  is  the  most  abundant  winter  wader  on  the  South 
Carolina  coast. 

248.  Calidris  leucophaea  (Pall.).     SANDERLING.     Ads.  in  summer. — 
Feathers  of  upperparts  with  generally  black  centers,  bordered  and  some- 
times barred  with  pale  rufous  and  tipped  with  ashy  white;  wings  fuscous, 
basal  half  of  outer  web  of  inner  primaries  white;  wing-coverts  grayish  fuscous, 
greater  ones,   broadly  tipped   with  white;    tail   brownish   gray,   narrowly 
margined  with  white;  throat  and  upper  breast  washed  with  pale  rufous  and 
spotted  with  blackish;  rest  of  the  underparts  pure  white.  Juv. — Similar, 
but  upperparts  without  rufous,  glossy  black,  the  feathers  sometimes  bor- 
dered with  white,  but  generally  with  two  white  spots  at  their  tips  separated 
by  the  black  of  the  central  part  of  the  feather;  nape  grayish  white,  lightly 
streaked  with  blackish;  underparts  pure  white,  with  occasionally  a  few  spots 
on  the  breast.    Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Upperparts  pale  brownish  gray, 
wings  as  in  the  preceding;  underparts  pure  white.    L.,  8'00;  W.,  5'00;  Tar., 
I'OO;  B.,  1-00. 

Remarks. — The  Sanderling  is  the  only  one  of  our  Snipes  or  Sandpipers 
having  three  toes,  and  it  may  always  bo  known  by  this  character  in  combi- 
nation with  its  transversely  scaled  tarsi. 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  255 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Hemispheres.  Breeds  from  Melville  Is.,  Ellesmere 
Land,  and  n.  Greenland  to  Pt.  Barrow,  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  Iceland,  and 
in  n.  Siberia;  winters  from  cen.  Calif.,  Tex.,  Va.,  and  Bermuda  to  Patagonia, 
and  casually  to  Mass.,  and  Wash.;  also  from  the  Mediterranean,  Burma, 
and  Japan  to  S.  Africa  and  various  Pacific  islands,  including  Hawaii. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  Sept.-Oct.  Long  Island,  common  T.  V.,  Mch. 
15  through  May;  July  20-Oct.  1.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.  to 
June  5;  Sept.  9-Oct.  5.  Cambridge,  casual,  one  instance,  Sept.  N.  Ohio, 
common  T.  V.,  May  1-20;  Sept.  1-Oct.  10.  SE.  Minn.,  T.  V.,  May  14. 

Eggs,  3-4,  light  olive-brown,  finely  spotted  or  speckled  with  darker, 
the  markings  larger  and  more  blended  on  the  larger  end,  1*41  X  *91  (Ridgw.). 
Date,  Anderson  River,  Mack.,  June  27. 

This  is  a  true  beach  bird,  and  is  usually  found  on  shores  washed 
by  the  sea.  It  frequently  associates  with  the  Semipalmated  Sandpiper, 
or  Oxeye,  which  it  resembles  in  habits,  but  its  larger  size  and  lighter 
colors  distinguish  it  from  that  species. 

249.  Limosa  fedoa  (Linn.}.  MAKBLED  GODWIT.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Upperparts  black,  the  head  and  neck  streaked  with  buffy,  back  barred  or 
the  feathers  spotted  on  the  sides  and  sometimes  tipped  with  buffy  or  ochra- 
ceous-buff ;  inner  web  of  outer  primaries  and  both  webs  of  inner  ones  ochra- 
ceous-buff  or  pale  buffy,  speckled  with  black ;  tail  ochraceous-buff  barred  with 
black;  throat  white,  rest  of  underparts  pale  buffy,  spotted  or  barred  with 
black;  bill  curved  slightly  upward,  yellowish  at  the  base,  black  at  the  end. 
Juv. — Similar,  but  underparts  with  few  or  no  bars  except  on  flanks  and  under 
tail-coverts.  L.,  IS'OO;  W.,  875;  Tar.,  275;  B.,  4'00. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan  s.  to  N.  D. 
(formerly  to  Iowa  and  Wise.);  winters  from  s.  L.  Calif.,  La.,  Fla.,  and  Ga.  to 
Guatemala  and  Belize;  casual  in  Calif,  in  winter;  in  migration  occurs  on  the 
Pacific  coast  n.  to  B.  C.,  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Maritime  Provinces 
(formerly)  and  s.  to  the  Lesser  Antilles ;  accidental  in  Alaska. 

Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.  and  Sept. 

Eggs,  3-4,  clay-color  or  brownish  ashy,  blotched,  spotted,  and  scrawled 
with  grayish  brown,  2*15  x  1'60.  Date,  Minor  Co.,  S.  D.,  May  16. 

This  is  a  common  bird  about  the  sloughs  of  Alberta  prairies  where 
its  loud,  frequently  uttered  double-noted  call  makes  it  conspicuous. 
It  is  rare  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

1907.   BENT,  A.  C.,  Auk,  XXIV,  160-167  (nesting). 

251.  Limosa  hsemastica  (Linn.).  HUD«ONIAN  GODWIT.  Ads.  in 
summer. — Bill  slightly  curved  upward.  Upper  tail-coverts  black  and  white; 
tail  black  at  the  end,  white  at  tbe  base;  above  black,  rusty  and  grayish; 
below  reddish  brown,  barred  with  blackish  and  faintly  tipped  with  white. 
Juv. — Similar,  but  below  buffy  whitish,  breast  grayer.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in 
winter. — Similar  to  the  young  below,  but  above  brownish  gray.  L.,  15; 
W.,  8*2;  Tar.,  2'2;  B.,  3'2. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  the  lower  Anderson  River  se.  to  cen. 
Keewatin;  winters  in  Argentina,  Patagonia,  and  the  Falkland  Islands; 
in  migration  occurs  principally  e.  of  the  Great  Plains,  most  commonly  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  in  autumn  and  in  the  Miss.  Valley  in  spring;  casual  in 
Alaska. 

Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.-Oct.    Cambridge,  one  record. 

Eggs,  3-4,  deep  olive,  hair-brown,  or  broccoli-brown  (sometimes  paler), 
usually  more  or  less  spotted  with  darker  brown,  but  sometimes  nearly 
uniform,  2'20  x  1*42  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Ft.  Anderson,  Mack.,  June  9. 

This  species  is  becoming  one  of  our  rarest  Shore  Birds. 


256  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

The  BLACK-TAILED  GODWIT  (252.  Limosa  limosa)  inhabits  the  northern 
parts  of  the  Old  World  and  is  of  accidental  occurrence  in  Greenland. 

The  GREEN-SHANK  (253.  Glottis  nebularia)  is  an  Old  World  species,  of 
which  three  specimens  were  taken  by  Audubon,  May  28,  1832,  near  Cape 
Sable,  Florida.  It  resembles  our  Greater  Yellow-legs,  but  differs  chiefly  in 
having  the  lower  back  and  rump  white. 

254.  Totanus  melanoleucus   (Gmel.}.    GREATER  YELLOW-LEGS.    Ads. 
in  summer. — Upperparts  black,  head  and  neck  streaked  and  back  spotted 
or  barred  with  white  or  ashy;  upper  tail-coverts  white,  more  or  less  barred 
with  black;  tail  white  or  ashy,  barred  with  black;  breast  heavily  spotted 
with  black;  sides  barred  with  black;  middle  of  the  belly  white.    Ads.  and 
Juv.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  upperparts  brownish  gray,  edged  with  whitish ; 
sides  of  scapulars,   tertials,   and   wing-coverts  with  blackish  and  whitish 
spots;  breast  only  lightly  streaked  with  blackish,  and  sides  slightly  barred. 
L.,  14-00;  W.,  7-70;  Tar.,  2'40;  B.,  2'20. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  Lake  Iliamna,  Alaska,  and  s. 
Mackenzie  to  s.  B.  C.,  Ungava,  Lab.,  and  Anticosti  Is.;  winters  from  s. 
Calif.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  Ga.  (casually  N.  C.)  s.  to  Patagonia;  occurs  in  Ber- 
muda in  migration. 

Washington,  rather  common  T.  V.,  Apl.,  May;  July  25— Nov.  Long 
Island,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  10  through  May;  July  15  through  Oct.  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  to  June  5;-Oct.  28.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  20- 
May  20;  Aug.  1-Oct.  20.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  10-May  15;  Sept. 
1-Oct.  30.  Glen  Ellyn,  uncommon  T.  V.,  May;  Sept.  18-Oct.  24.  SE.  Minn., 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  1;  Sept.  17-Oct.  28. 

Eggs,  3-4,  brownish  buffy,  distinctly  but  very  irregularly  spotted  with 
rich  vandyke-  or  madder-brown,  1*43  x  1'20  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Ft.  George. 
B.  C.,  May  20. 

It  needs  only  the  musical  notes  of  the  Yellow-leg  to  recall  memo- 
ries of  many  days  passed  along  the  shore  and  in  the  marshes.  Half 
reclining  in  my  blind,  I  see  in  fancy  the  staring  decoys,  pointing  like 
weathercocks  with  the  wind,  and  hear  the  dull  booming  of  surf  behind 
the  brown  sand-dunes. 

Few  birds  are  flying;  lulled  by  the  lap,  lap  of  the  water,  I  have 
almost  fallen  asleep,  when  from  far  up  in  the  gray  sky  comes  a  soft, 
flutelike  whistle,  when,  wheu-wheu-wheu-wheu,  when,  wheu-wheu.  I 
respond  quickly,  and,  lying  on  my  back,  look  eagerly  upward.  Not  a 
bird  can  be  seen,  but  the  questioning  call  grows  stronger  and  is  repeated 
more  frequently.  Finally  I  distinguish  five  or  six  black  points  sailing 
in  narrow  circles  so  high  that  I  can  scarcely  believe  they  are  the  birds 
I  hear.  But  no  bar  or  shoal  breaks  the  sound  waves.  The  birds  grow 
larger  and  on  widening  circles  sweep  earthward.  Their  soft  whistle 
has  a  plaintive  tone;  their  long  bills  turn  inquiringly  from  side  to  side. 
The  stolid  decoys  give  no  response,  they  repel  rather  than  encourage, 
but  the  whistling  continues,  and  with  murmured  notes  of  interrogation 
the  deluded  birds  wheel  over  them  and,  if  permitted,  will  alight 
before  discovering  the  deception. 

255.  Totanus  flavipes    (GmeL).    YELLOW-LEGS.    Ads.    in   summer. — 
Upperparts  generally  brownish  gray,  head  and  neck  streaked  with  black 
and  white;  back,  scapulars,  arid  wing-coverts  with  sometimes  black  centers, 
spotted  or  tipped  with  whitish  or  brownish  gray;  upper  tail-coverts  white, 
more  or  less  barred  with  black,  tail  varying  from  white  to  brownish  gray, 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  257 

with  numerous  black  or  blackish  cross-bars;  breast  heavily  spotted  or 
streaked  and  sides  barred  with  black;  belly  white,  legs  yellow.  Ads.  and 
Juv.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  upperparts  brownish  gray,  the  sides  of  the 
feathers  with  whitish  spots;  tail-bars  grayish;  breast  lightly  streaked  with 
ashy.  L.,  10'75;  W.,  6'40;  Tar.,  2'05;  B.,  1'40. 

Remarks. — This  bird  closely  resembles  the  Greater  Yellow-legs  in 
color,  but  may  always  be  distinguished  by  its  smaller  size. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  Kotzebue  Sound,  Alaska,  n.  Macken- 
zie, cen.  Keewatin,  and  s.  Ungava  to  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Yukon,  s. 
Sask.,  and  n.  Que.;  winters  in  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Patagonia,  and 
casually  in  Mex.,  Fla.,  and  the  Bahamas;  in  migration  occurs  mainly  e.  of 
the  Rocky  Mts.  (rare  in  spring  on  the  Atlantic  coast),  aruHn  the  Pribilof 
Islands,  Greenland,  and  Bermuda;  accidental  in  Great  Britain. 

Washington,  rather  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  to  May  15;  Aug.-Oct.  Long 
Island,  T.  V.,  very  rare  in  spring,  abundant  in  fall;  July  15-Oct.  1.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  T.  V.,  in  fall;  Aug.  25-Oct.  5.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V., 
May;  Aug.  4-Sept.  15.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  20-May  15;  Sept.  1- 
Oct.  30.  Glen  Ellyn,  quite  regular,  Apl.  15-May  19;  July  6-Oct.  17.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  7;  Aug.  23-Oct.  11. 

Eggs,  3-4,  buffy  (variable  as  to  shade),  distinctly  (sometimes  broadly) 
spotted  or  blotched  with  dark  madder-  or  vandyke-brown  and  purplish 
gray,  1*69  x  1*15  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Ft.  Anderson,  Mack.,  June  5. 

This  species  closely  resembles  the  preceding  in  notes,  habits,  and 
choice  of  haunts.  It  decoys,  however,  more  easily,  and,  generally 
speaking,  is  more  common. 

The  EUROPEAN  RED-SHANK  (Totanus  totanus}  has  been  once  recorded 
from  Hudson  Bay  (Coues,  Auk,  XIV,  1897,  211). 

256.  Helodromas  solitarius  solitarius  (Wils.).  SOLITARY  SAND- 
PIPER. Ads.  in  summer. — Upperparts  olive-fuscous,  with  a  slight  greenish 
tinge,  head  and  neck  streaked  and  back  spotted  with  white;  upper  tail- 
coverts  fuscous,  with  fine  whitish  spots  on  their  sides,  lateral  ones  sometimes 
barred;  central  pair  of  tail-feathers  fuscous,  the  others  white,  barred  with 
black;  breast  streaked,  and  sides  sometimes  barred  with  black;  belly  white; 
axillars  barred  with  black  and  white;  legs  greenish  fuscous.  Ads.  and  Jiir. 
in  winter.  —  Similar, 
but  upperparts  gray- 
ish brown;  head  and 
neck  generally  un- 
streaked,  and  back 


only  lightly  spotted 
with  buffy  white; 
breast  streaked  with 

-^'rp     ''  FIG.  82.    Inner  view  of  wing  of  Solitary  Sandpiper, 

1-9O-T'     1*1  A  showing  barred  axillars. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Summers  from  cen.  Keewatin,  n.  Ungava,  and 
N.  F.  s.  to  Nebr.,  111.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  and  Pa.;  probably  breeds  regularly  in  the 
n.  part  of  its  range,  locally  and  casually  in  the  s.  part;  winters  from  the 
West  Indies  to  Argentina;  recorded  from  Greenland,  Bermuda,  and  Great 
Britain. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.-May  25;  July  25-Nov.  Long  Island, 
common  T.  V.,  May;  July  15-Oct.  1.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  May  3-30; 
Aug.  27-Oct.  2.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  May  12-23;  Aug.  10-Sept.  30. 
N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  in  summer,  Apl.  20-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  8-May  31;  July  16-Oct.  6.  SE.  Minn,  common  T.  V., 
Apl.  28;  July  23-Oct.  4. 

Nest,  lays  in  the  abandoned  nests  of  such  tree-building  birds  as  the 


258  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

Robin,  Bronzed  Grackle  or  Cedar  Waxwing.  Eggs,  4,  "pale  greenish-white, 
heavily  blotched  and  spotted  chiefly  at  the  larger  ends  with  vandyke-brown, 
chestnut-brown,  and  purplish  gray,"  1*36  x  "98.  (Raine,  Ottawa  Nat.,  1904, 
135-138;  Auk,  1905,  100).  Date,  n.  Alberta,  June  9. 

This  is  a  wood  Sandpiper.  It  is  rarely  found  on  the  beaches  or  salt 
marshes  near  the  sea,  but  frequents  fresh-water  ponds,  or  lakes  and 
woodland  streams,  both  in  the  lowlands  and  mountains.  It  is  a  quieter, 
more  dignified  bird  than  the  Spotted  Sandpiper,  and  as  a  rule  only 
utters  its  tweet-tweet  when  flushed.  The  nest  of  this  species  has  long 
been  sought  for,  but  it  was  not  until  1903  that,  like  its  European  repre- 
sentative, the  Green  Sandpiper,  it  was  found  laying  in  the  nests  of  tree- 
building  birds. 

The  GREEN  SANDPIPER  (257.  Helodromas  ochropus)  has  been  twice 
recorded  from  America  (Nova  Scotia  and  Hudson  Bay,  Coues  Auk,  XIV, 
1897,  210). 

258.  Catoptrophorus  semipalmatus semipalmatus  (GmeL).  WILLET. 
Ads.  in  summer. — Upperparts  brownish  gray,  the  head  and  neck  streaked, 
and  the  back  barred  with  black,  and  sometimes  buffy,  the  centers  of  the 
feathers  being  occasionally  wholly  black ;  basal  half  of  primaries  and  greater 
part  of  secondaries  white ;  upper  tail-coverts  white  with  a  few  blackish  bars ; 
central  tail-feathers  ashy,  indistinctly  barred  with  blackish;  outer  ones  whitish, 
lightly  mottled  with  grayish;  foreneck  heavily  streaked;  breast  and  sides 
heavily  barred  with  dark  brownish  gray  and  more  or  less  washed  with  buffy; 
belly  generally  white,  with  sometimes  a  few  bars.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — 
Upperparts  brownish  gray,  unmarked;  tail  gray  without  bars;  rump  and 
wings  as  in  the  adult;  breast  washed  with  grayish;  belly  white;  axillars  black. 
L.,  15-00;  W.,  8'00;  Tar.,  2'30;  B.,  2'15. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  Va.  (formerly  N.  S.)  s.  to  Fla.  and 
the  Bahamas;  winters  from  the  Bahamas  to  Brazil  and  Peru;  accidental  in 
Bermuda  and  Europe. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.  Long  Island,  T.  V.,  rare  in  May;  uncom- 
mon in  Aug.  and  Sept.  (Butcher).  Ossining,  A.  V.  SE.  Minn,  rare  T.  V., 
Apl.  10. 

Nest,  in  grassy  marshes.  Eggs,  3-4,  clay-color  or  buffy,  thickly  spotted 
with  chocolate,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  2' 10  x  1'55.  Date,  Sapelo  Is.,  Ga., 
Apl.  22;  Cobb's  Is.,  Va.,  May  16. 

Willets  frequent  both  fresh-  and  salt-water  marshes,  shores,  and 
beaches.  If  you  visit  their  haunts  during  the  nesting  season,  on  flut- 
tering wings  they  will  hover  above  your  head  or  fly  low  over  the  marsh 
to  draw  you  away  from  their  home,  uttering,  with  scarce  a  moment's 
cessation,  their  loudly  whistled  call  of  pilly-will-willet,  pilly-will- 
willet.  All  day  long,  and  even  at  night,  I  have  heard  them  repeat 
these  notes  until,  wearied  by  their  persistence,  one  is  thankful  to  leave 
them  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  ground. 

JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild  Wings,  250  (nesting). 

258a.  C.  s.  inornatus  (Brewst.} .  WESTERN  WILLET.  Slightly  larger  than 
the  preceding,  and,  in  summer  plumage,  upperparts  paler  and  Less  heavily 
marked  with  black;  breast  less  heavily  streaked  and  more  suffused  with 
buffy,  middle  tail-feathers  without  black  bars.  In  winter  plumage  the  two 
forms  can  be  distinguished  only  by  the  slight  and  inconstant  character  of 
size.  W.,  8'50;  Tar.,  2'50;  B.,  2'40. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.   Breeds  from  cen.  Ore.,  s.  Alberta,  and  s.  Manitoba 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  259 

s.  to  n.  Calif.,  cen.  Colo.,  s.  S.  D.,  and  n.  Iowa,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Tex. 
and  La.;  winters  from  cen.  Calif.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  Gulf  coast  of  Fla.  to  Mex. 
(L.  Calif.,  Tepic,  and  Guerrero);  in  fall  migration  occurs  in  B.  C.  and  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  from  New  England  south. 

260.  Machetes  pugnax  (Linn.}.    RUFF;  REEVE.    Ad.  <?  in  summer. — 
Very  variable;  above  and  below  black  with  purplish  reflections;  or  rusty 
barred  with  purplish,  etc.;  feathers  of  breast  much  lengthened  to  form  a 
shield  of  rusty,  black,  or  black  and  white  feathers;  two  variously  colored 
tufts  on  the  hindneck.    &  in  winter. — Above  grayish  brown;  below  white; 
throat  and  breast  grayish;  end  of  tail  with  remains  of  blackish  bars;  ruff 
absent.    Ad.  9. — Head,  neck  and  underparts  as  in  winter  male;  back  black 
margined  with  grayish  brown;  inner  wing-feathers  barred  with  black  and 
grayish  brown.   L.,  12'50;  W.,  7'00;  Tar.,  170;  B.,  1'50. 

Range. — E.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  from  the  Arctic  coast  s.  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, Holland,  Russia,  and  Siberia;  winters  throughout  Africa,  India,  and 
Burma ;  strays  occasionally  to  the  W.  Hemisphere,  from  Ont.  and  Greenland 
s.  to  Ind.,  N.  C.,  Barbados,  and  n.  S.  A. 

Washington,  one  record,  Sept.  3. 

The  nineteen  records  of  the  occurrence  of  this  European  species  are 
about  equally  divided  between  spring  and  fall  dates,  and  fourteen  of 
them  are  from  the  Atlantic  coast. 

1905.  DEANE,  R.,  Auk,  XXII,  410.  —1906.  PALMER,  T.  S.,  Ibid., 
XXIII,  98  (Am.  records). 

261.  Bartramia    longicauda     (Bcchst.).     UPLAND    PLOVER.    Ads. — 
Head  and  neck  streaked  with  black  and  ochraceous-buff;  back  and  wing- 
coverts  ochraccous-buff,  barred  with  black;  tertials  olive,  barred  with  black 
and  margined  with  ochraccous-buff;  primaries  fuscous,  the  outer  one  barred 
with  white;  inner  tail-feathers  brownish  gray,  outer  ones  varying  from  ochra- 
ceous-buff to  white,  all  more  or  less  barred  with  black;    breast  and  sides 
washed  with  buffy  and  streaked  or  barred  with  black;  belly  white  or  whitish. 
Juv. — Similar,  but  the  ochraceous-buff  is  deeper.    L.,  11'50;  W.,  6'50;  Tar., 
1'90;  B.,  1-15. 

Remarks. — The  white  bars  on  the  outer  primary  will  always  serve  to 
identify  this  species. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  s.  Mackenzie,  cen. 
Keewatin,  cen.  Wise.,  s.  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  and  s.  Maine  to  s.  Ore.,  n.  Utah, 
cen.  Okla.,  s.  Mo.,  s.  Ind.,  and  n.  Va. ;  winters  on  the  pampas  of  S.  A.  to 
Argentina;  in  migration  occurs  n.  to  N.  F.  arid  in  Europe;  accidental  in 
Australia. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  21- Apl.  24;  June  29-Sept.  Long 
Island,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.-Sept.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  not  uncommon  in 
fall;  Apl.  20-May  6;  July  26-Sept.  14.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Mch  20- 
Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Sept.  11.  SE.  Minn., 
S.  R.,  formerly  common,  now  rare,  Apl.  7. 

Nest,  concealed  in  the  grass.  Eggs,  4,  creamy  buff  or  white,  spotted  with 
reddish  brown  or  chocolate,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  1*80  x  1*30.  Date, 
Haddonfield,  N.  J.,  May  6,  1887;  Holland  Patent,  N.  Y.,  May  21;  Green- 
wood Co.,  Kans.,  May  11;  se.  Minn.,  June  17. 

The  Upland  'Plover'  is  at  home  ,on  grassy  plains  and  pastures. 
It  is  usually  a  shy  bird,  and  can  rarely  be  successfully  approached  on 
foot.  It  shows  no  fear,  however,  of  a  man  who  is  riding  or  driving, 
and  when  on  horseback  I  have  passed  within  a  few  yards  of  birds 
which  regarded  me  with  some  interest  but  no  alarm.  They  so  closely 
resemble  dried  grass  in  color  that  it  is  sometimes  exceedingly  diffi- 
19 


260  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

cult  to  distinguish  them  from  their  surroundings.  One  may  ride  over 
a  prairie  upon  which,  at  first  glance,  not  a  Plover  is  visible,  and  find, 
after  careful  scrutiny,  that  dozens  of  birds  are  scattered  about  him 
feeding.  This,  at  least  was  my  experience  near  Corpus  Christi,  Texas, 
in  April,  1891,  but  market  hunters  were  then  killing  as  many  as  sixty 
birds  a  day,  and  years  of  this  kind  of  persecution  have  greatly  reduced 
the  numbers  of  these  birds  even  in  the  thinly  settled  West.  In  the 
East  it  now  breeds  only  locally,  but  Eaton  states  that  it  is  increasing  in 
Western  New  York. 

In  alighting,  the  birds  stretch  their  wings  to  the  utmost,  high  over 
their  backs,  as  if  to  get  the  wrinkles  out  before  gently  folding  them. 
When  flushed  they  utter  a  soft,  bubbling  whistle.  During  their  migra- 
tions one  may  clearly  hear  these  sweet  notes  from  birds  traveling  beyond 
the  limits  of  human  vision.  Langille  describes  their  alarm  note  as  a 
spirited  and  rapidly  uttered  quip-ip-ip-ip,  quip-ip-ip-ip,  and  their 
song,  given  from  the  ground,  a  fence,  or  even  a  tree,  as  chr-r-r-r-r-ee-e-e- 
e-e-e-oo-o-o-o-o-oo.  He  remarks:  "This  prolonged,  mournful,  mellow 
whistle,  more  like  the  whistling  of  wind  than  a  bird's  voice,  may  be 
heard  even  in  the  night,  and  is  one  of  the  most  weird  and  never-to-be- 
forgotten  sounds  in  Nature." 

262.  Tryngites  subruficollis  (VieilL).  BUFF-BREASTED  SANDPIPER. 
Ads. — Upperparts  greenish  black  widely  margined  with  pale  grayish  brown; 
primaries  fuscous,  inner  half  of  their  inner  webs  speckled  with  black;  longer 
under  wing-coverts  conspicuously  marked  and  tipped  with  black,  then  white; 
central  tail-feathers  fuscous,  outer  ones  becoming  buffy,  irregularly  marked 
and  tipped  with  black  and  buffy;  underparts  pale  ochraeeous-buff,  tipped 
with  whitish,  and  with  generally  concealed  black  markings.  Juv. — Similar, 
but  back  fuscous  narrowly  margined  or  ringed  with  whitish.  L.,  8*50;  W., 
5'25;  B.,  '80. 

Remarks. — In  any  plumage  this  bird  may  be  known  by  the  peculiar 
speckling  on  the  inner  webs  of  all  the  primaries,  and  also  the  markings  of 
the  under  wing-coverts. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  along  the  Arctic  coast  from  n.  Alaska  to 
n.  Keewatin;  winters  in  Argentina  and  Uruguay;  most  abundant  in  migra- 
tion in  the  Miss.  Valley;  occasional  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in  fall;  casual  on 
the  Pacific  coast  n.  to  St.  Michael,  Alaska,  and  to  ne.  Siberia;  straggles  to 
Bermuda  and  frequently  to  w.  Europe. 

Long  Island,  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.  and  Sept.    SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V. 

Eggs,  3-4,  buffy  grayish  white,  varying  to  pale  olive-buff,  boldly  spotted 
longitudinally  (and  somewhat  spirally)  with  dark  vandyke-  or  madder-brown 
and  purplish  gray,  T53  x  1*04  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Pt.  Barrow,  Alaska,  June  20 

This  is  a  rare  species  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Dr.  Hatch  writes  of 
it  as  observed  by  him  in  Minnesota:  "They  are  an  extremely  active 
species  when  on  the  wing,  and  essentially  ploverine  in  all  respects, 
seeking  sandy,  barren  prairies,  where  they  live  upon  grasshoppers, 
crickets,  and  insects  generally,  and  ants  and  their  eggs  specially.  I 
have  found  them  repasting  upon  minute  mollusks  on  the  sandy  shores 
of  small  and  shallow  ponds,  where  they  were  apparently  little  more 
.suspicious  than  the  Solitary  Sandpipers  are  notably.  The  flight  is  in 
rather  compact  form,  dipping  and  rising  alternately,  and  with  a  dis- 


SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS  261 

position  to  return  again  to  the  neighborhood  of  their  former  feeding- 
places." 

263.  Actitis  macularia   (Linn.).    SPOTTED  SANDPIPER.    Ads.  in  sum- 
mer.— Upperparts  brownish  gray  with  a  faint  greenish  luster,  head  and  neck 
more  or  less  streaked,  and  back  barred  or  spotted  with  black;  inner  tail- 
feathers  like  back,  outer  ones  white  with  blackish  bars;  underparts  white; 
everywhere  spotted  with  black.    Juy. — Upperparts  brownish  gray,  with  a 
greenish  tinge,   back  faintly  and  wing-coverts  conspicuously  barred  with 
black  and  buffy;  underparts  pure  white,  unspotted,  but  slightly  washed  with 
grayish  on  breast.    Ads.  and  Juv.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  back  without  bars. 
L.,  7'50;  W.,  4-20;  Tar.,  '90;  B.,  '95. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  tree  limit  in  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Macken- 
zie, cen.  Keewatin,  n.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  Ariz.,  s.  Tex.,  s.  La. 
and  n.  S.  C.;  winters  from  Calif.,  La.,  and  S.  C.,  to  s.  Brazil  and  cen.  Peru; 
straggles  to  Great  Britain  and  Helgoland. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  not  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  2-Oct.  28.  Long 
Island,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Oct.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29- 
Oct.  25.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  26-Sept.  30.  N.  Ohio,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  9-Oct.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  19-Oct.  30. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  18-Oct.  22. 

Nest,  on  dry  ground,  in  the  grasses  or  weeds,  or  beneath  a  bush  near 
fresh  or  salt  water.  Eggs,  4,  creamy  buff  or  white,  thickly  spotted  and 
speckled  with  chocolate,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  1*25  x  '95.  Date,  Mont- 
gomery Co.,  Pa.,  May  16;  Cambridge,  May  25;  se.  Minn.,  May  30. 

Few  Shore  Birds  are  more  generally  known  than  this  widely  dis- 
tributed little  Sandpiper.  It  frequents  the  margins  of  bodies  of  both 
fresh  and  salt  water,  but  is  more  common  inland  on  the  shores  of  our 
rivers,  ponds  and  lakes.  During  the  summer  it  is  practically  our  only 
fresh-water  Sandpiper,  and  is  familiar  to  most  of  us  under  its  common 
names.  It  runs  rapidly  along  the  beach,  then  pausing  bobs,  bows,  and 
'teters'  in  a  most  energetic  manner.  When  flushed  it  takes  wing  with 
a  sharp  weet-weet  weet-weet,  and  after  a  few  wing-strokes  scales  over 
the  water  to  the  beach  beyond.  It  apparently  dislikes  to  go  beyond 
certain  limits,  and  after  several  flights  makes  a  wide  circle  and  returns 
to  the  starting  point. 

264.  Numenius  americanus  Wils.    LONG-BILLED  CURLEW.    Ads. — 
Head  and  neck  streaked,   and  back  barred  with  buffy  and  black;  wing- 
coverts,  inner  webs  of  primaries,  secondaries,  and  tail  varying  from  buffy 
to  pale  rufous,  barred  or  mottled  with  blackish;  underparts  ochraceous- 
buff,  breast  more  or  less  streaked  and  sides  sometimes  barred  with  black; 
axillars  rufous,  generally  unbarred.    L.,  24'00;  W.,  10'50;  Tar.,  3'10;  B.,  6'00. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Sask.,  and  Man.  to  ne. 
Calif.,  n.  N.  Mex.,  and  nw.  Tex.;  winters  from  cen.  Calif.,  and  s. 
Ariz.  s.  to  Guatemala,  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  S.  C.,  to  Fla.,  La.,  and 
Tex.;  formerly  a  regular  migrant  n.  to  Mass,  and  rarely  to  N.  F.,  now  a 
straggler  e.  of  the  Miss.,  n.  of  Fla.;  casual  in  the  West  Indies. 

Washington,  rare  and  irregular  T.  V.  Long  Island,  casual  from  July- 
Sept.  (Dutcher).  Ossining,  A.  V. 

Eggs,  3-4,  olive  clay-color  or  brownish  ashy,  spotted  or  blotched  with 
chocolate,  2'58  x  1'85.  Date,  Salt  Lake  Co.,  Utah,  May  2;  Crane  Lake, 
Saskatchewan,  June  1. 

"These  birds,  as  a  rule,  inhabit  the  muddy  shores  and  moist,  grassy 
flats  and  plains,  but  often  frequent  and  breed  upon  the  uplands  remote 


262  SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS 

from  water.  Their  food  consists  of  worms,  crickets,  beetles,  grass- 
hoppers, small  snails,  crabs  and  crawfish;  the  latter  they  reach  for  with 
their  long  bills  and  pull  them  out  of  their  holes;  and  I  have  seen  them 
probe  for  and  unearth  the  larvae  of  the  beetles  and  other  forms  of  life 
that  in  the  spring  come  to  or  near  the  surface  preparatory  to  trans- 
formation. While  feeding  they  move  about  with  an  easy  carriage. 

"Their  flight  is  not  rapid  but  well  sustained,  with  regular  strokes 
of  the  wings,  and  when  going  a  distance  usually  high  and  in  a  trian- 
gular form,  uttering  now  and  then  their  loud,  prolonged  whistling  note, 
so  often  heard  during  the  breeding  season;  before  alighting,  suddenly 
drop  nearly  to  the  ground,  then  gather,  and  with  a  rising  sweep  grace- 
fully alight"  (Goss). 

265.  Numenius    hudsonicus   Lath.     HUDSONIAN   CURLEW.     Ads. — 
Upperparts  grayish  brown,  the  sides  of  the  feathers  with  buff  or  whitish 
spots;  rump  and  tail  barred  with  buffy  and  blackish;  inner  web  of  outer 
primaries  and  both  webs  of  inner  ones  barred  with  buffy  or  whitish  and  black'. 
underparts  buffy  or  whitish,  neck  and  breast  streaked  and  sides  and  under 
wing-coverts  barred  with  black.  L.,  17'00;  W.,  9'50;  Tar.,  2;20;  B.,  3'75. 

Remarks. — Young  birds  often  have  the  bill  as  short  as  in  N.  borealis 
from  which,  however,  they  may  always  be  distinguished  by  their  barred 
primaries. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  on  the  coast  of  Alaska  from  mouth  of 
Yukon  to  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  on  the  coast  of  n.  Mackenzie;  winters  from 
L.  Calif,  to  s.  Honduras,  from  Ecuador  to  s.  Chile,  and  from  B.  Guiana  to 
mouth  of  the  Amazon;  migrates  mainly  along  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
coasts;  rare  in  the  interior;  casual  on  the  Pribilof  Islands  and  in  Greenland 
and  Bermuda;  accidental  in  Spain. 

Long  Island,  T.  V.,  rare  Apl.  28-May  30;  common  from  July-Oct.  1. 

Eggs,  3-4,  pale  olive,  spotted  with  dull  brown,  2'27  x  1'57  (Ridgw.). 
Date,  e.  of  Anderson  River,  Mack.,  July  4. 

From  Virginia  to  South  Carolina,  this  is  an  abundant  bird  during 
its  migrations,  but  it  evidently  travels  over  the  sea,  for  it  is  compara- 
tively uncommon  in  our  North  Atlantic  States.  During  their  migra- 
tions they  select  certain  isolated  islets  as  roosting-places  and  return 
to  them  night  after  night. 

1892.    MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  IX,  345-352  (in  Mass.). 

266.  Numenius   borealis    (Forst.).    ESKIMO  CURLEW.    Ads. — Upper- 
parts  black,  margined  and  tipped  with  buffy  or  whitish;  upper  tail-coverts 
barred  with  buffy  and  black;  tail  brownish  gray,   edged  with  buffy  and 
barred  with  black;  primaries  fuscous  without  bars;  underparts  buffy  or  whit- 
ish, the  breast  streaked,  the  sides  and  under  wing-coverts  barred  with  black. 
L.,  13-50;  W.,  8'40;  Tar.,  1'75;  B.,  2'40. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  on  the  Barren  Grounds  of  n.  Mackenzie; 
winters  in  Argentina  and  Patagonia;  now  nearly  extinct. 

Long  Island,  very  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.-Sept. 

Eggs,  3-4,  pale  olive-greenish,  olive,  or  olive-brownish,  distinctly 
spotted,  chiefly  on  the  larger  end,  with  deep  or  dark  brown,  2*04  x  1'43 
(Ridgw.).  Date,  e.  of  Anderson  River,  Mack.,  June  20. 

"Most  of  their  habits  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Golden  Plover. 
In  migration  they  fly  in  much  the  same  manner,  with  extended  and 
broadside  and  triangular  lines  and  clusters  similar  to  those  of  Ducks 


PLOVERS  263 

and  Geese  at  such  times.  They  usually  fly  low  after  landing,  sweeping 
slowly  over  the  ground,  apparently  looking  it  over,  generally  standing 
motionless  for  quite  a  while  after  alighting,  which,  owing  to  their 
general  color  approximating  so  closely  to  the  withered  grass,  renders 
it  difficult  at  times  to  perceive  them.  .  .  .  The  only  note  I  ever  heard 
them  make  is  a  kind  of  squeak,  very  much  like  one  of  the  cries  of 
Wilson's  Tern  (Sterna  hirundo),  only  finer  in  tone."  (Mackay,  Auk, 
1892,  16-21,  1893,  79;  1894,  75;  1897,  212;  1899,  180.)  The  Eskimo 
Curlew  is  now  believed  to  be  on  the  verge  of  extinction.  The  latest 
records  appear  to  be  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Aug.  27,  1908  (Thayer,  J.  E., 
Auk,  1908,  77)  and  Waco,  Nebr.,  Mch.  22, 1911,  two  females  (Aug.  Eiche). 

A  specimen  of  the  EUROPEAN  CURLEW  (Numenius  arquatus)  said  to 
have  been  taken  on  Long  Island  in  1853,  is  in  the  New  York  State  Museum 
at  Albany.  (Dutcher,  Auk,  IX,  1892,  390.) 

The  WHIMBREL  (267.  Numenius  phceopus),  an  Old- World  species,  is 
of  accidental  occurrence  in  Greenland  and  has  been  once  recorded  from 
Nova  Scotia. 

27.  FAMILY  CHARADRIID^B.    PLOVEKS.    (Figs.  42c,  d;  43e,  d.) 

The  seventy-five  odd  species  contained  in  this  family  are,  as  a 
whole,  of  less  boreal  distribution  than  the  Snipes,  and  during  the  nest- 
ing season  are  distributed  throughout  the  world.  Only  eight  species 
are  found  in  North  America.  Their  habits  in  a  general  way  resemble 
those  of  the  true  Snipes,  but  their  much  shorter,  stouter  bills  are  not 
fitted  for  probing,  and  they  obtain  their  food  from  the  surface.  Probably 
for  this  reason  several  species  are  as  frequently  found  on  the  uplands 
as  near  the  shores. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  Toes  three. 

A.  Back  spotted  or  streaked  with  black  and  white,  rufous,  or  golden 

yellow 272.  GOLDEN  PLOVER. 

B.  Back  ashy,  gray,  brown,  or  brownish  gray. 

a.  Rump  rufous 273.  KILLDEER. 

6.  Rump  not  rufous. 
61.  Bill  over  '50. 

62.  A  black  or  brownish  band  on  the  breast .  280.  WILSON'S  PLOVER. 

63.  No  band  on  the  breast;  back  grayish  brown,  margined  with 

rufous 281.    MOUNTAIN   PLOVER. 

c1.  Bill  under  '50. 

c2.  A  black  line  from  the  eye  to  the  bill. 

274.  SEMIPALMATED  PLOVER. 

c3.  No  line  from  the  eye  to  the  bill.  .     .     .     277.  PIPING  PLOVER. 
II.  Toes  four 270.  BLACK-BELLIED  PLOVER. 

f  270.  Squatarola  squatarola  (Linn.}.  BLACK-BELLIED  PLOVER. 
(Fig.  42c,  43d.)  Ads.  in  summer. — Upperparts  black,  bordered  with  white; 
tail  white,  barred  with  black;  basal  half  of  inner  web  of  primaries  white; 
sides  of  head  and  neck  and  entire  underparts,  except  white  lower  belly  and 
under  tail-coverts,  black.  Juv. — Upperparts  black,  head  and  neck  streaked, 
back  spotted  with  whitish  or  buffy  yellow ;  tail  and  wings  as  in  adult ;  under- 
parts white,  breast  and  sides  streaked  with  brownish  gray.  Ads.  and  Juv.  in 


264  PLOVERS 

winter. — Similar  to  the  preceding,  but  upperparts  brownish  gray,  lightly 
margined  with  whitish.  L.,  ll'OO;  W.,  7'50;  Tar.,  1'90;  B.,  I'lO. 

Remarks. — The  rounded  scales  on  the  front  of  the  tarsus  and  the  presence 
of  a  fourth,  although  very  small,  toe  distinguish  this  bird. 

Range. — Nearly  cosmopolitan.  Breeds  on  the  Arctic  coast  -from  Pt. 
Barrow  to  Boothia  and  Melville  Peninsulas,  and  also  on  the  Arctic  coast 
of  Russia  and  Siberia;  winters  from  the  Mediterranean  to  S.  Africa,  in 
India  and  Australia,  and  from  Calif.,  La.,  and  N.  C.  to  Brazil  and  Peru; 
in  migration  occurs  throughout  the  U.  S.,  and  in  Greenland  and  Bermuda, 
accidental  in  Hawaii. 

Long  Island,  common  T.  V.,  May  5- June  17;  Aug.  1-Nov.  4.  Ossining, 
A.  V.  Glen  Eliyn,  two  records,  Mav  and  Sept.  SE.  Minn.,  now  uncommon 
T.  V.,  May  24. 

Eggs,  3-4,  light  buffy  olive,  spotted  and  speckled  with  dark  brown  and 
brownish  black  or  deep  black,  2'04  x  1*43  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Pt.  Barrow. 
Alaska,  June  (Thayer  Coll.). 

These  Plovers  are  in  a  great  degree  tide  birds,  and  seek  a  large  part 
of  their  food  on  sand-flats  left  by  the  receding  water.  As  the  tide  rises 
they  resort  to  adjoining  marshes  or  uplands,  beaches,  or  the  exposed 
crests  of  sandbars.  In  migrating  they  fly  in  lines  and  also  in  ranks, 
like  Ducks  and  Geese.  When  on  the  ground  they  usually  run  very  fast 
for  four  or  five  yards,  then  stop,  elevate  the  head,  and  look  around. 
They  strike  at  the  object  they  are  going  to  pick  up  and  eat  with  a  very 
quick  motion.  They  have  two  calls:  one  of  several  notes,  with  the  accent 
on  the  second  one,  is  mellow,  clear,  and  far  reaching;  the  other  is  low, 
and  is  uttered  when  they  are  at  ease  and  contented. 

MACKAY,  G.  H.,  Auk,  IX,  1892,  143-152;  300. 

The  LAPWING  (269.  Vanellus  vanellus)  is  an  Old- World  species  of  acci- 
dental occurrence  in  America.  The  only  record  for  eastern  North  America 
south  of  Greenland  is  based  on  a  specimen  shot  at  Merrick,  L.  I.,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1883  (Dutcher,  Auk,  III,  1886,  438). 

272.  Charadrius  dominions  dominicus  (Mull.}.  GOLDEN  PLOVER. 
Ads.  in  summer. — Upperparts  black,  spotted  and  margined  with  golden 
yellow;  tail  brownish  gray,  indistinctly  barred;  forehead,  sides  of  head, 
neck,  and  breast  white;  rest  of  the  underparts,  including  cheeks,  black; 
under  wing-coverts  ashy.  Juv. — Upperparts  and  tail  fuscous,  spotted  or 
barred  with  whitish  or  yellow;  underparts  whitish,  more  or  less  streaked  or 
barred  with  brownish  gray.  Ads.  and  Juv;  in  winter. — Similar,  but  less 
streaked  below  and  less  spotted  above.  L.,  10*50;  W.,  7*00;  Tar.,  1*60;  B.,  "90. 

Remarks. — Immature  birds  are  sometimes  confused  with  those  of  the 
Black-bellied  Plover,  but,  aside  from  differences  of  size  and  color,  the  absence 
of  the  fourth  toe  in  the  present  species  will  always  distinguish  it. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  Kotzebue  Sound  along  the  Arctic 
coast  to  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  from  Melville  Island,  Wellington 
Channel,  and  Melville  Peninsula  s.  to  nw.  Hudson  Bay;  winters  on  the  pam- 
pas of  Brazil  and  Argentina;  migrates  s.  across  the  Atlantic  from  N.  S.  and 
N.  B.;  a  few  pass  s.  through  the  Miss.  Valley,  and  all  migrate  n.  by  this 
route;  in  migration  to  Calif.,  Greenland,  and  Bermuda;  formerly  abundant, 
now  becoming  rare.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

Washington,  rare  and  irregular  T.  V.  Long  Island,  T.  V.,  very  rare  in 
May;  common  from  Aug.  15-Nov.  10  (Dutcher).  N.  Ohio,  casual  T.  V. 
Glen  Ellyn,  irregular  T.  V.,  Mch.  30-May  5;  Sept.  6-Oct.  18.  SE.  Minn., 
now  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  3;  Sept.  28-Nov.  2. 

Eggs,  3-4,  ochraceous-buff  or  buffy  white,  heavily  marked  with  choco- 
late, 1'85  X  1*28.  Date,  N.  Alaska,  May  23, 


PLOVERS  265 

Golden  Plovers  frequent  marshes,  sandy  hills,  old  fields,  sand-flats 
exposed  by  the  falling  tide,  plowed  fields,  and  burned  tracts  which  are 
free  of  trees  and  bushes.  When  on  the  ground  they  run  rapidly  and 
gracefully,  and  after  alighting  soon  scatter.  All  their  movements  are  • 
quick,  and  after  running  a  few  yards  they  suddenly  stop,  hold  their 
heads  erect,  and  look  about  them.  In  feeding  they  seem  to  strike  at 
an  object  with  a  motion  that  reminds  one  of  a  Loon  or  Grebe  begin- 
ning to  dive.  When  a  flock  is  approaching  decoys,  every  bird  seems  to  be 
whistling,  uttering  a  note  like  coodle,  coodle,  coodle.  Unlike  the  Black- 
bellied  Plover,  the  young  birds  are  wary  and  more  difficult  to  decoy 
than  the  old  ones.  When  driven  from  a  favorite  resting-  or  feeding- 
ground  they  generally  return  in  a  short  time.  (MACKAY,  G.  H!,  Auk, 
1891,  17-24;  1892,  199;  1893,  79-82;  1894,  75;  1895,  78;  1896,  80; 
1897,  212;  1899,  180.) 

The  EUROPEAN  GOLDEN  PLOVER  (871.  Charadrius  apricarius)  occurs  in 
eastern  Greenland.  It  resembles  our  species,  but  has  the  under  wing- 
coverts  white  instead  of  gray. 

273.  Oxyechus  vociferus  vociferus  (Linn.).  KILLDEER.  Ads.— Fore- 
head, a  spot  behind  the  eye,  throat,  and  a  ring  around  neck,  a  band  on 
breast,  lower  breast,  and  belly  white ;  front  of  crown,  lores,  a  ring  around  neck, 
and  a  band  on  breast  black;  crown  and  back  grayish  brown  tipped  with  rufous; 
rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  rufous;  inner  tail-feathers  grayish  brown, 
outer  ones  becoming  rufous  and  white,  all  tipped  with  black  and  white. 
L.,  10-50;  W.,  6-50;  Tar.,  1'35;  B.,  '75. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  pen. 
Keewatin,  and  cen.  Que.  s.  to  the  Gulf  coast  and  cen.  Mex.;  winters  from 
Calif.,  Ariz.,  Tex.,  Ind.,  N.  J.,  and  Bermuda  s.  to  Venezuela  and  Peru; 
casual  in  N.  F.,  Paraguay,  and  Chile;  accidental  in  Great  Britain. 

Washington,  P.  R.,  most  abundant  in  migrations.  Long  Island,  not 
common,  T.  V.,  recorded  in  every  month  but  Jan.  (Dutcher).  Ossining, 
rare  T.  V.,  in  fall,  Sept.  28-Oct.  25,  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.,  very  rare  S.  R. 
N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Feb.  27-Nov.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  local  S.  R.,  Mch. 
3-Oct.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  11-pct.  10. 

Nest,  often  far  from  water,  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground,  usually 
scantily  lined  with  bits  of  grass,  etc.,  or  stones.  Eggs,  4,  buff y  white, "spotted 
and  scrawled  with  chocolate  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  1'50  x  1*10.  Date, 
Chevy  Chase,  Md.,  Apl.  6;  Pewaukee,  Wise.,  May  15. 

In  localities  where  this  bird  is  common  it  is  difficult  to  get  beyond 
the  reach  of  its  notes.  Lakesides,  meadows,  pastures,  and  cultivated 
fields  all  attract  it,  but  it  is  more  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  water. 
It  is  a  noisy,  restless  bird,  running  rapidly  when  on  the  ground,  and 
when  on  the  wing  flying  swiftly  and  sometimes  pursuing  a  most  irreg- 
ular course.  As  a  rule  it  is  found  in  flocks,  which  scatter  when  feeding 
but  unite  when  taking  wing.  At  the  first  sign  of  danger  it  utters  its 
half -plaintive,  half -petulant  kill-dee,  kill-dee,  and  when  thoroughly 
alarmed  its  outcry  increases  until,  beside  itself  with  fear,  it  reaches . 
the  limit  of  its  vocal  powers.  Although  by  no  means  shy,  the  Killdeer- 
never  seems  to  gain  confidence  in  man,  and  at  his  approach  always 
gives  voice  to  its  fear.  Even  at  night  I  have  heard  it  cry  out  at  some 
real  or  fancied  danger. 

1889.    CHADBOURNE,  A.  P.,  Auk,  VI,  255-263  (great  flight  of). 


266 


PLOVERS 


274.  JEgialitis  semipalmata  (Bonap.).  SEMIPALMATED  PLOVER.  (Figs 
42d,  43e.).  Ads.  in  summer. — Feathers  at  base  of  upper  mandible,  front 
of  crown,  sides  of  head  below  eye,  and  a  band  on  breast,  which  generally 
encircles  the  neck  all  around,  black ;  rest  of  underparts  and  a  ring  around  the 
neck  white;  back  of  head  and  back  brownish  gray;  inner  tail-feathers  brown- 
ish gray,  outer  ones  becoming  gradually  white ;  toes  webbed  at  the  base.  Win- 
ter plumage. — Similar,  but  black 
replaced  by  brownish  gray. 
L.,  675;  W.,  4'80;  Tar.,  '90; 
B.,  "50. 

Range. —  N.  and  S.  A. 
Breeds  from  Melville  Island, 
Wellington  Channel  and  Cum- 
berland Sound  to  the  valley  of 
the  Upper  Yukon,  s.  Macken- 
zie, s.  Keewatin,  and  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence;  winters  from  s. 
L.  Calif.,  La.,  and  and  S.  C., 
to  Patagonia,  Chile,  and  the 
Galapagos;  casual  in  Siberia, 
Greenland,  and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V., 
May;  Aug.-Sept.  Long  Island, 
abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  29- June 
4;  July  15- Aug.  8.  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  in  fall;  Aug. 

FIG.  83.   Semipalmated  Plover.    (Natural  size.)      23-Sept.  20.     Cambridge,  rare 

in  spring;  sometimes   common 

in  Aug.  and  Sept.   N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  May  5-25;  Aug.  25-Sept.  20. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  23;  Sept.  15. 

Eggs,  3-4,  buffy  white  or  creamy  buff,  spotted  with  chocolate,  1*30  x  '90. 
Date,  Ungava  Bay,  Lab.,  June  10. 

This  species  frequents  sandy  beacKes,  mud-flats,  and  marshes.  It 
is  found  generally  in  small  flocks  of  five  or  ten  individuals,  which, 
unlike  the  Semipalmated  Sandpipers,  do  not  feed  in  a  compact  body, 
but  run  rapidly  about,  independently  of  one  another.  When  they  take 
wing,  however,  they  close  ranks  at  once  and  move  as  though  governed 
by  one  desire.  Their  simple,  sweet,  plaintive  call  is  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  notes  heard  on  our  shores.  At  noonday,  when  the  heat 
waves  are  dancing  over  the  marshes  and  even  the  twittering  Oxeyes  are 
silent,  one  may  hear  the  cool,  pure  notes  of  this  little  Plover.  They  may 

be  written   -yW — ^f — .  A  third,  shorter  note  is  sometimes  added. 
Even  a  whistled  imitation  of  them  takes  me  to  the  beaches. 

277.  jfEgialitis  meloda  (Ord).  PIPING  PLOVER.  Ads.  in  summer. — 
Upperparts  pale  whitish  ashy;  forehead,  underparts,  and  a  ring  around  the 
neck  white;  front  of  the  crown  and  a  band  on  either  side  of  the  breast,  some- 
times complete,  black;  inner  tail-feathers  fuscous,  outer  ones  becoming 
white.  Winter  plumage. — Similar,  but  black  replaced  by  brownish  gray. 
L.,  7-00;  W.,  4-75;  Tar.,  "85;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  locally  from  s.  Sask.,  s.  Ont.,  Magdalen 
Islands,  and  N.  S.  s.  to  cen.  Nebr.,  nw.  Ind.,  Lake  Erie,  N.  J.  (probably), 
and  Va.;  winters  on  the  coast  of  the  U.  S.  from  Tex.  to  Ga.,  and  in  n.  Mex.; 
casual  in  migration  to  N.  F.,  the  Bahamas,  Greater  Antilles,  and  Bermuda. 


PLOVERS 


267 


Washington,  casual,  one  record,  May.  Long  Island,  not  common  S.  R., 
Mch.,  through  Sept.  Ossining,  A.  V.  N.  Ohio,  breeds  sparingly,  May  5- 
Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyii,  two  records,  May  and  Sept.  SE.  Minn.,  rare  T.  V., 
May  11-26. 

Nest,  a  depression  in  the  beach.  Eggs,  3-4,  creamy  white,  finely  spotted 
or  speckled  with  chocolate,  1'24  x  '95.  Date,  Cape  May,  N.  J.,  June  1,  1875; 
Shelter  Is.,  N.  Y.,  June  3,  1881;  Minor  Co.,  S.  D.,  June  5. 

Because  of  their  pale  colors  and  absence  of  pronounced  black  breast 
bands,  Piping  Plover  are  the  most  difficult  to  see  of  our  small  Plover. 
They  patter  over  the  sand  or  pebbles  like  spirit  birds  and  disappear 
the  moment  they  stop.  Their  liquid  peep,  peep,  or  peep-lo  has  a  true 
piping  quality.  As  a  breeding  bird  it  is  now  rare,  and  man's  increasing 
encroachment  on  its  haunts  threatens  it  with  extinction  as  a  summer 
resident  in  our  Atlantic  States. 

The  RINGED  PLOVER  (275.  dZgialitis  hiaticula},  an  Old- World  species,  is 
found  in  Greenland.  It  is  similar  to  JE.  semipalmata  but  slightly  larger,  the 
black  band  on  the  breast  is  wider,  and  there  is  no  web  between  the  inner  and 
middle  toes. 

The  SNOWY  PLOVER  (278.  dEgialitis  nivosa)  of  the  southwestern  United 
States  and  southward,  is  of  casual  occurrence  in  Ont.,  La.,  and  Fla. 

280.  Ochthodromus  wilsonius  wilsonius  (Ord.}.  WILSON'S  PLOVER. 
Ad.  <?. — Lores,  front  of  crown,  and  a  band  on  the  breast  black;  rest  of  under- 
parts,  forehead,  and  an  indistinct  ring  on  the  nape  white;  sides  of  the  head  and 
nape  sometimes  with  rufous  markings;  cheeks,  crown,  and  back  brownish 

gray;    inner    tail-feathers    fuscous, 
outer  ones  becoming  white.    Ad.  9 . — • 
Similar,  but  black  replaced  by  brown- 
ish gray  with  rusty  on  breast.    Juv. — 
Similar    to     9,     but 
uppcrparts  margined 
with     grayish.       L., 
7'50;  W.,4'50;  Tar., 
1-10:  B.,  '80. 

Range. — S.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from 
Tex.  e.  along  the  Gulf  coast,  and 
from  se.  Va.  (formerly  N.  J.)  s.  to 
the  n.  Bahamas;  winters  from  s.  L. 
Calif.,  Tex.,  and  Fla.  s.  to  s.  Guate- 
mala and  probably  to  the  West 
Indies;  casual  in  N.  S.  and  New 
England,  and  at  San  Diego,  Calif. 

Long  Island,  casual,  five  May 
records. 

Nest,  a  depression  in  the  sand. 
Eggs,  3,  creamy  white,  evenly  and 
rather  finely  spotted  and  speckled 
with  chocolate,  1*42  x  1'03.  Date, 


FIG.  84.   Wilson's  Plover.    (Natural  size.) 


Sarasota,  Fla.,  Apl.  12;  Cobb's  Is., 
Va.,  May  15. 


This  is  a  more  strictly  maritime  species  than  the  other  representa- 
tives of  this  genus.  Sandy  beaches  are  its  favorite  resorts,  but  it  is 
also  found  on  mud-flats  exposed  by  the  falling  tide.  It  is  a  gentle, 
unsuspicious  bird,  and  when  its  nest  is  approached  it  runs  about  the 
intruder  and  begs  as  plainly  as  a  bird  can  that  he  will  not  disturb  its 


268  TURNSTONES:  OYSTER-CATCHERS 

treasures.    Its  plaintive  note  is  easily  distinguishable  from  the  calls 
of  its  near  allies. 

The  MOUNTAIN  PLOVER  (281.  Podasocys  montanus),  a  western  species,  is 
of  accidental  occurrence  in  Florida.  The  upperparts  are  grayish  brown 
margined  with  rufous,  the  underparts  are  white  tinged  with  buffy  on  the 
breast;  in  adults  the  front  of  the  crown  and  lores  are  black.  L.,  about  8'75; 
W.,  5-75;  Tar.,  T50;  B.,  '85. 

28.  FAMILY  APHRIZID^E.    SURF-BIRDS  AND  TURNSTONES 

A  small  family  of  three  species,  all  of  which  are  found  in  North 
America,  though  but  one  of  these  visits  our  Eastern  States.  They  are 
largely  maritime  birds,  frequenting  the  seacoasts,  where  they  prefer 
the  outer  beaches. 

283.  Arenaria  interpres  interpres  (Linn.).  TURNSTONE.  Similar  to 
No.  283a,  A.  i.  morinella,  but  larger  (W.  6.00)  and,  in  the  adult  the  upper- 
parts  with  black  prevailing.  Im. — Blacker  than  young  of  morinella. 

Range. — Old  World.  Breeds  in  w.  Alaska  from  Pt.  Barrow  to  the  Yukon 
delta,  and  in  w.  Greenland,  Scandinavia,  n.  Russia,  Siberia,  and  Japan; 
winters  on  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia  to  s.  Africa,  Australia,  and 
Oceanica. 

283a.  A.  i.  morinella  (Linn.}.  RUDDY  TURNSTONE.  Ads.  in  summer. 
— Upperparts,  including  wings,  strikingly  variegated  with  rufous,  black  and 
white;  tail  white  at  base,  a  black  band  near  its  end,  and  tipped  with  white; 
throat  and  breast  black  and  white;  belly  white.  Winter  plumage. — Upper- 
parts  blackish,  bordered  with  brownish  gray  or  ashy;  lower  back  white; 
longer  upper  tail-coverts  white,  shorter  ones  black;  tail  as  in  adult;  throat 
white,  breast  black  margined  with  white,  belly  white.  L.,  9'50;  W.,  6'00; 
Tar.,  '95;  B.,  1*00. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  on  Arctic  shores  from  Mackenzie  River 
e.,  probably,  to  Melville  Peninsula,  and  n.  to  Melville  Is.;  winters  from  cen. 
Calif.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  S.  C.,  to  s.  Brazil  and  cen.  Chile. 

Washington,  rare  and  irregular  T.  V.  Long  Island,  common  T.  V.,  May; 
Aug.  and  Sept.  Ossining,  A.  V.  N.  Ohio,  irregular  T.  V.,  May  5-25;  Sept. 
1-25.  SE.  Minn.,  rare  T.  V. 

Eggs,  3-4,  clay-color,  blotched  and  scrawled  with  grayish  brown,  1*60  x 
1'15.  Date,  Mackenzie  River,  June  28  (Thayer  Coll.). 

This  maritime  species  is  found  singly  or  in  small  flocks,  generally 
on  the  outer  beaches,  where  it  obtains  its  food  by  turning  over  shells 
and  pebbles  in  search  of  insects,  crustaceans,  etc. 

29.  FAMILY   ILEMATOPODiDyE.    OYSTER-CATCHERS 

The  Oyster-catchers  number  twelve  species,  represented  in  most 
of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe.  But  three  species  are  found  in  North 
America,  and  only  one  of  these  occurs  in  the  Eastern  States.  They  are 
strictly  maritime  birds,  and  resort  to  the  outer  bars  and  beaches  in 
search  of  clams,  mussels,  etc.,  exposed  by  the  tide.  Their  strong  bill  is 
used  as  an  oyster-knife  to  force  open  the  shells  of  these  bivalves. 

286.  Hsematopus  palliatus  Temm.  OYSTER-CATCHER.  Ad. — Head, 
neck,  and  upper  breast  glossy  black,  back  and  wing-coverts  olive-brown, 


AMERICAN  QUAIL  269 

secondaries  white,  primaries  fuscous,  upper  tail-coverts  white,  base  of  tail 
white,  end  fuscous,  lower  breast  and  belly  white.  Im. — Similar,  but  head 
and  neck  blackish  and  upperparts  more  or  less  margined  with  buffy.  L., 
19-00;  W.,  10-50;  Tar.,  2'40;  B.,  3'40. 

Range. — Coasts  of  N.  and  S.  A.  from  Tex.,  La.,  and  Va.  (formerly  N.  J.) 
s.  on  both  coasts  of  Mex.  to  the  West  Indies,  s.  Brazil,  and  cen.  Chile; 
casual  n.  to  N.  B.  Breeds  probably  throughout  its  range. 

Long  Island,  A.  V. 

Nest,  a  depression  in  the  sand.  Eggs,  3,  buffy  white  or  creamy  buff, 
rather  evenly  spotted  and  blotched  with  chocolate,  2'20  x  1'55.  Date, 
Mouth  St.  John's  River,  Fla.,  Apl.  10;  Coast  S.  C.,  Apl.  20;  Cobb's  Is.,  Va., 
May  10. 

This  not  uncommon  species  from  Virginia  southward,  is  confined 
exclusively  to  the  coast,  and  breeds  usually  in  isolated  pairs.  Wayne 
states  that  in  the  winter  it  is  found  on  the  South  Carolina  coast  in 
flocks  of  from  twenty  to  seventy-five  individuals.  It  agrees  in  habits 
with  other  members  of  this  small  family. 

1905.   JOB,  H.  K.,  Wild  Wings,  239  (nesting). 

The  EUROPEAN  OYSTER-CATCHER  (285.  Hcematopus  ostralegus)  is  of 
accidental  occurrence  in  Greenland. 

The  MEXICAN  JACANA  (288.  Jacana  spinosa)  occurs  in  the  lower  Rio 
Grande  valley  of  Tex.,  in  Cuba  and  southward,  and  has  been  once 
recorded  from  Fla.  (Lake  Okeechobee,  Oct.  1889;  Mearns,  Auk,  1902,  79). 


X.  ORDER   GALLINJE.    GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS1 

30.  FAMILY  ODONTOPHORID.E.    AMERICAN  QUAIL.    (Fig.  44.) 

The  members  of  this  family,  some  sixty  in  number,  are  the  American 
representatives  of  the  Old  World  Perdicidce,  or  true  Quails  and  Par- 
tridges, to  which  structurally  they  are  closely  related  though  differing 
in  external  appearance.  Doubtless  the  two  'families,'  as  for  conven- 
ience we  term  them,  had  a  common*  origin,  just  as  Old  and  New  World 
Pigeons,  or  Parrots,  or  Spoonbills,  for  example,  have  had,  and  we  may 
believe  that  in  the  later  Tertiary  Period,  when  a  much  warmer  climate 
prevailed  in  Arctic  regions,  their  range  was  doubtless  continuous. 

The  present  center  of  abundance  of  the  American  species  is  in  the 
tropics,  to  which  the  seventeen  species  of  Wood  Quail  of  the  genus 
Odontophorus  are  confined,  only  seven  of  the  sixty  members  of  the 
family  crossing  our  southern  border.  This  includes  our  Bob-white 
and  the  Masked  Bob-white  of  northern  Sonora,  and  formerly,  at  least, 
southern  Arizona,  the  Scaled,  Mearns'  and  Gambel's  Quails  of 
our  Mexican  border  States,  and  the  California  Valley  and  Mountain 
Quails. 

In  eastern  North  America  we  have  only  one  species,  our  familiar 
Bob-white,  not,  as  we  are  apt  to  imagine  it,  a  distinctively  North 
American  bird,  but  the  most  northern  representative  of  a  type  whose 
stronghold  is  in  Mexico  where  ten  forms  of  the  genus  Colinus  are  known. 


270  AMERICAN  QUAIL 

Some  are  strikingly  unlike  our  bird  with  which,  however,  they  have 
been  shown  by  Nelson  to  be  connected  by  a  number  of  intergrading 
races.  All,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  have  the  characteristic  "bob-white" 
call,  and  I  have  even  heard  this  note  uttered  by  the  Black-throated 
Bob-white  of  Yucatan  and  Crested  Bob-white  of  Colombia,  both 
members  of  a  different  genus  (Eupsychortyx) .  Voice  is  here,  therefore, 
evidently  more  stable  than  color. 

1897.  ELLIOT,  D.  G.,  Gallinaceous  Game-Birds  of  North  America,  8vo, 
220;  plls.  46.  (Francis  Harper.) — 1900.  DWIGHT,  J.,  JR.,  The  Moult  of 
North  American  Tetraonidse,  Auk,  XVII,  34-51;  143-166.— 1902.  SANDYS, 
E.  and  VANDYKE,  T.  S.,  Upland  Game  Birds,  8vo.  429;  plls.  9  (Macmillan). 
— 1903.  HUNTINGTON,  D.  W.,  Our  Feathered  Game,  8vo.  396;  plls.  37. 
—1907.  RICH,  W.  H.,  Feathered  Game  of  the  Northeast,  8vo.  430;  plls.  87. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  Tarsi  bare      ....     289.  BOB-WHITE.     289a.  FLORIDA  BOB-WHITE. 
II.  Tarsi  not  bare. 

1.  Toes  bare. 

A.  Upper  third  or  half  of  tarsi  feathered. 

300.  RUFFED  GROUSE.     300a.  CANADA  RUFFED  GROUSE. 

B.  Tarsi  entirely  feathered. 

a.  With   bunches   of   elongated,    stiffened    feathers   springing   from 

either  side  of  the  neck.     305.  PRAIRIE  HEN.     306.  HEATH  HEN. 

b.  Feathers  of  neck  normal. 

bl.  Outer  web  of  primaries  spotted  with  white. 

3086.  PRAIRIE  SHARP-TAILED  GROUSE  and  subsp. 
b2.  Primaries  not  spotted  with  white    .     .    SPRUCE  PARTRIDGES. 

2.  Tarsi  and  toes  entirely  feathered PTARMIGANS. 

289.  Colinus  virginianus  virginianus  (Linn.}.  BOB-WHITE.  Ad.  &  in 
winter. — Upperparts  varying  from  reddish  brown  to  chestnut;  interscapulars 
with  broken  and  sometimes  complete  black  bars;  inner  vane  of  tertials 
widely  margined  with  cream-buff;  rump  grayish  brown,  finely  mottled,  and 
with  a  few  streaks  of  blackish;  tail  ashy  gray,  the  inner  feathers  finely 
mottled  with  buffy;  front  of  crown,  a  band  from  bill  to  beneath  eye,  and  a 
band  on  upper  breast  black;  throat  arid  a  broad  line  from  bill  over  eye  white; 
sides  rufous-chestnut,  margined  with  black  and  white;  lower  breast  and 
belly  white  barred  with  black.  Ad.  9  in  winter. — Similar,  but  the  throat 
and  line  over  the  eye,  forehead,  and  lores  pale  ochraceous-buff;  little  or  no 
black  on  the  upper  breast.  Summer  examples  of  both  sexes  have  the  crown 
blacker,  the  buffy  markings  generally  paler.  L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  4*50;  T.,  2'50; 
B.  from  N.,  '35. 

Range. — Upper  Sonoran  and  s.  half  of  Transition  zones  of  e.  N.  A. 
from  S.  D.,  s.  Minn.,  s.  Ont.,  and  sw.  Maine  s.  to  e.  and  n.  Tex.,  the  Gulf 
coast,  and  n.  Fla.,  w.  to  e.  Colo;  introduced  in  cen.  Colo.,  N.  M.,  Utah, 
Idaho,  Calif.,  Ore.,  and  Wash. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge, 
P.  R.,  sometimes  abundant.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare 
P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  P.  R. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  usually  arched,  on  the  ground  in  bushy  field  borders, 
etc.  Eggs,  10-18,  white,  conical,  1'20  x  '95.  Date,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  May 
22;  Shelter  Is.,  N.  Y.,  June  2;  Cambridge,  June  20;  Licking  Co.,  Ohio., 
May  22;  Mitchell  Bay,  Ont.,  June  5;  se.  Minn.,  June  17. 

Taking  the  Old- World  species  of  the  genera  Coturnix  and  Caccabis 
as  the  types  respectively  of  Quails  and  Partridges,  neither  of  these  lat- 


AMERICAN  QUAIL  271 

ter  names  can  properly  be  applied  to  our  Colinus,  which  should  there- 
fore be  known  under  the  distinctive  title  Bob-white. 

During  the  nesting  season  Bob-whites  are  distributed  in  pairs 
through  clearings  and  cultivated  fields,  The  members  of  a  brood 
constitute  a  bevy  or  covey,  though  occasionally  two  families  or  broods 
are  found  in  one  bevy.  In  the  fall  they  frequent  grain  fields,  but  as 
winter  approaches  draw  in  toward  thickets  and  wooded  bottom-lands, 
sometimes  passing  the  coldest  weather  in  boggy  alder  swamps.  They 
roost  on  the  ground,  tail  to  tail,  with  heads  pointing  outward;  a  bunch 
of  closely  huddled  forms — a  living  bomb  whose  explosion  is  scarcely  less 
startling  than  that  of  dynamite  manufacture. 

Like  most  grass-inhabiting  birds  whose  colors  harmonize  with  their 
surroundings,  Bob-whites  rely  on  this  protective  resemblance  to  escape 
detection,  and  take  wing  only  as  a  last  resort.  Sometimes  they  take 
refuge  in  trees,  but  usually  they  head  for  wooded  cover,  where  they 
remain  if  the  growth  is  dense,  but  if  it  is  open  they  generally  run  the 
moment  they  touch  the  ground. 

About  May  1  they  begin  to  pair,  and  rival  males  may  then  be  seen 
battling  for  mates  like  diminutive  gamecocks.  The  name  "Bob-white" 
originated  in  the  spring  call  of  the  male.  Mounting  a  fence  or  ascend- 
ing to  the  lower  branches  of  a  tree,  he  whistles  the  two  clear  musical, 
ringing  notes  Bob-white!  Sometimes  they  are  preceded  by  a  lower  one 
which  can  be  heard  only  when  one  is  near  the  singer.  After  the  breeding 
season,  when  the  birds  are  in  bevies,  their  notes  are  changed  to  what 
sportsmen  term  "scatter  calls."  Not  long  after  a  bevy  has  been  flushed 
and  perhaps  widely  scattered,  the  members  of  the  disunited  family 
may  be  heard  signaling  to  one  another  in  sweet  minor  calls  of  two  and 
three  notes,  when  one  can  easily  imagine  them  saying  "Where  are  you?" 
"Where  are  you?"  When  excited  they  also  utter  low,  twittering  notes. 

1905.   JUDD,  S.  D.,  Bull.  21,  Biol.  Surv.  (food). 

289a.  C.  v.  floridanus  (Cones).  FLORIDA  BOB-WHITE.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  smaller,  the  plumage  throughout  darker,  the  black  of  the 
back  more  extensive,  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  grayer,  the  black 
throat-band  wider  and  sometimes  reaching  down  upon  the  breast,  the  rufous- 
chestnut  of  the  sides  more  extensive,  the  black  bars  of  the  breast  and  belly 
much  wider.  L.,  8'50;  W.,  4'40;  T.,  2'50. 

Range. — Fla.,  except  extreme  northern  part. 

Nesting  date,  Manatee  Co.,  Fla.,  Apl.  19. 

A  common  bird  throughout  the  pine-grown  portions  of  the  Florida 
peninsula.  It  is  especially  numerous  on  old  plantations,  where  it  fre- 
quents patches  of  'cowpeas.'  It  resembles  the  northern  Bob-white 
in  habits,  but  is,  I  think,  more  inclined  to  take  to  the  trees  when  flushed. 
I  have  seen  a  whole  covey  fly  up  into  the  lofty  pine  trees,  where,  squat- 
ting close  to  the  limbs,  they  became  almost  invisible. 

The  EUROPEAN  or  MIGRATORY  QUAIL  (Coturnix  coturnix)  has  been  intro- 
duced into  this  country  on  several  occasions,  but  does  not  appear  to  have 
survived. 


272  GROUSE 


31.  FAMILY  TETRAONID^B.    GROUSE.    (Fig.  44.) 

The  Grouse,  numbering  some  twenty-five  species,  inhabit  the  north- 
ern parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Two  species  of  Ptarmigan  are 
found  throughout  the  Arctic  regions,  while  the  remaining  species  are 
about  equally  divided  between  the  Old  World  and  the  New.  After  the 
nesting  season  they  commonly  gather  in  'coveys'  or  bevies.  In  some 
species,  these  bevies  unite  or  'pack,'  forming  large  flocks.  As  a  rule, 
they  are  terrestrial,  but  may  take  to  trees  when  flushed,  while  some 
species  habitually  call  and  feed  in  trees.  They  are  game  birds  par 
excellence,  and,  trusting  to  the  concealment  afforded  by  their  protective 
coloration,  attempt  to  avoid  detection  by  hiding  rather  than  by  flying, 
or,  in  sportsman's  phraseology,  "lie  well  to  a  dog."  Their  flight  is  rapid 
and  accompanied  by  a  startling  whirr,  caused  by  the  quick  strokes  of 
their  concave,  stiff-feathered  wings.  Though  not,  as  a  rule,  migratory, 
or  given  to  extended  flights,  their  great  weight  as  compared  with  their 
wing-expanse,  and  the  necessity  of  getting  under  way  at  once,  requires 
great  strength,  hence  the  exceptional  development  of  the  breast  muscles 
which  constitute  most  of  the  edible  portion  of  these  universally  esteemed 
birds. 

Many  species  of  this  family  are  polygamous,  and  their  strutting, 
dancing  or  actual  fighting,  tootings,  hootings,  boomings,  or  drummings 
make  them  among  the  most  interesting  of  birds  during  their  periods 
of  courtship  display. 

The  young,  as  with  all  Gallinaceous  birds,  are  hatched  thickly 
covered  with  down,  usually  of  a  pronounced  pattern,  and  leave  the 
nest  soon  after  birth,  generally  under  the  care  of  the  female  alone. 
Like  the  young  of  Terns,  they  instinctively  squat  at  the  warning  note 
of  the  parent,  which  then  flutters  painfully  before  one,  using  every 
possible  effort  to  draw  one  from  the  vicinity  of  her  chicks.  (For  special 
literature,  see  under  preceding  family.) 

298.  Canachites  canadensis  canadensis  (Linn.).  HUDSONIAN 
SPRUCE  PARTRIDGE.  Male  indistinguishable  from  the  male  of  C.  c.  canace; 
female  similar  to  female  of  canace  but  less  rusty. 

Range. — Boreal  forest  region  from  the  e.  base  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  w.  of 
Edmonton,  Alberta,  e.  to  Lab.  Peninsula;  also  a  disconnected  area  in 
Alaska  from  Bristol  Bay  to  Cook  Inlet  and  Prince  William  Sound. 

298c.  C.  c.  canace  (Linn.).  CANADA  SPRUCE  PARTRIDGE.  Ad.  &. — Upper- 
parts  barred  with  black,  ashy,  gray,  and  grayish  brown;  tertials  and  wing- 
coverts  irregularly  marked  with  fuscous  and  grayish  brown;  tail  black, 
tipped  with  rufous;  black  throat  separated  from  black  breast  by  a  broken 
circular  band  of  black  and  white  and  a  band  of  same  color  as  back  of  neck; 
sides  mottled  with  black  and  grayish  brown,  ends  of  the  feathers  with  white 
shaft  streaks;  rest  of  underparts  black,  broadly  tipped  with  white,  except 
on  middle  of  lower  breast;  bare  skin  above  eye  bright  red  in  life.  Ad.9. — 
Upperparts  barred  with  black  and  pale  rufous  and  tipped  with  ashy  gray; 
tail  black,  mottled  and  tipped  with  rufous;  throat  and  upper  breast  barred 
with  pale  rufous  and  black;  sides  mottled  with  black  and  pale  rufous,  ends 
of  feathers  with  white  shaft  streaks ;  rest  of  underparts  black,  broadly  tipped 


GROUSE  273 

with  white  and  more  or  less  washed  with  pale  rufous.  L.,  15*00;  W.,  6*50; 
T.,  475;  B.  frpm  N.,  '40. 

Range. — Man.,  s.  Ont.,  and  N.  B.,  s.  to  n.  parts  of  Minn.,  Wise.,  Mich.; 
N.  Y.,  and  New  England. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  sheltered  by  overhanging  limbs.  Eggs,  9-16,  buffy 
or  pale  brownish,  more  or  less  speckled  or  spotted  with  deep  brown,  1*71  x 
1'22  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Kentville,  N.  S.,  June  2. 

The  excessive  tameness  of  this  inhabitant  of  swampy,  coniferous 
forests  is  responsible  for  its  decrease  in  numbers,  and  it  is  now  a  rare 
bird  in  the  United  States.  "In  April  and  early  May  the  males  strut 
and  drum  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  Ruffed  Grouse,  the  sound 
resembling  the  distant  roll  of  thunder.  It  is  usually  produced  when 
the  cock  is  fluttering  up  an  inclined  tree  trunk  or  a  stump,  and  from  this 
^levation  to  the  ground  again,  or  sometimes  by  merely  springing  into 
the  air  for  several  feet  and  fluttering  to  the  ground"  (Eaton). 

1911.  HARDY,  M.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.,  47-49  (habits  in  Maine). 

300.  Bonasa  umbellus  umbellus  (Linn.).  RUFFED  GROUSE.  (Fig. 
18.)  Ad.  d1. — Prevailing  color  of  the  upperparts  rufous,  much  variegated 
with  black,  ochraceous,  buffy,  gray,  and  whitish;  sides  of  the  neck  with 
large  tufts  of  broad,  glossy  black  feathers ;  tail  varying  from  gray  to  rufous, 
irregularly  barred  and  mottled  with  black,  a  broad  black  or  brownish  band 
near  the  end ;  tip  gray ;  throat  and  breast  ochraceous-buff,  a  broken  blackish 
band  on  the  breast;  rest  of  the  underparts  white,  tinged  with  buffy  and 
barred  with  blackish  or  dark  grayish  brown,  the  bars  indistinct  on  the  breast 
and  belly,  stronger  on  the  sides.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with  the  neck  tufts 
very  small.  L.,  17'00;  W.,  7'25;  T.,  6'25;  B.  from  N.,  '52. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  from  Minn.,  Mich.,  s.  N.  Y.,  and  s.  Vt.,  s.  to  e.  Kans., 
11.  Ark.,  Tenn.,  and  Va.,  and,  in  the  Alleghanies,  to  n.  Ga. 

Washington,  not  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge, 
P.  R.,  formerly  very  common.  N.  Ohio,  rare  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  and 
local  P.  R. 

Nest,  a  depression  lined  with  leaves,  at  the  base  of  a  stump  or  tree,  or 
beneath  brush.  Eggs,  8-14,  pale  ochraceous-buff,  1'52  x  1*13.  Date, 
Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  5;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  5;  Portland,  Conn.,  May  7; 
Cambridge,  May  15;  se.  Minn.,  May  3. 

Of  all  the  characteristics  of  this  superb  game  bird,  its  habit  of 
drumming  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable.  This  loud  tattoo  begins 
with  the  measured  thump  of  the  big  drum,  then  gradually  changes 
and  dies  away  in  the  rumble  of  the  kettle-drum.  It  may  be  briefly  rep- 
resented thus:  Thump thump thump — thump,  thump;  thump, 

thump-rup  rup  rup  rup  r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r.  The  sound  is  produced  by 
the  male  bird  beating  the  air  with  his  wings  as  he  stands  firmly  braced 
on  some  favorite  low  perch,  and  it  is  now  quite  well  known  to  be  the 
call  of  the  male  to  the  female;  an  announcement  that  he  is  at  the  old 
rendezvous — a  rendezvous  that  has  perhaps  served  them  for  more  than 
one  season,  and  a  place  that  in  time  becomes  so  fraught  with  delight- 
ful associations  that  even  in  autumn  or  winter  the  male,  when  he  finds 
himself  in  the  vicinity,  can  not  resist  the  temptation  to  mount  his 
wonted  perch  and  vent  his  feelings  in  the  rolling  drum-beat  that  was 
in  springtime  his  song  of  love.  But  now,  alas!  there  is  no  lady  Grouse  to 
come,  shy  but  responsive,  at  the  sound  of  his  reverberating  summons. 


274  GROUSE 

There  is  good  reason  for  supposing  that  the  Ruffed  Grouse  is  polyg- 
amous, and  that  the  male,  if  he  drums  in  vain  at  one  place,  will  fly 
to  another  retreat  and  there  seek  the  society  of  some  more  compliant 
female.  The  young  Grouse  can  run  about  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched, 
and  can  fly  well  when  about  a  week  old.  Their  mother  is  celebrated  for 
the  variety  of  expedients  she  puts  in  practice  to  save  her  brood  from 
threatened  danger,  and  their  father  has  frequently  been  known  to  divide 
the  charge  with  her.  The  young  usually  continue  with  their  parents  till 
the  following  spring,  though  it  is  rare  at  this  time  to  see  more  than 
three  or  four  surviving  out  of  the  original  twelve  or  fourteen. 

The  food  of  this  Grouse  is  largely  insects  and  berries  during  the 
summer;  in  the  autumn  it  adds  seeds  to  the  list,  and  when  the  ground  is 
covered  with  snow  the  staples  are  catkins,  leaves,  and  buds.  Its  toes 
are  provided  during  the  winter  with  a  curious  fringe  of  strong,  horny 
points  which  act  as  snowshoes.  In  the  northern  part  of  its  range  this 
bird  commonly  burrows  into  a  snowdrift  to  pass  the  night  during  the 
season  of  intense  cold;  but  in  summer  and  in  the  warmer  region  of  its 
range  it  roosts  habitually  among  the  thickets  of  evergreen. 

ERNEST  T.  SETON. 

300a.  B.  u.  togata  (Linn.}.  CANADA  RUFFED  GROUSE.  To  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  preceding  by  the  prevailing  color  of  the  upperparts, 
which  are  gray  instead  of  rufous,  and  the  more  distinctly  barred  underparts, 
the  bars  on  the  breast  and  belly  being  nearly  as  well  defined  as  those  on  the 
side;  the  tail  is  generally  gray. 

Range. — Cen.  Keewatin,  s.  Ungava,  and  N.  S.,  s.  to  Man.,  n.  Mich.,  n. 
Vt.,  N.  H.,  and  Maine,  and  in  the  mountains  of  N.  Y.,  w.  Mass.,  and  n. 
Conn.;  birds  indistinguishable  from  the  eastern  form  occur  from  e.  cen. 
B.  C.  s.  to  e.  Ore.  and  cen.  Idaho. 

301.  Lagopus  lagopus  lagopus  (Linn.).  WILLOW  PTARMIGAN.  Ad. 
cf  breeding  plumage. — Throat  and  chest,  breast  and  sides  rich  rufous,  chest 
and  sides  more  or  less  barred  with  black;  upperparts,  including  tail-coverts, 
black  thickly  but  irregularly  barred  with  ochraceous  or  rusty;  tail 
fuscous  narrowly  tipped  with  white  (worn  off  in  some  July  specimens); 
primaries  and  secondaries  white;  tertials  like;  back;  belly  largely  white.  Ad. 
d-  in  fall  (preliminary  winter)  plumage. — Similar  to  the;  preceding,  but  with 
a  variable  number  of  deep  rufous  feathers,  vermiculated  with  black,  on  the 
breast,  sides,  and  upperparts;  more  white  in  wings  and  belly.  Ad.  <?  in 
winter. — The  preliminary  winter  plumage  is  a  transition  dress  worn  chiefly 
in  September  and  October,  when  it  is  gradually  replaced  by  the  full  winter 
plumage  of  snowy  white  with  a  fuscous,  white-tipped  tail.  Ad.  9  breeding 
plumage. — Upperparts,  tail  and  wings  as  in  the  male,  but  with  less  rufous, 
or  none,  on  the  head  and  neck;  throat,  breast  and  sides  ochraceous  broadly 
barred  with  black;  center  of  belly  paler  with  broken  black  bars.  Ad.  9  in 
fall  (preliminary  winter)  plumage. — Barred  feathers  of  underparts  largely 
replaced  by  rufous,  more  or  less  vermiculated  feathers,  which  also  appear 
in  varying  numbers  on  the  upperparts.  Resembles  male  in  corresponding 
plumage  except  for  the  remaining  feathers  of  the  breeding  plumage.  Ad.  9 
in  winter. — Similar  to  winter  male.  L.,  15'00;  W.,  7*50;  T.,  4'40;  B.  from 
N.,  '42;  depth  of  B.  at  N.,  '44. 

Remarks. — The  seasonal  plumages  of  the  species  are  as  confusing  as  they 
are  interesting.  It  is  not  possible  to  treat  them  fully  here,  and  the  student 
who  would  pursue  the  matter  further  is  referred  to  Dwight's  paper  in  The 
Auk,  1900,  147-  163.  Summer  males  and  all  fall  plumage  specimens  may  be 


GROUSE  275 

known  from  corresponding  stages  of  L.  rupestris  by  their  rich  rufous  breasts 
and  other  characters.  Summer  females  are  usually  deeper,  but  cannot 
always  be  distinguished  from  summer  females  of  rupestris  save  by  the 
larger  bill  which  alone  serves  to  separate  winter  specimens  of  the  two 
species. 

Range. — Arctic  regions.  In  Am.  breeds  from  n.  Alaska,  n.  Banks  Land, 
and  cen.  Greenland  s.  to  e.  Aleutian  Islands,  cen.  Mackenzie  (in  the  moun- 
tains to  w.  cen.  Alberta),  cen.  Keewatin,  James  Bay,  and  s.  Ungava;  s. 
in  winter  to  n.  B.  C.,  Sask.  Valley,  Minn.,  Ont.,  and  Que.,  accidental  in 
Wise.,  Mich.,  N.  Y.,  Maine  and  Mass. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  7-11,  varying  from  cream-buff  to  rufous, 
heavily  spotted  and  blotched  with  blackish,  T75  x  1*20.  Date,  Ft.  Chimo, 
Lab.,  June  3;  Ft.  Anderson,  Mack.,  June  7. 

This  abundant  and  characteristic  Arctic  bird  does  not  nest  south  of 
central  Labrador,  but  migrates  southward  in  winter  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  has  once  been  taken  in  northern  New  York  and  once  in 
New  Brunswick.  An  extended  account  of  its  habits  will  be  found  in  "Nel- 
son's Report  on  Natural  History  Collections  made  in  Alaska"  (p.  131). 
It  is  quoted  by  Captain  Bendire  in  his  "Life  Histories  of  American 
Birds"  (p.  70),  where  will  be  found  practically  all  we  know  concerning 
the  habits  of  this  and  the  following  members  of  this  genus. 

30 la.  L.  1.  alleni  Stcjn.  ALLEN'S  PTARMIGAN.  Similar  to  L.  I.  lagopus 
but,  at  all  seasons,  primaries  usually  more  or  less  mottled  with  fuscous  or 
with  some  fuscous  along  the  shaft;  shafts  of  secondaries  sometimes  black. 

Range. — Newfoundland. 

"It  frequents  rocky  barrens,  feeding  on  seeds  and  berries  of  the 
stunted  plants  that  thrive  in  these  exposed  situations"  (Merriam, 
Orn.  and  OoL,  VIII,  1883,  p.  43). 

302.  Lagopus  rupestris  rupestris  (GmeL).    ROCK  PTARMIGAN.    Ad. 

d1  breeding  plumage. — Breast  and  sides  rusty  ochraceous  closely  and  nar- 
rowly barred  with  black  and  more  or  less  tipped  with  white;  belly  white; 
crown  barred  with  rusty  and  ochraceous;  back  and  upper  tail-coverts  black 
narrowly  and  irregularly  but  thickly  barred  with  ochraceous  and  buff,  and 
tipped  with  white;  black  predominating  in  the  feathers  of  the  center  of  the 
back;  tail  fuscous  tipped  with  white;  primaries  and  secondaries  white, 
tertials  like  back.  Ad.  <?  in  fall  (preliminary  winter)  plumage. — Similar  to 
the  preceding,  but  with  the  feathers  of  the  breast,  sides,  back,  and  upper 
tail-coverts  finely  vermiculated  with  black  and  ocbraceous  in  about  equal 
proportions.  Ads.  d"  winter. — The  preceding  plumage  is  gradually  replaced 
by  the  winter  dress  of  snow-white,  with  a  fuscous,  white-tipped  tail  and 
black  lores.  Ad.  9  breeding  plumage. — Similar  in  color  to  the  breeding  female 
of  L.  1.  lagopus,  but  rusty  markings  averaging  paler,  particularly  on  under- 
parts;  edgings  to  feathers  whiter,  less  buffy.  Ad.  9  fall  (preliminary  winter) 
plumage. — Resembling  corresponding  plumage  of  Ad.  d",  but  with  a  varying 
number  of  the  feathers  of  the  breeding  plumage  remaining.  Ad.  9  and  Im. 
winter. — Snowy  white,  tail-feathers  fuscous,  tipped  with  white;  lores  some- 
times black.  W.,  7'25;  B.,  from  N.  '35;  depth  of  B.  at  N.,  '32.  ^ 

Remarks. — In  any  plumage  rupestris  and  its  allies  may  be  distinguished 
from  lagopus  by  their  smaller  bill. 

Range. — Arctic  Am.  Breeds  from  Melville  Is.  to  Melville  Peninsula 
and  s.  on  the  Barren  Grounds  from  Alaska  to  Ungava;  also  on  alpine  sum- 
mits s.  to  cen.  Yukon;  s.  in  winter  to  s.  Mackenzie  and  s.  Ungava. 

Nest,  usually  placed  among  the  dwarf  brush  or  sedge-covered  patches  of 
the  tundras.  Eggs,  6-10,  pale  cream  or  yellowish  buff,  sometimes  with  a 

20 


276  GROUSE 

vinaceous-rufous  suffusion,  spotted  and  blotched  with  clove-brown  or  dark 
claret-red,  1*65  x  1*18  (Bendire).   Date,  n.  Lab.,  June  16. 

"In  its  general  manners  and  mode  of  living  it  is  said  to  resemble 
albus  [==L.  lagopus],  but  does  not  retire  so  far  into  the  wooded  country 
in  the  winter"  (B.,  B.,  and  R.). 

302a.  L.  r.  reinhardi  (Brehm).  REINHARDT'S  PTARMIGAN.  Ad.  & 
summer. — Similar  to  corresponding  plumage  of  L.  r.  rupestris  but  less 
heavily  and  regularly  barred  above,  breast  more  finely  barred.  Ads.  in  fall 
(preliminary  winter)  plumage. — Similar  to  corresponding  plumage  of  L.  r. 
rupestris  but  much  grayer.  Ads.  in  winter. — Not  distinguishable  from  L.  r. 
rupestris  in  winter. 

Range. — Northern  extremity  of  Ungava,  w.  Cumberland  Sound,  and 
Greenland. 

"They  prefer  more  open  ground,  and  rarely  straggle  even  into  the 
skirts  of  the  wooded  tracts.  The  hilltops  and  barrens  (hence  often 
called  the  Barren  Ground  Bird)  are  their  favorite  resorts"  (Turner). 

303.  Lagopus  welchi  Brewst.  WELCH'S  PTARMIGAN.  Ad.  <?  in  breeding 
plumage. — Upperparts  black,  the  head  and  neck  barred  with  white  and 
ochraceous-buff,  the  back  and  wing-coverts  finely  and  irregularly  marked 
with  wavy  lines  of  buffy  and  white;  tail  grayish  fuscous,  tipped  with  white; 
throat  white,  foreneck  like  hindneck,  breast  and  sides  like  back;  rest  of 
underparts  white.  Ads.  in  fall  (preliminary  winter]  plumage. — Not  seen, 
but  back  and  breast  doubtless  with  finely  vermiculated  black  and  white 
feathers.  Ad.  9  breeding  plumage. — Similar  to  corresponding  plumage  of 
rupestris.  Ads.  in  winter. — Similar  to  winter  ads.  of  rupestris.  W.,  7*25;  B. 
from  N.,  '35;  depth  of  B.  at  N.,  '32. 

Remarks. — This  is  a  much  blacker  and  grayer  bird  than  L.  r.  rupestris, 
and  in  this  respect  it  appears  most  nearly  to  approach  Rock  Ptarmigan 
from  Sitka  (L.  r.  dixoni?).  (For  comparison  with  rupestris  see  Stejneger, 
The  Auk,  1885,  193.) 

Range. — Newfoundland. 

Nest,  a  slight  hollow  in  the  moss,  lined  with  a  few  feathers.  Eggs,  8, 
similar  to  those  of  Lagopus  rupestris.  Date,  N.  F.,  June  3  (Thayer  Coll.). 

"According  to  Mr.  Welch,  these  Ptarmigan  are  numerous  in  New- 
foundland, where  they  are  strictly  confined  to  the  bleak  sides  and  sum- 
mits of  rocky  hills  and  mountains  of  the  interior"  (Brewster). 

305.  Tympanuchus  americanus  americanus  (Reich.).  PRAIRIE 
CHICKEN.  Ad.  &. — Upperparts  barred  with  rufous  and  black  and  spotted 
with  rufous;  sides  of  neck  with  tufts  generally  composed  of  ten  or  more 
narrow,  stiffened  black  feathers  marked  with  buffy  and  rufous,  their  ends 
rounded,  the  skin  beneath  these  tufts  bare ;  tail  rounded,  fuscous,  the  inner 
feathers  somewhat  mottled  with  ochraceous-buff,  tip  white;  throat  buffy, 
breast  and  belly  white,  evenly  barred  with  black.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  neck 
tufts  much  smaller  and  tail  barred  with  ochraceous-buff  or  rufous.  L.,  18'00; 
W.,  9-00;  T.,  4-00;  B.  from  N.,  '52. 

Range. — SE.  Sask.  and  s.  Man.  to  e.  Colo.,  ne.  Tex.,  Ark.,  w.  Ky.,  and 
Ind.;  probably  extinct  e.  of  Ind.;  but  formerly  reached  sw.  Ont.,  Mich.,  and 
nw.  Ohio. 

Glen  Ellyn,  P.  R.,  fairly  plentiful  locally.  SE.  Minn.,  P.  R.,  much  de- 
creased in  numbers. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  11-14,  buffy  olive,  sometimes  finely  speckled 
with  brownish,  1*70  x  1'25.  Date,  Jasper  Co.,  Iowa.,  May  2. 


GROUSE  277 

"This  familiar  game  bird  inhabits  our  fertile  prairies,  seldom  fre- 
quenting the  timbered  lands  except  during  sleety  storms  or  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow.  Its  flesh  is  dark,  and  it  is  not  very  highly 
esteemed  as  a  table  bird. 

"During  the  early  breeding  season  they  feed  largely  upon  grass- 
hoppers, crickets,  and  other  forms  of  insect  life,  but  afterward  chiefly 
upon  our  cultivated  grains,  gleaned  from  the  stubble  in  autumn  and 
the  cornfields  in  winter;  they  are  also  fond  of  tender  buds,  berries,  and 
fruits.  They  run  about  much  like  our  domestic  fowls;  but  with  a  more 
stately  carriage.  When  flushed  they  rise  from  the  ground  with  a  less 
whirring  sound  than  the  Ruffed  Grouse  or  Bob-white,  and  their  flight 
is  not  so  swift,  but  more  protracted  and  with  less  apparent  effort,  flap- 
ping and  sailing  along,  often  to  the  distance  of  a  mile  or  more.  In  the 
fall  the  birds  collect  together  and  remain  in  flocks  until  the  warmth 
of  spring  quickens  their  blood  and  awakes  the  passions  of  love;  then, 
as  with  a  view  to  fairness  and  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  they  select  a 
smooth  open  courtship  ground  (usually  called  a  'scratching  ground'), 
where  the  males  assemble  at  the  early  dawn  to  vie  with  each  other  in 
courage  and  pompous  display,  uttering  at  the  same  time  their  love 
call,  a  loud  booming  noise;  as  soon  as  this  is  heard  by  the  hen  birds 
desirous  of  mating  they  quietly  put  in  an  appearance,  squat  upon  the 
ground,  apparently  indifferent  observers,  until  claimed  by  victorious 
rivals,  which  they  gladly  accept,  and  receive  their  caresses"  (Goss). 

1908.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  231-235  (display). 

306.  Tympanuclms  cupido  (Linn.}.  HEATH  HEN.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  the  scapulars  broadly  tipped  with  buffy;  the  neck  tufts  of 
less  than  ten  feathers;  these  feathers  pointed,  not  rounded,  at  the  ends. 

Range. — Is.  of  Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass.  Formerly  s.  New  England 
and  parts  of  the  Middle  States. 

Nest,  "in  oak  woods,  among  sprouts  at  the  base  of  a  large  stump"  (Brew- 
ster).  Eggs,  "creamy  buff  in  color,  with  a  slight  greenish  tinge,"  1'73  x  1'29. 
Date,  Martha's  Vineyard,  June  10. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  century  the  Heath  Hen  was  found  locally 
throughout  the  Middle  States,  where,  unlike  its  western  representative, 
the  Prairie  Hen,  it  lived  in  wooded  districts.  In  New  Jersey  the  last  Heath 
Hen  was  killed  on  the  Barnegat  Plains  about  1870  (Bird-Lore,  1903,  p.  50). 
It  is  now  restricted  to  the  island  of  Martha's  Vineyard,  an  excellent 
illustration  of  the  protection  afforded  by  an  insular  habitat. 

Mr.  William  Brewster,  writing  in  1890  (Forest  and  Stream,  188,  p.  207), 
estimated  that  there  were  from  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  two  hundred 
Heath  Hens  then  on  the  island.  In  1907  this  number  according  to 
Field  (Bird-Lore,  IX,  pp.  249-255,  and  42nd.  Ann.  Rep.  Mass.  Comm.) 
was  reduced  to  seventy-seven.  Proper  protective  measures  were  now 
introduced,  the  birds  began  at  once  to  increase,  and  in  1910  they  were 
estimated  to  number  "up wards  of  three  hundred"  (Field  in  epist.). 
Field  describes  the  Heath  Hen's  call  as  a  toot  which  can  be  "imitated  by 
blowing  gently  into  the  neck  of  a  two-drachm  homoeopathic  vial. 


278  WILD  TURKEYS 

Each  call  extends  over  a  period  of  two  seconds  and  is  repeated  at  fre- 
quent intervals."  This  is  evidently  very  unlike  the  emphatic  boom-ah- 
boom  of  the  true  Prairie  Hen,  and  this  pronounced  difference  in  notes 
suggests  that  possibly  the  eastern  and  western  birds  are  not  so  closely 
allied  as  their  resemblance  in  plumage  would  lead  one  to  believe. 

308.  Pedioecetes  phasianellus  phasianellus  (Linn.}.  SHARP- 
TAILED  GROUSE.  Similar  to  P.  p.  campestris  but  much  darker  and  the  black 
areas  larger  and  more  prominent  than  the  ochraceous  ones,  the  latter  deeper, 
more  rusty. 

Range. — Cen.  Alaska  and  nw.  B.  C.  e.  through  cen.  Keewatin  to  cen. 
w.  Ungava,  and  s.  to  Lake  Superior  and  the  Parry  Sound  district,  Ont.; 
casual  e.  to  Saguenay  River,  Que. 

SE.  Minn.,  formerly  present,  now  wanting. 

308b.  Pedioecetes  phasianellus  campestris  Ridgw.  PRAIRIE  SHARP- 
TAILED  GROUSE.  Ad.  d". — Prevailing  color  of  the  upperparts  ochraceous- 
buff,  barred  and  irregularly  marked  with  black;  no  neck  tufts;  outer  web  of 
the  primaries  spotted  with  white;  middle  tail-feathers  projecting  about  an 
inch  beyond  the  others,  ochraceous-buff .  and  black;  throat  buffy;  breast 
with  V-shaped  marks  of  black;  sides  irregularly  barred  or  spotted  with  black 
or  buffy;  middle  of  the  belly  white.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  smaller;  the  middle 
tail-feathers  shorter.  L.,  17'50;  W.,  8'50;  T.,  4'50;  B.  from  N.,  '50. 

Range. — S.  Alberta  and  s.  Man.  to  Wyo.,  Kans.,  and  n.  111. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  11—14,  creamy  buff  or  pale  olive-brown, 
generally  slightly  spotted  with  fine,  reddish  brown  markings,  1*65  x  1'22 
(Bendire).  Date,  Carberry,  Man.,  June  3. 

There  is  more  or  less  confusion  in  regard  to  the  names  Prairie  Hen 
and  Prairie  Chicken,  but  where  the  two  species  are  found  together  I 
have  found  that  the  former  is  applied  to  Pedicecetes  and  the  latter  to 
Tympanuchus.  In  central  Nebraska,  I  found  this  species  inhabiting 
the  sand-hills  while  the  Prairie  Chicken  (Tympanuchus)  was  nesting 
in  immediately  adjoining  bushy  bottom-lands.  In  Saskatchewan  it 
lived  among  the  rose-bushes  near  the  borders  of  streams.  When 
'dancing'  the  male  inflates  a  pink  sac,  utters  a  bubbling  crow,  rattles 
its  tail-quills,  etc.  The  whole  performance  is  well  described  by  Seton, 
as  quoted  by  Bendire,  and  by  Cameron  (Auk,  1907,  p.  256). 

32.  FAMILY  MELEAGRID^.    TURKEYS 

This  distinctively  American  family  contains  only  two  species,  the 
Yucatan  Turkey  (Agriocharis  ocellata)  and  our  Wild  Turkey.  The 
former  is  confined  to  Yucatan  and  the  adjoining  portions  of  Guatemala 
and  Honduras,  and,  except  in  isolated  instances,  has  defied  all  attempts 
at  domestication.  The  latter  ranges  from  southern  Mexico  northward, 
and  is  represented  by  five  subspecies  as  follows:  (1)  Meleagris  gallopavo 
gallopavo  of  southern  Mexico;  (2)  M.  g.  merriami  of  northern  Mexico, 
southwestern  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  southern  Colorado J 
(3)  M.  g.  intermedia  of  northeastern  Mexico  north  to  middle  northern; 
Texas;  (4)  M.  g.  osceola  of  southern  Florida,  and  (5)  M.  g.  silvestris,\ 
our  Wild  Turkey,  which,  formerly,  extended  as  far  north  as  southern 


WILD  TURKEYS  279 

Maine,  southern  Ontario  and  South  Dakota.  It  is  the  southern  Mexico 
form,  with  white-tipped  upper  tail-coverts,  which  is  the  ancestor  of 
our  domesticated  Turkey.  It  was  introduced  from  Mexico  into  Europe 
where  it  had  become  established  as  early  as  1530,  and  was  later  brought 
by  colonists  to  Eastern  North  America.  It  breeds  freely  with  our  Wild 
Turkey  (silvestris)  and  where  the  birds  of  the  woods  come  in  contact 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  poultry  yard,  evidences  of  such  alliances 
are  not  infrequent. 

310a.  Meleagris  gallppavo  silvestris  VieilL  WILD  TURKEY.  The  Wild 
Turkey  may  be  distinguished  from  the  common  domestic  race  chiefly 
by  the  chestnut  instead  of  white  tips  to  the  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail,  "d" 
ad.  L.,  about  48'00-50'00;  W.,  21'00;  T.,  18'50;  weight  16-40  Ibs."  (Ridgw.) 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  from  Neb.,  Kans.,  w.  Okla.,  and  e.  Tex.  e.  to  cen.  Pa., 
and  s.  to  the  Gulf  coast;  formerly  n.  to  S.  D.,  s.  Ont.  and  s.  Maine. 

Washington,  rare  P.  R. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  at  the  base  of  a  bush  or  tree.  Eggs,  10-14,  pale 
cream-buff,  finely  and  evenly  speckled  with  grayish  brown,  2*45  x  1*95. 
Date,  Pipemaker  Swamp,  Ga.,  Apl.  25;  Ft.  Smith,  Ark.,  Apl.  3. 

This  noblest  of  American  birds  is  rapidly  decreasing  in  numbers,  and 
in  comparatively  few  years  will  doubtless  be  found  only  in  the  parts  of 
its  range  which  are  unfit  for  the  habitation  of  man. 

Except  during  the  breeding  season,  Wild  Turkeys  are  found  in 
small  flocks  of  six  to  twelve  or  fifteen  individuals  of  both  sexes.  They 
roost  preferably  in  the  trees  in  wooded  bottom-lands,  returning  each 
night  to  the  same  locality. 

At  the  opening  of  the  breeding  season  in  March  the  male  begins  to 
gobble.  As  a  rule,  he  calls  only  early  in  the  morning,  before  leaving 
his  roost.  Later  he  sails  to  the  ground  and  at  once  begins  his  search 
for  breakfast,  or,  attracted  by  the  plaintive  piping  of  some  female,  he 
struts  and  displays  his  charms  before  her.  It  is  at  this  time  that  bat- 
tles between  the  males  dccur.  They  are  polygamists,  and  the  victor 
becomes  sultan  of  the  harem.  During  the  period  of  incubation,  and 
while  the  young  require  their  mother's  care,  the  females  do  not  associate 
with  the  males,  who  then  flock  together. 

The  calls  of  both  sexes  so  closely  resemble  those  of  the  domestic 
birds  that  it  requires  a  practiced  ear  to  distinguish  them.  In  locali- 
ties where  both  birds  might  be  expected  to  occur,  I  could  never  be 
sure  whether  I  was  listening  to  the  challenge  of  some  defiant  gobbler 
perched  in  a  cypress  in  the  valley  below,  or  to  the  vainglorious  effort 
of  the  lord  of  the  poultry  yard. 

1909.  GRINNELL,  G.  B.,  Forest  and  Stream,  852,  891,  892  (biography). 

31  Ob.  M.  g.  osceola  Scott.  FLORIDA  TURKEY.  Resembles  M.  g. 
silvestris,  but  is  smaller,  and  the  primaries,  instead  of  being  regularly  and 
widely  barred  with  white,  as  in  that  bird,  have  much  smaller,  broken  white 
markings.  Weight,  <?  12-22  Ibs.;  9  475-9  Ibs.  (Scott,  Auk,  IX,  1892,  115.) 

Range. — Southern  Florida. 

Nesting  date,  St.  John's  River,  Fla.,  Apl.  23. 


The  Florida  Wild  Turkey  is  locally  common  in  Southern  Florida, 


280  PHEASANTS 


PHEASANTS.    FAMILY   PHASIANID^E 

The  true  Pheasants,  numbering  about  one  hundred  species,  are 
found  from  the  eastern  borders  of  the  Mediterranean  through  central 
and  southern  Asia  to  the  Malayan  Region. 

The  Ring-neck  and  English  Ring-neck  have  been  introduced  and 
become  naturalized  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Phasianus  colchicus  (Linn.}.  ENGLISH  PHEASANT.  Ad.  <?. — Head 
and  neck  green;  no  white  neck-ring;  rump  rich  bronzy  red;  breast  bronze- 
red  ;  the  ends  of  the  feathers  with  broad  greenish  black  bands ;  flanks  reddish 
brown  tipped  with  blue-black.  Ad.  9 . — Above  mixed,  black  brownish,  and 
rusty;  below  brownish  yellow;  breast  and  sides  with  rusty  and  black. 

The  English  Pheasant  has  been  so  hybridized  with  the  Ring-necked 
Pheasant  that  it  is  now  rare  to  find  pure-blooded  birds.  Consequently 
either  name  is  often  equally  applicable  to  these  aviary-raised,  artificially 
bred  birds. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  beneath  cover.  Eggs,  12-20,  unmarked  olive-buff, 
175  x  1*35.  Date,  Gardiner's  Is.,  L.  I.,  May. 

The  so-called  English  Pheasant  is  a  native  of  Asia  Minor  whence 
it  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Greeks,  and,  it  is  believed,  by  the 
Romans  into  England.  The  English  stock  remained  pure  until  about 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  when  it  was  crossed  with  the  Chinese 
Ring-necked  Pheasant  (Phasianus  torquatus).  The  progeny  proved 
fertile  and  continued  hybridization,  in  which  the  Japanese  Pheasant 
(Phasianus  versicolor)  has  also  been  used,  has  left  but  few  pure-blooded 
birds  of  the  true  colchicus  type  in  England.  The  Pheasant  introduced 
into  this  country  from  England  is  of  the  P.  colchicus  X  P.  torquatus  strain, 
in  which  the  white  neck  ring  is  always  more  or  less  developed.  It  has 
been  released  and  become  locally  established  in  Massachusetts,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  New  Jersey,  Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  and  Kansas. 

(See  OLDYS,  Pheasant  Raising  in  the  United  States,  Farmers'  Bull. 
No.  390,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.,  1910,  40.) 

Phasianus  torquatus  (GmeL).  RING-NECKED  PHEASANT.  Ad.  d". — 
Head  and  neck  green  with  strong  purplish  reflections;  a  more  or  less  com- 
plete white  neck-ring;  rump  gray  or  yellowish  gray;  breast  bronze-red,  the 
feathers  very  narrowly  margined  with  purple-black;  the  end  of  the  feathers 
notched  and  with  a  narrow  purple  black  wedge;  flanks  buffy,  tipped  with 
blue-black.  Ad.  9 . — Resembles  adult  female  of  P.  colchicus. 

This  species  has  been  successfully  introduced  in  Oregon,  Washing- 
ton, and  British  Columbia;  and  limited  numbers  have  been  released 
in  the  Eastern  United  States,  where,  however,  its  hybrid  with  P. 
colchicus  has  been  more  frequently  used  for  stocking  purposes  (see 
Oldys,  as  above). 

The  GRAY  or  HUNGARIAN  PARTRIDGE  (Perdix  perdix)  of  Europe  has 
been  brought  to  this  country  in  largo  numbers  during  recent  years  for 
stocking  purposes,  nearly  50,000  having  been  imported  between  July 
1,  1900,  and  December  31,  1909.  Thus  far  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
become  naturalized  (See  OLDYS,  Yearbook  of  Dept.  of  Agric.  1909,  pp. 
249-258). 


PIGEONS  AND  DOVES  281 

XI.     ORDER   COLUMBJE.     PIGEONS   AND   DOVES 

33.  FAMILY  COLUMBINE.   PIGEONS  AND  DOVES.    (Fig.  45.) 

The  650  odd  species  contained  in  the  Order  Columbce  are  placed  by 
Salvador!  in  five  families  as  follows:  (1)  Treronidce  or  Fruit  Pigeons, 
restricted  largely  to  the  Malayan  region,  212  species;  (2)  Columbidce, 
the  true  Pigeons,  distributed  throughout  the  world,  120  species,  of 
^which  no  less  than  70  are  contained  in  the  genus  Columba',  (3)  Peris- 
teridce  or  Doves,  distributed  throughout  the  world,  but  more  numerous 
in  the  tropics,  312  species;  (4)  Gouridce  or  Crowned  Pigeons  of  New 
Guinea,  8  species,  and  (5)  Didunculidce,  containing  only  the  Toothed 
Pigeon  of  Samoa. 

The  Family  Columbidce  of  the  A.  O.  U.  Check-List  contains  repre- 
sentatives of  both  the  Columbidce  and  Peristeridce  as  grouped  by  Sal- 
vadori,  which,  in  North  America,  number  twelve  species.  The  birds 
of  this  order  differ  widely  in  their  choice  of  haunts.  Some  are  strictly 
arboreal,  others  as  strictly  terrestrial.  Some  seek  the  forests  and  others 
prefer  fields  and  clearings.  Some  nest  in  colonies,  others  in  isolated 
pairs,  but  most  species  are  found  in  flocks  of  greater  or  less  size  after 
the  breeding  season.  When  drinking,  they  do  not  raise  the  head  as 
most  birds  do  to  swallow,  but  keep  the  bill  immersed  until  the  draught 
is  finished.  The  eggs  number  two,  rarely  one,  and  are  white  or  creamy 
in  color.  Both  sexes  incubate,  the  male's  daily  period,  so  far  as  known, 
being  from  about  10  A.M.  to  4  P.M.  The  young  are  born  naked,  and  are 
fed  by  regurgitation  on  predigested  food,  or  'Pigeons'  milk'  from  the 
crop  of  the  parent. 

1898.  WHITMAN,  C.  O.,  Animal  Behavior,  Biol.  Lecture  M.  B.  L,  314  et 
seq.  (Ginn  &  Co.). — 1908.  CRAIG,  WM  The  Voices  of  Pigeons  Regarded  as  a 
Means  of  Social  Control,  Am.  Journ.  Soc.,  XIV,  86-100. 

KEY    TO    THE    SPECIES 

A.  Tail  widely  tipped  with  white  or  grayish  white. 

a.  Tail  pointed. 

a1.  Back  or  rump  bluish  slate-color    .     .     315.  PASSENGER  PIGEON. 
a2.  Back   olive   grayish   brown     .     .     .     .     316.  MOURNING   DOVE. 

b.  Tail  slightly  rounded 317.  ZENAIDA  DOVE. 

B.  Tail  not  tipped  with  white. 

a.  Upperparts  dark  slate-color  .     .     .     314.  WHITE-CROWNED  PIGEON 

b.  Upperparts  not  slate  color. 

ft1.  Upperparts  rufous  with  purplish  reflections. 

b2.  Line  below  the  eye  and  belly  white  or  whitish  .  322.  QUAIL  DOVE 
63.  Line  under  the  eye  and  belly  buffy  ochraceous. 

322.1.  RUDDY  QUAIL  DOVE 
c1.  Upperparts  grayish  olive-brown. 

c2.  Crown  blue,  a  white  line  below  the  eye. 

323.  BLUE-HEADED  QUAIL  DOVE 
c3.  Crown  pinkish  or  like  the  back  320.  GROUND  DOVE 

314.  Columba  leucocephala  Linn.  WHITE-CROWNED  PIGEON.  Ad. 
d". — Rich  slate-color;  crown  white;  back  of  head  purplish  chestnut;  back 
of  neck  with  greenish  reflections,  each  feather  with  a  black  border.  Ad.  9. — 


282  PIGEONS  AND  DOVES 

Similar,  but  paler;  crown  ashy,  less  purplish  chestnut;  back  and  sides  of 
neck  brownish  ash  with  metallic  reflections  and  black  margins.  L.,  13*50; 
W.,  7-50;  T.,  5'10;B.,  70. 

Range. — Florida  Keys,  the  Bahamas,  Greater  Antilles,  some  of  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  Yucatan,  and  coast  of  Honduras. 

Nest,  in  low  trees  and  bushes.  Eggs,  2,  glossy  white,  1*41  x  1'02.  Date.— 
Andros  Is.,  Bahamas,  June  15. 

This  Pigeon  is  locally  common  in  some  of  the  keys  off  southern 
Florida,  and  has  been  known  to  occur  on  the  mainland.  According 
to  Mr.  J.  W.  Atkins  (Auk,  VI,  1889,  p.  246),  it  arrives  at  Key  West  early 
in  May  and  remains  until  November. 

A  specimen  of  the  WEST  INDIAN  SCALED  PIGEON  (314.1  Columba 
squamosa)  was  taken  at  Key  West,  Fla.,  Oct.  24,  1898  (Atkins,  Auk,  1899. 
272). 

315.  Ectopistes  migratorius  (Linn.).  PASSENGER  PIGEON.  (Fig.  45.) 
Ad.  cf. — Upperparts  rich  bluish  slate-color;  back  and  sides  of  neck  with 
metallic  reflections;  middle  of  back  and  scapulars  more  or  less  washed  with 
olive-brown;  middle  tail-feathers  fuscous,  outer  ones  black  at  the  base, 
then  slaty  blue,  fading  into  a  broad,  white  tip;  underparts  deep,  rich  vina- 
ceous;  lower  belly  white;  throat  bluish  slate-color.  Ad. 9. — Similar,  but 
upperparts  with  less  iridescence  and  more  olive-brown;  breast  pale  grayish 
brown;  belly  whitish.  Im. — Generally  similar  to  the  9,  but  the  feathers  of 
the  upperparts  and  breast  tipped  with  whitish,  the  primaries  edged  and 
tipped  with  rufous.  L.,  16'29;  W.,  7'82;  T.,  7'53;  B.,  '71. 

Range. — Bred  formerly  from  middle  w.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  cen. 
Que.,  and  N.  S.  s.  to  Kans.,  Miss.,  Pa.  and  N.  Y.;  wintered  principally  from 
Ark.  and  N.  C.  s.  to  cen.  Tex.,  La.,  and  Fla.;  casual  in  Cuba,  e.  Mex.  and 
Nev. 

Washington,  formerly  T.  V.  or  W.  V.  Ossining,  formerly  rare  S.  R., 
and  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  15  to  May  17;  Aug.  21-Oct.  11;  last  seen  Oct.  11, 
1888.  Cambridge,  formerly  abundant,  now  perhaps  extinct.  Glen  Ellyn, 
last  seen  Sept.  4,  1892.  SE.  Minn.,  formerly  abundant,  no  recent  record. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  in  a  tree.  Eggs,  1,  very  rarely  2,  white, 
1-45  x  1'09.  Date,  Upton,  Maine,  June  15,  1872;  Wise.,  first  week  in  Apl.; 
se.  Minn.,  May  9,  1879. 

Wilson,  writing  about  1808,  estimated  that  a  flock  of  Wild  Pigeons 
observed  by  him  near  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  contained  at  least  2,230,- 
272,000  individuals.  Captain  Bendire,  writing  in  1892,  says:  ".  .  .  It 
looks  now  as  if  their  total  extermination  might  be  accomplished  within 
the  present  century.  The  only  thing  which  retards  their  complete 
extinction  is  that  it  no  longer  pays  to  net  these  birds,  they  being  too 
scarce  for  this  now,  at  least  in  the  more  settled  portions  of  the  country, 
and  also,  perhaps,  that  from  constant  and  unremitting  persecution  on 
their  breeding-grounds  they  have  changed  their  habits  somewhat, 
the  majority  no  longer  breeding  in  colonies,  but  scattering  over  the 
country  and  breeding  in  isolated  pairs"  ("Life  Histories  of  North  Amer- 
ican Birds,"  p.  133). 

An  article  by  William  Brewster  on  "The  Present  Status  of  the  Wild 
Pigeon  as  a  Bird  of  the  United  States,  with  some  Notes  on  its  Habits" 
(Auk,  VI,  1889,  pp.  285-291),  gives  much  information  concerning  the 
recent  history  of  the  bird  in  Michigan,  one  of  its  last  strongholds. 
According  to  an  informant  of  Mr.  Brewster's,  the  last  nesting  in  Michi- 


PLATE  XVI 


PASSENGER  PIGEON 


PIGEONS  AND  DOVES  283 

gan  of  any  importance  was  in  1881.  "It  was  of  only  moderate  size — 
perhaps  eight  miles  long."  The  largest  known  Michigan  nesting  occurred 
in  1876  or  1877.  It  was  twenty-eight  miles  long  and  averaged  three  or 
four  miles  in  width. 

The  Passenger  Pigeon  is  now  so  nearly  extinct  that  although  it 
has  been  reported  as  "seen"  on  numerous  occasions,  there  appears  to 
be  no  unquestionable  record  of  its  actual  capture  since  1898.  Singu- 
larly enough  two  specimens  were  taken  on  September  14  of  that  year, 
an  immature  bird  at  Detroit,  Mich.  (Fleming,  Auk,  1903,  p.  66),  and  an 
adult  male  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.  (Eaton,  "Birds  of  New  York," 
which  see  also  for  many  other  records). 

Through  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  I  learn  that  a  female  Passenger  Pigeon 
is  said  to  have  been  shot  at  Bar  Harbor,  Me.,  in  the  summer  of  1904. 
It  was  mounted  in  July  of  that  year  by  J.  Bert  Baxter,  a  taxidermist  of 
Bangor,  who  received  it  in  the  flesh.  The  present  whereabouts  of  this 
specimen  are  unknown. 

1907.  MERSHON,  W.  B.,  The  Passenger  Pigeon,  225.  A  Monograph 
(Outing  Co.).— 1910.  WRIGHT,  A.  H.,  Auk,  XXVII,  428,  443;  see  also 
XXVIII,  53,  66;  111;  346-366.— 1910.  DILLEN,  Cassinia,  33-36  (early 
records).— 1911.  HODGE,  C.  F.,  Auk,  XXVIII,  49  (present  status). 

316.  Zenaidura  macroura  carolinensis  (Linn.).     MOURNING  DOVE. 

Ad.  (?. — Upperparts  olive  grayish  brown;  forehead  vinaceous;  crown  bluish 
slate-color;  sides  of  neck  with  metallic  reflections,  a  small  black  mark  below 
the  ear;  middle  tail-feathers  like  back,  the  others,  seen  from  above,  slaty 
gray  for  the  basal  half,  then  banded  with  black  and  broadly  tipped  with 
ashy  and  white;  breast  vinaceous;  belly  cream-buff.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but 
with  less  iridescence;  breast  and  forehead  washed  with  grayish  brown.  Im. — 
Much  like  9,  but  the  feathers  tipped  with  whitish.  L.,  11'85;  W.,  5*72; 
T.,  5'50;  B.,  '53. 

Remarks. — The  Dove  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  Wild  Pigeon,  but, 
aside  from  the  differences  in  size,  may  always  be  distinguished  by  its  olive 
grayish  brown  instead  of  bluish  slate-color  rump,  the  black  mark  below  the 
ear,  and  other  characters. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Sonoran  and  L.  Transition  zones  from 
B.  C.,  Sask.,  Man.,  Ont.,  and  s.  N.  S.  s.  throughout  the  U.  S.  and  Mex.,  and 
locally  in  L.  Calif,  and  Guatemala;  winters  from  s.  Ore.,  s.  Colo.,  the  Ohio 
Valley,  and  N.  C.  to  Panama;  casual  in  winter  in  the  Middle  States. 

Washington,  P.  R.,  common,  except  in  midwinter.  Ossining,  common 
S.  R.,  Mch.  3-Nov.  27;  a  few  winter.  Cambridge,  rather  rare  T.  V.,  Apl. 
8- June  18;  Sept.  18-Nov.  15.  N.  Ohio,  common,  S.  R.,  Mch.  20-Oct.  25; 
rare  W.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  formerly  common,  Mch.,  12- 
Oct.  21.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  15-Dec.  25. 

Nest,  a  flat  structure  of  small  twigs  rather  loosely  put  together,  on  the 
lower  branches  of  a  tree,  generally  within  ten  feet  of  the  ground;  rarely  on 
the  ground  in  the  Eastern  States.  Eggs,  2,  white,  1'07  x  '83.  Date,  D.  C., 
Apl.  18;  Nazareth,  Pa.,  Apl.  15;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  Apl.  17;  Cambridge,  May 
8;  se.  Minn.,  May  12. 

Doves  resemble  Wild  Pigeons,  but  are  much  smaller,  and  their  rapid 
flight  is  accompanied  by  the  whistling  sound  of  wings,  while  the  flight 
of  the  Wild  Pigeon  is  said  to  be  noiseless. 

During  the  nesting  season  they  may  be  found  in  pairs,  generally 
in  open  woodlands  or  tree-bordered  fields.  They  also  visit  roads  and 


284  PIGEONS  AND  DOVES 

lanes  to  dust  themselves.  The  sweet,  sad  call  of  the  male  has  won  for 
this  species  its  common  name;  it  consists  of  several  soft  coos,  which 
may  be  written:  Coo-o-o,  ah-coo-o-o — coo-o-o — coo-o-o.  Under  favor- 
able circumstances  these  notes  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  at  least 
two  hundred  and  fifty  yards;  they  are  uttered  slowly  and  tenderly, 
and  with  such  apparent  depth  of  feeling  that  one  might  easily  imagine 
the  bird  was  mourning  the  loss  of  his  mate,  instead  of  singing  a  love- 
song  to  her. 

At  this  season  one  or  both  birds  may  be  seen  performing  a  peculiar 
aerial  evolution.  Ascending  to  a  height  of  about  thirty  feet,  they  fly 
for  some  distance  in  an  unnatural  manner,  and  then,  after  a  short  sail, 
return  to  their  perch.  When  engaged  in  this  performance  they  very 
closely  resemble  a  Sharp-shinned  Hawk. 

After  the  nesting  season  Doves  gather  in  flocks  of  varying  size  and 
frequent  grain  and  cornfields.  During  the  day  they  visit  the  near- 
est supply  of  fine  gravel,  which  they  eat  in  large  quantities  as  an  aid 
to  digestion.  In  some  localities,  soon  after  sunset,  they  regularly  repair 
in  numbers  to  some  favorite  place  to  drink,  and  then  retire  to  their 
roosts. 

317.  Zenaida  zenaida  (Bonap.).  ZENAIDA  DOVE.  Ad. — Bears  a 
general  resemblance  to  Zenaidura  macroura,  but  the  tail  is  square  and  tipped 
with  ashy,  and  the  underparts  are  deep,  rich  vinaceous.  L.,  10*00;  W.,  6'10; 
T.,  3'50;  B.,  '66. 

Range. — Florida  Keys,  West  Indies,  and  coast  of  Yucatan. 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  2,  glossy  white,  1*22  x  "92.  Date, 
Bahamas,  May  27. 

This  is  a  common  West  Indian  species.  Audubon  found  it  in  num- 
bers in  the  keys  off  southern  Florida,  where  he  records  it  as  a  sum- 
mer resident,  arriving  in  April  and  departing  in  October.  The  few 
naturalists  who  have  visited  these  keys  since  Audubon's  time  have 
not  been  there  in  the  summer,  and  we  do  not  therefore  know  whether 
this  species  still  occurs  there  at  that  season.  It  is  more  terrestrial  in 
habits  than  the  Mourning  Dove,  and  its  notes  are  deeper,  louder,  and 
more  solemn  than  the  notes  of  that  species. 

The  WHITE-WINGED  DOVE  (31 9.  Melopelia  asiatica  asiatica}  is  of  gen- 
eral distribution  from  the  Mexican  border  of  the  United  States  south  to  Costa 
Rica,  and  it  has  been  recorded  from  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  San  Domingo.  It  is 
of  accidental  occurrence  at  Key  West  and  Kissimmee,  Florida  (Ridgway, 
Auk,  1897,  88).  It  may  be  known  by  the  broad  white  margins  to  the  wing- 
coverts,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  white  wing-patch,  which  is  conspicuous 
in  life. 

320.  Chsemepelia  passerina  terrestris  (Chapm.).  GROUND  DOVE. 
Ad.tf. — Forehead  and  underparts  vinaceous,  centers  of  breast-feathers 
blackish;  top  and  back  of  head  bluish  slate-color;  back  brownish  gray;  tail 
blackish,  the  outer  feathers  with  small  white  tips;  base  of  bill  coral-red,  tip 
black.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  forehead  and  underparts  pale  brownish  gray. 
Im. — Resembles  9,  but  the  feathers  are  tipped  with  whitish.  L.,  6*75;  W., 
3'60;  T.,  2'50;  B.,  '50. 


PIGEONS  AND  DOVES  285 

Range. — Austroriparian  and  Floridian  faunas  from  e.  Tex.  to  N.  C.; 
accidental  in  n.  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  N.  J.,  Md.,  and  Va. 

Washington,  accidental ;  two  records,  Sept. ;  Oct. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  or  in  low  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  2,  white,  '85  x  '67. 
Date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  12. 

This  diminutive  Pigeon  frequents  both  pines  and  "hummocks," 
lake-shores,  and  old  fields,  and  in  some  southern  towns  is  a  familiar 
bird  of  the  quieter  streets.  It  is  by  no  means  shy,  and  runs  before  one 
with  quick,  short  steps  and  a  graceful  movement  of  the  head.  Occa- 
sionally it  holds  its  tail  upright,  giving  it  a  peculiar  bantamlike  appear- 
ance. Its  flight  is  short,  and  when  on  the  wing  it  bears  an  odd  resem- 
blance to  a  short-tailed  Japanese  kite. 

Its  favorite  roosting-places  are  densely  foliaged  orange  trees,  and 
frequently  when  the  bird  is  hidden  in  their  depths  one  may  hear  its 
mellow,  crooning  coos  uttered  so  softly  that  they  float  on  the  air  as 
though  born  of  the  wind. 

320b.  C.  p.  bermudiana  Bangs  and  Bradlee.  BERMUDA  GROUND 
DOVE.  "Size  very  small,  smaller  than  C.  bahamensis;  bill  wholly  black, 
exceedingly  small  and  slender  (more  so  than  in  any  other  form  of  the  (7. 
passerina  series) ;  colors  pale  and  ashy  as  in  C.  bahamensis  and  C.  passerina 
pallescens  (Baird),  but  even  paler  and  grayer  throughout  than  in  either; 
back  of  c?  smoke-gray,  of  9  between  smoke-gray  and  broccoli-brown;  fore- 
head and  color  of  breast,  in  d",  vinaceous  pink."  (Bangs  and  Bradlee,  Auk, 
XIII,  1901,  25.) 

Range. — Resident  in  the  Bermudas. 

322.  Geotrygon  chrysia  (Sahad.).  KEY  WEST  QUAIL-DOVE.  Upper- 
parts  rufous,  with  brilliant  metallic  reflections;  wings  rufous;  a  white  line 
beneath  the  eye;  breast  vinaceous;  belly  white.  L.,  ll'OO;  W.,  6'20;  T.,  5'00; 
B.,  -50. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  2,  ochraceous-white,  T22  x  *94  (Bendire).  Date, 
Cuba,  Feb. 

A  West-Indian  species  which  occurs  during  the  summer  regularly, 
but,  so  far  as  known,  only  in  small  numbers  in  the  Florida  Keys. 

The  Quail  Doves  inhabit  wooded  districts  where  they  live  on  the 
ground.  Their  flight  is  low  and  noiseless,  and,  according  to  my  expe- 
rience with  them  in  Cuba,  they  are  difficult  birds  to  observe  unless 
one  can  find  some  tree  on  the  fallen  fruits  of  which  they  are  feeding. 

The  RUDDY  QUAIL-DOVE  (322.1.  Geotrygon  montana)  is  a  West  Indian 
and  Central  American  species,  which  has  been  once  recorded  from  Key  West 
(Atkins,  Auk,  1889,  160).  It  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  G.  chrysia,  but 
the  back  is  more  rufous  and  the  belly  is  deep  cream-buff. 

The  BLUE-HEADED  QUAIL-DOVE  (323.  Starn&nas  cyanocephala) ,  a 
Cuban  species,  was  recorded  by  Audubon  from  the  Florida  Keys,  but  there 
do  not  appear  to  be  any  later  records.  The  back  is  olive-brown,  the  crown 
and  sides  of  the  throat  are  deep  grayish  blue,  throat  black,  line  beneath  the 
eye  white. 


286  VULTURES 

XH.    ORDER   RAPTORES.     BIRDS    OF    PREY 

1893.  FISHER,  A.  K,  The  Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States  in 
Their  Relation  to  Agriculture,  Bull.  No.  3,  Div.  Orn.  and  Mam.  (Biol.  Surv.), 
Washington.  8vo.  pp.  210,  col.  plls.  26. 

34.  FAMILY  CATHARTID^.    AMERICAN  VULTURES.  (Fig.  49.) 

A  New  World  family  of  nine  species,  of  which  three  are  North 
American.  Within  their  range  Vultures  are  found  wherever  there  is 
food.  Far  above  the  earth  on  firm  wing  they  sail  in  broad  circles,  and 
from  this  outlook  in  the  sky  descend  to  feast  upon  the  stricken  deer 
in  the  forest  or  the  cur  lying  in  the  gutters  of  a  thoroughfare.  It  is 
now  the  generally  accepted  belief  that  Vultures  find  their  food  by  the 
aid  of  their  eyes  alone.  Except  during  the  nesting  season,  they  are 
generally  found  in  flocks,  which  each  night  return  to  a  regularly  fre- 
quented roost.  When  alarmed  or  excited,  they  utter  low,  grunting 
sounds,  but  at  other  times  are  silent.  They  build  no  nest,  but  lay  their 
one  to  three  eggs  under  logs  or  stumps,  on  the  ground,  in  caves,  or 
similar  places.  The  young  are  born  naked,  but  are  soon  thickly  covered 
with  white  or  buff  down. 

325.  Cathartes  aura  septentrionalis  Wied.  TURKEY  VULTURE. 
(Fig.  49.)  Ads. — Head  and  neck  naked,  the  skin  and  base  of  the  bill  bright 
red;  plumage  glossy  black,  edged  with  grayish  brown.  Ira. — Similar,  but 
the  head  covered  with  grayish-brown,  furlike  feathers.  L.,  about  30'00;  W., 
22-00;  T.,  ll'OO;  B.,  2'30. 

Range. — Austral  and  Transition  zones  from  s.  B.  C.,  Sask.,  w.  Man.,  n. 
Minn.,  sw.  Ont.,  w.  and  s.  N.  Y.,  and  n.  N.  J.  s.  to  s.  L.  Calif,  and  n.  Mex.; 
winters  throughout  most  of  its  regular  range  on  the  Atlantic  slope  but  w. 
retires  to  Calif.,  Nebr.,  and  the  Ohio  Valley;  casual  n.  to  Wise.,  Mich.,  n. 
Ont.,  and  N.  B. 

Washington,  abundant  P.  R.  Ossining,  A.  V.  Cambridge,  casual,  two 
records.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common,  S.  R.,  Mch.  5-Oct.  30.  SE.  Minn., 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  27. 

Nest,  in  hollow  stumps  or  logs,  or  on  the  ground  beneath  rocks,  bushes  or 
palmettos.  Eggs,  1-3,  dull  white,  generally  spotted  and  blotched  with 
distinct  and  obscure  chocolate  markings,  but  sometimes  plain  or  but  slightly 
spotted,  2-80  x  2'00.  Date,  Florida  Keys,  Mch.  1 ;  Buckingham  Co.,  Va.  Apl. 
3;  Deer  Creek,  Md.,  Apl.  16;  se.  Minn.,  May  2,  July. 

One  of  the  first  birds  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  bird  student 
in  our  Southern  States  is  the  Turkey  "Buzzard."  Indeed,  there  are 
few  moments  between  sunrise  and  sunset  when  these  birds  are  not 
in  sight.  On  outstretched,  immovable  wings  they  soar  overhead  in 
graceful  circles,  perfect  pictures  of  "repose  in  motion."  Without 
once  flapping  their  broad  pinions,  they  sail  in  spirals  up  the  sky  until 
they  are  hidden  by  the  storm-clouds  they  have  purposely  avoided. 
Again,  one  sees  them  winging  their  way  low  over  fields  or  through  the 
streets  of  a  town  in  search  of  food  which  they  find  chiefly,  perhaps  wholly, 
by  means  of  sight.  At  times  they  may  be  seen  high  in  the  air  hurry- 
ing to  a  distant  repast,  to  which  they  are  guided  by  the  food-flight 
of  other  Buzzards. 


PLATE  XVII 


H          ]    ",:;..£,.      ;        , 

. 


•f  V  -;  "   I 


c '  '     '  TRYING  HAWKS 

Red-tailed  Hawk. 
Cooper's  Hawk. 


Broad-winged  Hawk. 
Sparrow  Hawk. 
Sharp-shinned  Hawk. 
Marsh  Hawk. 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES  287 

Their  services  as  scavengers  are  invaluable.  The  thought  of  bury- 
ing a  dead  horse  or  cow  never  occurs  to  the  southern  planter.  He 
simply  drags  the  animal  to  a  more  or  less  retired  place  and  leaves  it 
for  the  Buzzards,  who  never  fail  to  do  justice  to  the  repast.  In  some 
southern  towns  they  make  a  self-constituted  street-cleaning  depart- 
ment, and  if  their  efforts  were  seconded  by  a  corps  of  goats,  to  dispose 
of  the  more  indigestible  materials,  they  would  form  an  admirable 
branch  of  public  service. 

After  a  rain  it  is  a  common  sight  to  see  Buzzards  perching  with 
wings  held  in  spread-eagle  fashion  as  they  dry  their  water-soaked 
plumage.  Frequently  they  stand  on  the  top  of  a  chimney  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  heat  arising  with  the  smoke.  Their  only  note  is  a  low,  grunting 
sound  uttered  when  they  are  disturbed.  Just  after  sunset  Buzzards  may 
be  seen  sailing  to  their  roosting-place,  generally  in  the  upper  branches 
of  a  dead  tree. 

326.  Catharista  urubu  urubu  (Vieill.}.  BLACK  VULTURE.  Ads. — 
Head  and  neck  bare,  the  skin  and  base  of  the  bill  blackish;  plumage  glossy 
black;  under  surface  of  the  wings  silvery.  L.,  about  24*00;  W.,  17'00;  T., 
8-00;  B.,  2'20. 

Range. — Tropical  and  Lower  Austral  zones  from  w.  Tex.,  Kans.,  111., 
Ind.,  and  se.  Va.  s.  through  the  s.  States,  Mex.,  and  Cen.  Am.  to  s.  S.  A.; 
casual  in  Ohio,  Maine,  Que.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.;  rare  in  the  West  Indies. 

Washington,  casual,  Mch.,  July,  Dec. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  under  logs,  bushes,  palmettos,  etc.  Eggs,  1-3,  palo 
bluish  white,  generally  more  or  less  spotted  with  distinct  and  obscure  choco- 
late markings,  2'95  x  2'00.  Date,  Warrior  River  Swamp,  Ala.,  Apl.  1; 
St.  Simon's,  Ga.,  Mch.  26. 

This  species  is  more  abundant  near  the  seacoast  and  less  common 
in  the  interior  than  the  preceding.  It  is  also  more  often  found  living 
in  towns  or  cities.  Any  one  who  has  visited  the  vicinity  of  the  market 
in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  will  testify  to  its  abundance  and  semi-domestica- 
tion there.  Indeed,  the  birds  have  become  so  tame  that  when  engaged 
in  devouring  some  savory  morsel  they  are  in  frequent  danger  of  being 
trodden  under  foot. 

Black  Vultures  are  heavier  birds  than  Turkey  Buzzards,  and  when- 
ever the  ownership  of  food  is  in  question  the  dispute  is  invariably  settled 
in  the  Vulture's  favor.  Their  stretch  of  wing,  however,  is  not  so  great, 
and  for  this  reason  their  flight  is  far  less  easy  and  graceful  than  that 
of  the  Buzzard.  They  flap  their  wings  oftener,  and  this  habit,  in  con- 
nection with  their  black  heads,  grayish  primaries,  and  comparatively 
short  tails,  serves  to  identify  them  in  the  field.  The  only  note  I  have  ever 
heard  from  them  is  a  low  grunt  uttered  when  they  are  disturbed. 

35.  FAMILY  BUTEONID^.  HAWKS,  EAGLES,  KITES,  ETC.    (Figs.  46,  50.) 

Omitting  the  Secretary  Bird,  Vultures,  Ospreys,  and  Owls,  the  Order) 
Raptores  has  left  some  four  hundred  and  sixty  species  of  world-wide' 
distribution,  which  Ridgway  places  in  the  two  families  ButeonidcB  and 


288  HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 

Falconidce.  Of  the  former,  twenty-two  species  are  North  American. 
These  present  much  diversity  of  form  and  habit,  but  our  eastern  species 
of  the  genera  Buteo  and  Accipiter  may,  in  the  Northern  States,  at  least, 
be  seen  during  the  migratory  seasons,  traveling  in  scattered  flocks,  which 
may  take  hours  to  pass  a  given  point.  At  other  times  of  the  year,  with 
few  exceptions,  they  are  solitary  birds,  having  no  intercourse  with  their 
kind.  During  the  breeding  season  many  species  have  definitely  bound- 
ed haunts,  upon  which  intrusion  by  individuals  of  the  same  species 
is  not  permitted.  With  much  regularity  they  return  to  the  same  locality 
and  even  the  same  nest  year  after  year,  and  some  species  are  known  to 
mate  for  life.  Their  days  are  an  unceasing  vigil.  At  all  times  they  are 
on  the  alert  for  food.  With  the  Buteos  this  consists  to  a  large  extent  of 
small  mammals  and  insects,  birds  and  poultry  forming  a  compara- 
tively insignificant  part  of  the  diet  of  most  species.  Most  Hawks  are 
thus  of  great  value  to  the  agriculturist  as  the  natural  check  upon  the 
increase  of  the  myriads  of  small  rodents  so  destructive  to  crops. 

The  cries  of  Hawks  are  generally  loud,  startling,  and  characteristic 
of  their  fierce  natures.  They  strike  their  prey  with  their  feet,  and  use 
the  bill  to  tear  it  into  fragments. 

Hawks'  nests  are  generally  bulky  affairs,  composed  of  coarse  twigs 
and  sticks.  The  presence  of  downy  feathers  gives  evidence  that  they 
are  or  have  been  recently  occupied.  The  young  are  hatched  with  a 
scanty  growth  of  white  down  which  soon  covers  the  body. 

To  facilitate  identification  in  the  field,  the  Hawks  of  this  and  the 
following  families  (Falconidce,  Pandionidce)  have  been  placed  in  one 
key  as  below. 

KEY   TO   THE    SPECIES 

I.  Wing  over  19'00. 

A.  Upper  half  of  tarsus  feathered. 

a.  Whole  head  and  neck  white 352.  BALD  EAGLE  (Ad.). 

b.  Head  or  neck  brown  or  brownish. 

61.  Bill  mostly  yellow  (Greenland).     .     351.  GRAY  SEA  EAGLE  (Ad.). 

62.  Bill  black  or  blackish 352.  BALD  EAGLE  (Im.). 

B.  Whole  tarsus  feathered 349.  GOLDEN  EAGLE. 

II.  Wing  under  19'00.  Placed  in  three  sections  as  follows: 

1.  Underparts  more  or  less  streaked  and  spotted,  without  cross-bars. 

2.  Underparts  with  more  or  less  numerous  cross-bars. 

3.  Underparts  without  streaks  or  bars. 

1.  Underparts  more  or  less  streaked  and  spotted,  without  crossbars. 

A.  Outer  primary  with  numerous  black  or  blackish  bars. 
a.  Wing  under  lO'OO. 

a1.  Back  bright  rufous,  with  or  without  black  bars. 

360.  SPARROW  HAWK. 

a2.  Back  bluish  slate-color       ....     357.  PIGEON  HAWK  (Ad.). 
a3.  Back  fuscous,  second  primary  longest. 

357.  PIGEON  HAWK  (Im.). 

a4.  Back  fuscous,  fourth  primary  longest,  tail-feathers  of  nearly  equal 
length;  wing  under  9'00  .  332.  SHARP-SHINNED  HAWK.  .    (Im.) 
a6.  Back   fuscous,   fourth   primary  longest,   outer  tail-feathers  half 
an  inch  or  more  shorter  than  the  middle  ones;  wing  over  9'00. 

333.  COOPER'S  HAWK  (Im.) . 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES  289 

6.  Wing  over  lO'OO. 

61.  Second  primary  longest. 

62.  Tail  generally  over  9  '00. 

63.  Lower  tail-coverts  immaculate  white. 

353.  WHITE  GYRFALCON. 

64.  Lower  tail-coverts  always  more  or  less  marked  with  dusky. 

354.  GRAY  GYRFALCON  and  Races. 
c2.  Tail  under  9 '00. 

c3.  Tarsus    shorter    than    middle-toe   without    nail,  upperparts 

blackish 356.  DUCK  HAWK. 

c4.  Tarsus    longer    than    middle-toe   without    nail,   upperparts 

brownish 355.  PRAIRIE  FALCON. 

c1.  Third  or  fourth  primary  longest. 

c2.  Upper  tail-coverts  white 331.  MARSH  HAWK. 

c3.   Upper  tail-coverts  brownish     .          .     .    334.  GOSHAWK  (Im.). 
B.  Outer  primary  generally  one  color,  base  sometimes  whitish  or  with 
a  few  imperfect  bars. 

a.  Tarsus  entirely  bare,  scales  on  its  front  large,  rounded. 

362.  AUDUBON'S  CARACARA. 

b.  Tarsus  not  entirely  bare. 

b1.  Tarsus  entirely  feathered    .     .     348.  FERRUGINOUS  ROUGH-LEG. 
c1.  Tarsus  partly  feathered. 

c2.  Scales  on  front  of  tarsus,  small,  rounded  .     .     .     364.  OSPREY. 
d2.  Scales  on  tarsus  not  rounded,  square. 

d3.  Three  outer  primaries  emarginate  or  "notched."* 

d4.  Wing  under  12*00.      .     343.  BROAD-WINGED  HAWK  (Im.). 
d5.  Wing  over  12*00.     .     .     .     342.  SWAINSON'S  HAWK  (Im.). 
e3.  Four  outer  primaries  emarginate  or  "notched,  "f 

e4.  Upper  tail-coverts  pure  white  .     .     331.   MARSH  HAWK. 
e5.  Upper  tail-coverts  not  pure  white;  wing  under  13*50;  lesser 
wing-coverts  conspicuously  margined  with  rufous. 

339.  RED-SHOULDERED  HAWK   (Im.). 

e6.  Upper  tail-coverts  not  pure  white ;  wing  over  13*50;  lesser 
wing-coverts  not  conspicuously  margined  with  rufous. 

337.  RED-TAILED  HAWK  and  races. 

2.  Underparts  with  more  or  less  numerous  cross-bars. 

A.  Front  of  tarsus  with  sharply  defined  scales. 

a.  Scales  on  front  of  the  tarsus  numerous,  rounded. 

a1.  Wing  under  15*00 356.  DUCK  HAWK. 

a2.  Wing  over  15*00 362.  AUDUBON'S  CARACARA 

b.  Scales  on  front  of  the  tarsus  sharply  defined,  transverse,  more  or  less 

square. 

61.  Four  or  five  outer  primaries  emarginate  or  "notched.''! 
b2.  Tail  white  at  the  base  and  tipped  with  whitish. 

330.  EVERGLADE  KITE. 

63.  Tail  rufous,  with  sometimes  a  black  band  near  the  end. 

337.  RED-TAILED  HAWK   (Ad.)  and  Races. 

64.  Tail  black  or  blackish,  with  four  to  six  white  or  grayish  cross- 

bars  339.  RED-SHOULDERED  HAWK   (Ad.). 

339a.  FLORIDA  RED-SHOULDERED  HAWK  (Ad.). 
fe6.  Tail  10*00  long,  gray,  with  several  indistinct  blackish  bands. 

334.  GOSHAWK. 

c1.  Three  outer  primaries  emarginate  or  "notched."* 
c2.  Tail  with  two  or  three  broad  whitish  bars. 

343.  BROAD-WINGED  HAWK  (Ad.). 
c3.  Tail  with  numerous  narrow,  indistinct  blackish  bars. 

342.  SWAINSON'S  HAWK  (Ad.). 

*  See  Fig.  88.  t  See  Fig.  87. 


290  HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 

B.  Front  of  the  tarsus  smooth,  or  with  the  scales  not  sharply  defined 

a.  Tarsus  not  entirely  feathered. 

a1.  Wing  under  9*00,  tail-feathers  of  nearly  equal  length. 

332.  SKARP-SHINNED  HAWK  (Ad.). 

a2.  Wing  over  9*00,  outer  tail-feathers  half  an  inch  shorter  than  the 
middle  ones;  upper  tail-coverts  not  white. 

333.  COOPER'S  HAWK  (Ad.). 
a3.  Wing  over  9*00;  upper  tail-coverts  white. 

331.  MARSH  HAWK  (Ad.). 

b.  Tarsus  entirely  feathered. 

ft1.  Legs  rich  rufous,  heavily  barred  .  348.  FERRUGINOUS  ROUGH-LEG. 
62.  Legs  ochraceous-buff,  more  or  less  barred. 

347a.  ROUGH-LEGGED  HAWK. 
3.  Underparts  without  streaks  or  bars. 

A.  Underparts  white. 

a.  Scales  on  front  of  tarsus  transverse,  more  or  less  square. 

334.  SHORT-TAILED  HAWK. 

b.  Scales  on  front  of  tarsus  numerous,  rounded. 
61.  Tail  barred. 

(>2.  Upperparts  not  barred 364.  OSPREY. 

63.  Upperparts  barred .     353.  WHITE  GYRFALCON. 

c1.  Tail  not  barred. 

c2.  Tail   square,   white 328.  WHITE-TAILED  KITE. 

c3.  Tail  forked,  bluish  black  .     .     .     327.  SWALLOW-TAILED  KITE. 

B.  Underparts  dark  brown,  slate,  gray,  or  black. 

a.  Tarsus  entirely  feathered      .     .     .      347a.  ROUGH-LEGGED  HAWK. 
6.  Tarsus  partly  feathered,  scales  transverse,  more  or  less  square. 
ft1.  Wing  over  13'00. 

b2.  Upper  tail-coverts,  base  and  tip  of  the  tail  white;  two  outer 

primaries  slightly  "notched"    .     .     .     330.  EVERGLADE  KITE. 

fe3.  Three  outer  primaries  "notched"*   .     342.  SWAINSON'S  HAWK. 

b4.  Four  outer  primaries  "notched"  .     .     338.  HARLAN'S  HAWK. 

c1.  Wing  under  13 '00. 

c2.  Primaries  more  or  less  distinctly  barred ;  general  plumage  sooty 

black 344.  SHORT-TAILED   HAWK. 

c3.  Primaries  not  barred;  general  plumage  slaty  blue. 

329.  MISSISSIPPI  KITE. 

327.  Elanoides  forficatus  (Linn.).  SWALLOW-TAILED  KITE.  Ads. — 
— Head,  neck,  linings  of  wings,  rump,  part  of  tertials,  and  underparts 
white;  rest  of  plumage  glossy  bluish  black;  tail  deeply  forked,  outer  feathers 
about  8'00  longer  than  middle  ones.  L.,  24'00;  W.,  16'50;  T.,  13'50;  B.  from 
N.,  '80. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  locally  from  se.  Sask.,  n.  Minn.,  s.  Wise.. 
s.  Ind.,  and  S.  C.,  s.  through  e.  Mex.  and  Cen.  Am.  to  Peru,  Bolivia,  and 
Paraguay;  accidental  w»  to  N.  M.  and  Colo,  and  n.  to  n.  Wise.,  Ont.,  N.  Y.. 
Maine,  Mass.,  and  in  England;  casual  in  the  Greater  Antilles;  winters  s.  of 
the  U.  S. 

Washington,  three  records,  Aug.;  Apl.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R., 
May  4. 

Nest,  in  the  upper  branches  of  tall  trees.  Eggs,  2-3,  white  or  buffy 
white,  boldly  spotted  or  blotched,  chiefly  round  the  larger  end,  with  hazel- 
brown,  chestnut,  or  rich  madder-brown,  1*87  x  1'49  (Ridgw.).  Date,  San 
Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  11;  Black  Hawk  Co.,  Iowa,  June  2,  1878. 

The  Swallow-tailed  Kite  winters  in  Central  and  South  America, 
and  appears  in  the  United  States  in  March.  Its  home  is  the  air,  and 
it  is  far  more  frequently  seen  on  the  wing  than  at  rest.  It  captures 

*Fig.  88. 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES  291 

its  prey,  devours  it,  and  drinks  while  under  way.  Its  flight  possesses 
all  the  marvelous  ease  and  grace  of  a  Swallow's,  made  more  evident, 
and  consequently  more  impressive,  by  the  bird's  much  greater  size. 

328.  Elanus  leucurus  (VieilL).     WHITE-TAILED  KITE.    Ads. — Upper- 
parts  ashy  gray,  whiter  on  the  head;  wing-coverts  black;  tail  and  under- 
parts  white.    Im. — Very  different,  head  streaked  black  and  whitish;  back 
black  narrowly  tipped  with  rusty,  many  of  the  feathers  with  more  or  less 
concealed  white  bars;  tail  black,  central  feathers  barred  with  gray,  others 
with  white ;  underparts  rufous  with  buff  margins ;  throat  white,  region  around 
eye  velvety  black.    A  later  plumage  has  the  back  grayish  brown  edged  with 
whitish,  tail  gray  tipped  with  white;  wings  much  as  in  the  adult,  underparts 
white,  breast  streaked  with  rufous.    L.,  15'50;  W.,  12'50;  T.,  7'00;  B.  from 
N.,  70. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  in  Lower  Austral  zone  in  Calif.,  Tex., 
Okla.,  S.  C.,  and  Fla.;  casual  in  s.  Ills.,  La.,  Miss.,  and  Ala.;  winters  in  Calif, 
and  Fla.  and  s.  rarely  to  Guatemala;  resident  in  S.  A.  and  Argentina  and 
Chile  to  Venezuela.  Accidental  in  Mass. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  3-5,  "handsomely  marbled  or  clouded  with  various 
shades  of  rich  madder-brown  on  a  paler  (sometimes  whitish)  ground,  1'71  X 
1-31"  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Brownsville,  Tex.,  May  11. 

This  species  is  not  often  found  east  of  the  Mississippi.  It  frequents 
open,  marshy  situations.  A  pair  which  I  observed  in  Texas  hunted 
by  hovering  over  the  reeds,  sustaining  a  position  facing  the  wind,  and 
about  forty  feet  from  the  ground,  by  a  gentle  movement  of  the  wings. 

329.  Ictinia    mississippiensis   (Wils.).      MISSISSIPPI    KITE.      Ads. — • 
Head,  neck,  exposed  margins  of  the  secondaries,  and  underparts  gray;  back 
bluish  slate-color;  primaries  streaked  or  spotted  with  rufous-chestnut;  tail 
black,  without  bars.   Im. — Head  streaked  with  black  and  white;  back  black- 
ish, tipped  with  rufous  or  white,  the  concealed  parts  of  the  feathers  white  and 
with  generally  one  blackish  bar;  primaries  without  rufous;  tail  with  three 
or  four  broken  white  bars;  below  buffy,  streaked  with  rufous  and  grayish 
brown.    L.,  14'00;  W.,  11'25;  T.,  6'50;  B.  from  N.,  '60. 

Range. — Lower  Austral  zone  from  s.  Kans.,  Iowa,  Ills.,  s.  Ind.,  and  S.  C., 
s.  to  Tex.,  and  Fla.;  winters  in  Fla.  and  s.  Tex.,  and  s.  rarely  to  Guatemala; 
accidental  in  Colo.,  S.  D.,  Wise.,  and  Pa. 

Nest,  in  tall  trees.  Eggs,  1-3,  dull  white,  sometimes  with  a  bluish  tinge, 
1'63  x  1'32.  Date,  Lee  Co.,  Tex.,  May  22;  coast  S.  C.,  May  27,  large  embryo. 

This  bird,  like  the  preceding,  is  only  a  summer  resident  in  the 
United  States,  arriving  from  the  south  in  April.  It  is  not  common 
east  of  Louisiana.  It  migrates  in  'flocks,  sometimes  flying  within  gun- 
shot, and  at  others  so  far  above  the  earth  as  to  be  almost  beyond  the 
bounds  of  vision. 


330.  Rostrhamus  sociabilis  (VieilL).  EVERGLADE  KITE. 
Dark  slate-color;  under,  and  longer  upper  tail-coverts,  and  base  of  the  tail 
white,  tip  of  the  tail  whitish ;  upper  mandible  much  lengthened  and  hooked. 
9  and  Im. — Upperparts  black,  tipped  with  rufous;  underparts  barred  and 
mottled  with  rufous,  black  and  buffy;  tail  as  in  the  Ad.<?.  L.,  IS'OO;  W., 
14'00;  T.,  7'75;  B.,  T20. 

Range. — Tropical  Fla.,  Cuba,  e.  Mex.,  Cen.  Am.,  and  e.  S.  A.  to  Argentina; 
migratory  in  n.  Fla. 

Nest,  in  bushes,  among  reeds  or  tall  grasses.  Eggs,  2-3,  pale  bluish  white, 
heavily  spotted,  blotched,  or  washed  with  cinnamon  or  chocolate,  1'85  X 
1'47.  Date,  near  Ft.  Myers,  Fla.,  Mch.  1. 

21 


292  HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 

This  species  is  a  summer  resident  in  southern  Florida.  It  arrives 
from  the  south  in  February.  Mr.  W.  E.  D.  Scott  writes  of  it  as  observed 
at  Lake  Panasofkee,  Florida:  "Their  food  at  this  point  apparently 
consists  of  a  kind  of  large,  fresh-water  snail,  which  is  very  abundant, 
and  the  local  name  of  'Snail-Hawk'  is  particularly  applicable  to  this 
bird  as  I  have  met  with  it.  They  fish  over  the  shallow  water,  remind- 
ing one  of  Gulls  in  their  motions;  and  having  secured  a  snail  by  diving, 
they  immediately  carry  it  to  the  nearest  available  perch,  where  the 
animal  is  dexterously  taken  from  the  shell  without  injury  to  the  latter." 
(Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  VI,  1881,  p.  16.) 

331.  Circus  hudsonius  (Linn.).  MARSH  HAWK,  Ad.  d\ — Upperparts 
gray  or  ashy;  upper  tail-coverts  white;  tail  silvery  gray,  irregularly  barred 
or  marked  with  blackish;  upper  breast  pearl-gray;  the  lower  breast  and 
belly  white,  spotted  or  barred  with  rufous.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  fuscous, 
the  head  and  neck  streaked,  and  the  wing-coverts  spotted  or  margined 
with  rufous;  longer  upper  tail-coverts  white;  midd  e  tail-feathers  barred  with 
ashy  and  black,  others  barred  with  ochraceous-buff  and  black;  underparts 
ochraceous-buff,  widely  streaked  on  the  breast  and  narrowly  streaked  on  the 
belly  with  fuscous  or  light  umber.  Im. — Similar  to  the  9,  but  somewhat 
darker  above;  the  underparts  darker,  almost  rufous;  the  belly  without 
streaks.  <?  L.,  19'00;  W.,  1375;  T.,  9'00;  B.  from  N.,  '60.  9  L.,  22'00;  W., 
15-00;  T.,  lO'OO. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  ne.  Siberia,  nw.  Alaska,  nw.  Mackenzie, 
cen.  Keewatin,  n.  Que.,  and  Prince  Edward  Is.  s.  to  the  s.  border  of  the  U. 
S.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Colo.,  Iowa,  the  Ohio  Valley,  arid  N.  Y.  (occasion- 
ally Mass.)  s.  to  the  Bahamas,  Cuba,  and  Colombia. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  July-Apl.  Ossining,  tolerably  common 
S.  R.,  Mch.  6-Oct.  30;  a  few  winter.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V., 
Mch.  20-Nov.  10,  one  breeding  record.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  S.  R.,  Mch. 
5-Nov.  30.  Glen  Ellyn,  S.  R.,  several  pairs,  Apl.  4-Nov.  6.  SE.  Minn., 
common  S.  R.,  Mch.  6— Nov.  1. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  in  marshes.  Eggs,  4-6,  dull  white  or  pale  bluish 
white,  1'75  x  1'40.  Date,  New  London  Conn.,  May  18;  Cambridge,  June  5; 
Meridian,  N.  Y.,  May  12;  Baxter,  Iowa,  May  8. 

This  Hawk  is  essentially  a  bird  of  the  unwooded  country,  and  we 
might  as  well  look  for  a  Ruffed  Grouse  in  the  open  marsh  as  for  a  Harrier 
in  the  thick  woods.  It  flies  low,  and  may  be  easily  identified  by  the 
large  white  patch  on  its  rump.  Quartering  the  country  with  slow,  vacil- 
lating flight,  it  usually  captures  its  living  prey  by  surprising  it  away 
from  its  retreats. 

The  Harrier  is  a  low-perching  Hawk,  and  most  frequently  will 
be  Seen  alighting  on  a  slight  elevation  or  in  the  grass.  During  the 
nesting  season  the  male  may  be  seen  performing  a  number  of  extraor- 
dinary aerial  evolutions.  Sometimes  he  soars  to  a  great  height,  then 
falls  straight  downward  nearly  to  the  ground,  turning  several  somer- 
saults during  the  descent,  and  uttering  at  the  same  time  a  reiterated 
screeching.  At  other  times  he  flies  across  the  marsh  in  a  course  which 
would  outline  a  gigantic  saw,  each  of  the  descending  parts  being  done 
in  a  somersault  and  accompanied  by  the  screeching  notes,  which  form 
the  only  love  song  within  the  range  of  his  limited  vocal  powers. 

ERNEST  T.  SETON. 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 


293 


FIG.  85.   Square  tail  of  Sharp- 
shinned  Hawk. 


"Of  124  stomachs  examined,  7  contained  poultry,  or  game  birds; 
34,  other  birds;  57,  mice;  22,  other  mammals;  7,  reptiles;  2  frogs; 
14,  insects;  1,  indeterminate  matter,  and  8  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

332.  Accipiter  velox  (Wils.).  SHARP-SHINNED  HAWK.  Ads. — Upper- 
parts  slaty  gray;  primaries  barred  with  blackish;  tail  nearly  square,  ashy 
gray,  with  blackish  cross-bars  and  a  whitish  tip ;  throat  white,  streaked  with 
blackish;  rest  of  underparts  barred  with  white  and  ochraceous-bufl  or  pale 
rufous.  Im. — Upperparts  fuscous,  margined 
with  rufous;  primaries  and  tail  much  as  in 
the  ad.;  underparts  white  or  buffy  white, 
streaked  or  spotted  with  blackish  or  pale 
rufous-brown.  <? L.,  11'25;  W.,  6'60;  T.,5'50; 
B.  from  N.,  '40.  9  L.,  13'50;  W.,  8'00;  T., 
7-00. 

Remarks. — This  species  very  closely 
resembles  Cooper's  Hawk.  In  adult  plum- 
age the  black  cap  characterizes  that  species, 
but  immature  birds  may  be  distinguished 
only  by  size,  and  the  difference  in  the  shape 
of  the  tail,  which  in  velox  is  nearly  square, 
and  in  cooperi  decidedly  rounded. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  nearly  through- 
out the  U.  S.  and  Canada  from  nw.  Alaska, 
nw.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Que.,  and 

^.  F.  southward;  winters  from  B.  C.,  Colo., 

owa,  n.  Ohio,  and  Mass.  s.  to  Panama. 

Washington,    common   P.    R.     Ossining,    common   P.    R.     Cambridge, 

ommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  3-May  11;  Sept.  5-Oct.  25;  rare  S.  R.,  uncommon  W. 
V.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  P.  R.,  a  few  winter.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S. 
R.,  Mch.  19-Dec.  9.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  28-Dec.  28. 

Nest,  in  trees,  15-40  feet  up.   Eggs,  3-6,  bluish  white  to  pale  cream-buff, 

listinctly  spotted,  heavily  blotched,  or  even  washed  with  chocolate  or  cin- 

lamon-rufous,  1*55  x  1*20.   Date,  Weaverville,  N.  C.,  May  1;  Northampton 

>>.,   Pa.,   May  14;    Cambridge,   May  20;    Knox    Co.,  Ohio,   May   11;  se. 

Viiim.,  May  8. 

The  generally  misapplied  names  "Hen  Hawk"  and  "Chicken 
Tawk"  should  be  restricted  to  the  birds  of  the  genera  Accipiter  and 
Astur  for  they  deserve  the  reputation  commonly  attributed  to  the 
arge  Hawks  of  the  genus  Buteo. 

The  Sharp-shinned  Hawk  differs  decidedly  in  habits  from  the  mouse- 
T  insect-eating  species,  which  watch  for  their  prey  from  a  lookout 
,nd  capture  it  on  the  ground.  It  is  a  fearless,  daring,  aggressive  bird, 
and  flying  swiftly,  rather  low,  either  in  the  open  or  through  woods, 
t  makes  sudden  dashes  at  the  frightened  birds,  which  hurry  to  cover 
-o  escape  its  talons.  One  hears  a  commotion  among  the  birds;  calls  of 
alarm,  and  a  dark  form  darts  through  the  foliage  in  close  pursuit,  or, 
missing  its  aim,  alights  in  the  center  of  some  thickly  leaved  tree,  there 
to  await  in  silence  a  fresh  opportunity.  I  have  seen  it  follow  its  prey  on 
'oot  through  the  undergrowth.  Sometimes  it  may  be  seen  soaring  in 
narrow  circles,  when  its  disproportionately  long  tail  forms  a  good  field 
iharacter. 

It  is  usually  a  voiceless  bird  except  during  the  nesting  season,  when 
i  too  close  approach  to  its  nest  causes  it  to  utter  its  peculiar  notes. 


294 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 


FIG.  86.  Rounded  tail  of  Cooper's  Hawk. 


"Of  159  stomachs  examined,  6  contained  poultry  or  game  birds; 
99,  other  birds;  6,  mice;  5,  insects;  and  52  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

333.  Accipiter    cooperi    (Bonap.).     COOPER'S   HAWK.    Ads. — Similar 
to  adults  of  the  preceding,  but  larger  and  with  the  crown  blackish.    Im.— 
Similar  in  color  to  young  of  A.  velox,  but  larger,    d"  L.,  15*50;  W.,  9*50;  T., 

775;  B.  from  N.,  '55.  9  L.,  19*00; 
W.,  10*50;  T.,  9*00. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  B. 
C.,  s.  Alberta,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Que., 
and  Prince  Edward  Is.  s.  to  s.  border 
of  the  U.  S.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C., 
Colo.,  Nebr.,  Ohio,  and  Mass.,  s.  to 
Costa  Rica,  and  occasionally  further  n. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  less 
common  W.  V.  Ossining,  tolerably 
common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  common 
T.  V.;  not  uncommon  S.  R.,  rare  W. 
V.,  Apl.  10-Oct.  20.  N.  Ohio,  not 
common,  Mch.  20-Nov.  1;  a  few 
winter.  Glen  Ellyn,  local  S.  R.,  a  few 
winter.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
Mch  3. 

Nest,  in  trees,  25-50  feet  up.  Eggs, 
3-6,  pale  bluish  white,  sometimes 
lightly  spotted  with  brownish,  1*90  x 
1*55.  Date,  Montgomery  Co.,  Pa., 
Apl.  30;  New  London,  Conn.,  Apl.  27; 
Cambridge,  May  5;  Herkimer  Co.,  N. 
Y.,  May  6. 

This  species  resembles  the  preceding  in  habits,  but  because  of  its 
larger  size  is  more  destructive  to  poultry. 

"Of  133  stomachs  examined,  34  contained  poultry  or  game  birds; 
52,  other  birds;  11,  mammals;  1,  frog;  3,  lizards;  2,  insects;  and  39 
were  empty"  (Fisher). 

334.  Astur    atricapillus    atricapillus    (Wils.).     GOSHAWK.     Ads. — 
Upperparts  bluish  slate-color;  head  blackish,  a  white  line  over  and  behind  the 
eye;  inner  tail-feathers  like  the  back,  outer  ones  more  fuscous,  and  slightly 
marked  with  blackish;  tip  whitish;  entire  underparts  evenly  marked  with 
irregular,  wavy  bars  of  gray  and  white,  the  feathers  of  the  throat  and  breast 
with  darker  shaft  streaks.    Im. — Upperparts  fuscous,  margined  with  rufous; 
primaries  barred  with  black;  tail  brownish  gray,  barred  with  black;  under- 
parts white  or  buffy,  streaked  with  black,    cf  L.,  22*00;  W.,  13*00;  T.,  10*00; 
B.  from  N.,  *65.    9  L.,  24*00;  W.,  13*40;  T.,  11*50. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones  from  nw.  Alaska,  nw.  Mackenzie, 
cen.  Keewatin,  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  Mich.,  and  N.  H.,  and  in  the  mountains 
s.  to  Pa.  and  N.  M.;  winters  from  Alaska  and  the  s.  Canadian  Provinces  s. 
to  n.  Mex.,  Tex.,  Okla.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  and  Va.;  accidental  in  England. 

Washington,  casual  in  winter.  Ossining,  rare  W.  V.,  Oct.  10- Jan.  14. 
Cambridge,  irregular  and  uncommon  W.  V.  SE.  Minn.,  W.  R.,  Nov.  5- Apl.  4. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  2-5,  "white,  or  glaucous-white,  sometimes  very 
faintly  marked  with  pale  brownish,  2*31  x  1*74"  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Moore- 
houseville,  N.  Y.,  Apl.  20;  Kentville,  N.  S.,  Apl.  8;  St.  Croix  Co.,  Wis., 
Apl.  17. 

With  the  general  habits  of  the  two  preceding  species,  this  larger 
bird  is  much  bolder  than  either.  Dr.  Fisher  remarks:  "This  species 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES  295 

is  one  of  the  most  daring  of  all  the  Hawks,  and  while  in  pursuit  of 
its  prey  is  apparently  less  concerned  by  the  presence  of  man  than  any 
other.  It  will  dart  down  unexpectedly  at  the  very  feet  of  the  farmer 
and  carry  off  a  fowl." 

"Of  28  stomachs  examined,  9  contained  poultry  or  game  birds;  2, 
other  birds;  10,  mammals;  3,  insects;  1,  centiped;  and  8  were  empty" 
(Fisher). 

335.  Parabuteo  unicinctus  harrisi  (And.).  HARRIS'S  HAWK.  Larger 
upper  tail-coverts,  and  base  of  tail  white;  lesser  and  under  wing-coverts 
rufous.  Ads. — Above  and  below  fuscous-brown  more  or  less  washed  with 
rufous,  especially  on  the  rump;  tail  black,  its  base  and  tip  white;  thighs 
rufous,  under  tail-coverts  white.  Im. — Similar,  but  tail  without  white  tip 
and,  seen  from  below,  with  broken  bars;  underparts  streaked  or  barred 
with  white;  thighs  barred  with  white.  ?L.,  22'00;  W.,  14'50;  T.,  10*00.  & 
L.,  19-00;  W.,  13-25;  T.,  9'50. 

Range. — Lower  Sonoran  zone  in  se.  Calif.,  s.  Ariz.,  s.  N.  M.,  s.  Tex.,  La., 
and  Miss.,  s.  to  Cape  San  Lucas  and  Panama;  accidental  in  Iowa  and  Ills. 

Nest,  of  sticks,  etc.,  often  in  'chaparral'  growth  or  small  trees.  Eggs, 
2-4,  white,  sometimes  with  small  cinnamon  spots,  2*08  x  1*70.  Date,  Corpus 
Christi,  Tex.,  Mch.  19. 

I  found  this  Hawk  a  common  inhabitant  of  the  chaparral  about 
Corpus  Christi,  Texas,  where  it  nested  in  the  low  mesquites  and  hui- 
saches.  Dresser  observed  it  feeding  on  carrion  with  Caracaras  and 
Vultures,  but  specimens  dissected  by  Sennett  contained  mice,  lizards, 
birds,  and  spermophiles.  The  white  upper  tail-coverts,  as  in  the  Marsh 
Hawk,  make  a  good  field  mark,  but  Harris's  Hawk  lacks  the  light, 
graceful,  bounding  flight  of  that  species. 

337.  Buteo  borealis  borealis  (GmeL).  RED-TAILED  HAWK.  Ads. — 
Upperparts  dark  grayish  brown  or  fuscous-brown,  more  or  less  edged  with 
rufous,  ochraceous-buff,  and  whitish;  four  outer  primaries  "notched,"  the 
outer  one  not  regularly  barred;  wing-coverts  not  edged  with  rufous;  tail 
rich  rufous,  with  a  narrow  black  band  near  its  end  and  a  white  tip;  upper 
breast  heavily  streaked  with  grayish  brown  and  ochraceous-buff,  lower 
breast  lightly  streaked  and  sometimes  without  streaks ;  upper  belly  streaked, 
spotted,  or  barred  with  black  or  blackish,  forming  a  kind  of  broken  band 
across  the  belly;  lower  belly  generally  white  without  streaks.  Im. — Similar, 
but  the  tail  of  about  the  same  color  as  the  back,  crossed  by  numerous  more 
or  less  distinct  blackish  bands;  no  rufous  in  the  markings  of  the  underparts. 
cfL.,  20-00;  W.,  15-50;  T.,  9'25;  B.  from  N.,  '95.  9  L.,  23'00;  W.,  16'50;  T., 
9-75. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.,  from  Sask.,  Wise.,  and  Ills.,  e.  to  cen.  Keewatin  and 
N.  F.,  and  s.  to  e.  Tex.,  ne.  Mex.,  the  Gulf  coast,  Fla.,  and  the  Greater 
Antilles. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  rare  S.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.;  less 
common  in  winter.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.,  locally  W.  V.,  Oct.  10-Apl.  20. 
N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  P.  R.,  not  common,  chiefly  T.  V.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  2. 

Nest,  in  trees,  30-70  feet  up.  Eggs,  2-4,  dull  white,  generally  scantily 
and  irregularly  marked  with  shades  of  cinnamon-brown,  2'40  x  1'85.  Date, 
San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  4;  Litchfield  Co.,  Conn.,  Apl.  8;  Richland  Co.,  111., 
Mch.  6;  se.  Minn.,  Apl.  23. 

The  Red-tailed  Hawk  resembles  its  near  relative,  the  Red-shoul- 
dered Hawk,  in  the  selection  of  its  haunts,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  in 


296  HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 

habits.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  in  life  from  that  species  by  its  larger 
size,  which,  even  in  the  field,  is  noticeable,  and  by  its  call.  The  usual 
note  of  the  Red-tail  is  a  long-drawn  "squealing"  whistle,  which  to 
my  ear  suggests  the  sound  produced  by  escaping  steam. 

"Of  562  stomachs  examined,  54  contained  poultry  or  game  birds; 
51,  other  birds;  278,  mice;  131,  other  mammals;  37,  batrachians  or 
reptiles;  47,  insects;  8,  crawfish;  1,  centiped;  13,  offal;  and  89  were 
empty"  (Fisher). 

337a.  B.  b.  krideri  Hoopes.  KRIDER'S  HAWK.  Similar  to  Buteo  b. 
borealis,  but  with  much  more  white  in  the  plumage;  the  head  sometimes 
almost  entirely  white;  the  underparts  only  lightly  streaked,  and  with  the 
band  on  the  belly  sometimes  obsolete;  the  tail  in  the  ad.  pale  rufous,  gen- 
erally without  a  terminal  black  band;  in  the im.,  pale  rufous,  or  white,  washed 
with  rufous,  and  with  numerous  blackish  bars.  <?  W.,  15'00;  T.,  9*50 

Range. — Great  Plains  from  Wyo.,  N.  D.,  and  Minn.,  s.  to  Nebr.  and  Mo  , 
and  in  winter  to  Wise.,  Ills.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  Miss. 

SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R. 

Nesting  date,  se.  Minn.,  Apl.  22. 

337d.  B.  b.  harlani  (And.}.  HARLAN'S  HAWK.  Ads. — Upperparts 
dark  sooty  fuscous,  bases  of  the  feathers  more  or  less  barred  with  grayish 
or  whitish  and  at  times  with  some  rusty;  tail  closely  mottled  with  black, 
fuscous,  rufous,  and  whitish;  underparts  varying  from  white  more  or  less 
spotted  across  the  belly  to  sooty  fuscous.  Im. — Similar,  but  the  tail  barred 
with  blackish,  grayish,  rufous,  or  whitish,  tipped  with  white.  &  L.,  about 
19-00;  W.,  15'50;  T.,  8'25.  9L.,  about  21'00;  W.,  17'00;  T.,  9'25. 

Remarks. — The  status  of  this  form  has  not  been  satisfactorily  established. 

Range. — Lower  Miss.  Valley  and  Gulf  States,  from  La.  to  Ga.  and  Fla  ; 
casual  in  Colo.,  Tex.,  Kans.,  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Ills,  and  Pa. 

Dr.  William  L.  Ralph,  in  Bendire's  "Life  Histories  of  North  Ameri- 
can Birds"  (p.  218),  reports  this  species  as  not  uncommon  during  the 
winter  in  St.  John's  and  Putnam  Counties,  Florida.  He  writes:  "They 
are  exactly  like  the  Red-tailed  Hawks  except  in  color,  and  their  call- 
note  is  the  same,  only  being  longer  drawn  out.  The  call  of  the  latter 
bird,  as  already  stated,  sounds  like  the  squealing  of  a  pig,  or  'kee-ee-e,' 
and  that  of  Harlan's  Hawk  like  'kee-ee-ee-e-e-ee' ." 

The  WESTERN  REDTAIL  (837b.  B.  b.  calurus)  has  been  recorded  from 
Illinois. 

Outram  Bangs  has  described  the  breeding  Red-tailed  Hawk  of  southern 
Florida,  and  probably  of  Cuba,  as  Buteo  borealis  umbrinus.  It  is  "darker  above 
than  Buteo  borealis,  the  throat  and  middle  of  the  belly  marked  with  broad, 
conspicuous  striping  and  banding  of  deep  chocolate-brown ;  tail-feathers  with 
dark  brown  markings  (the  remains  of  bands)  near  the  shafts."  Owing  to  the 
lack  of  material  the  A.  O.  U.  Committee  on  Classification  and  Nomenclature 
has  deferred  action  on  this  proposed  new  race. 

339.  Buteo  lineatus  lineatus  (GmeL).  (Fig.  50.)  RED-SHOULDERED 
HAWK.  Ads. — Upperparts  dark  grayish  fuscous-brown,  more  or  less  edged 
with  rufous,  ochraceous-buff,  and  whitish;  four  outer  primaries  "notched," 
all  barred  with  black  and  white;  lesser  wing-coverts  rufous,  forming  a  con- 
spicuous "shoulder"  patch;  tail  black  or  fuscous,  with  four  or  five  white 
cross-bars  and  a  white  tip;  throat  streaked  with  blackish;  rest  of  underparttij 
rufous  or  ochraceous-buff ,  everywhere  barred  with  white  or  whitish.  Im. — 
Upperparts  much  as  in  the  adult;  basal  part  of  the  primaries  mostly  ochra- 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES  297 

ceous-buff,  fading  to  whitish  on  the  inner  web,  with  broken  bars  of  fuscous; 
lesser  wing-coverts  conspicuously  margined  with  rufous  or  rufous-chestnut; 
tail  dark  grayish  brown,  indistinctly  barred  with  fuscous,  and  on  the  basal 
half  with  more  or  less  rufous,  the  inner  webs  of  the  feathers  with  sometimes 
white  bars;  underparts  white  or  whitish,  streaked  or  spotted  with  black  or 
blackish,  the  legs  sometimes  barred  with  rufous.  d"L.,  18*30;  W.,  12'50; 
T.,  8-00;  B.  from  N.,  '75.  9  L.,  20'35;  W.,  13'50;  T.,  9'00. 

Remarks. — Adults  of  this  species  may  always  be  known  by  the  rich  rufous 
lesser  wing-coverts.  Immature  birds  are  sometimes  confused  with  the  young 
of  the  Red-tailed  or  Broad-winged  Hawks.  From  the  former  they  may  be 
distinguished  by  their  small  size,  rufous  margins  of  the  lesser  wing-coverts 


Fia.  87.    Four-notched  primaries  of  Red-shouldered  Hawk.    (Reduced.) 

ochraceous-buff  markings  on  the  primaries,  and  the  continuously  streaked 
underparts;  from  the  latter  they  differ  in.  having  four  instead  of  three  outer 
primaries  "notched,"  in  being  larger,  and  in  having  ochraceous-buff  on  the 
primaries. 

Range. — E.  N.  A.  Breeds  from  Man.,  s.  Keewatin,  s.  Que.,  N.  S.,  and 
Prince  Edward  Is.  s.  nearly  to  the  Gulf  States  and  w.  to  edge  of  the  Great 
Plains;  winters  s.  to  the  Gulf  coast. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge, 
common,  Apl. -Nov.,  less  common  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen 
Ellyn,  P.  R.,  more  common  than  the  Red-tail;  chiefly  T.  V. 

Nest,  in  trees,  30-60  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  dull  white,  generally  more  or 
less  sprinkled,  spotted,  or  blotched  with  cinnamon-brown  or  chocolate, 
2'15  x  1-65.  Date,  Iredell  Co.,  N.  C.,  Mch.  26;  New  London,  Conn.,  Apl.  3; 
Cambridge,  Apl.  10. 

The  present  species  and  the  Red-tailed  Hawk  are  the  birds  to  which 
the  names  Chicken  Hawk  and  Hen  Hawk  are  most  frequently  misap- 
plied. Being  both  common  species  whose  habits  render  them  easily 
observed,  they  are  often  unjustly  made  to  suffer  for  the  sins  of  their 
bird-killing  relatives  of  the  genera  Accipiter  and  Astur. 

The  farmer  sees  a  Hawk  sailing  in  wide  circles  above  him,  uttering 
its  fierce,  screaming  cry  of  kee-you,  kee-you.  While  he  is  watching  it 
a  sly,  low-flying  Accipiter  slips  by  him  and  makes  a  sudden  dash  into 
the  poultry  yard.  The  farmer  does  not  discriminate;  a  Hawk  is  a 
Hawk,  and  shaking  his  fist  at  the  bird  in  the  air,  he  vows  vengeance 
at  the  first  opportunity. 

The  IJed-shouldered  Hawk  is  at  most  times  of  the  year  a  bird  of 
the  woods.  Particularly  does  it  like  low  woods  watered  with  small 
streams  from  which  it  can  obtain  its  favorite  food  of  frogs.  Its  note 
is  one  of  the  common  sounds  of  summer,  and  can  be  heard  when  the 
bird  is  almost  lost  to  sight  far  up  in  the  sky.  It  is  frequently  imitated 
by  the  Blue  Jay. 


298  HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 

"Of  220  stomachs  examined,  3  contained  poultry;  12,  other  birds; 
102,  mice;  40,  other  mammals;  20,  reptiles;  39,  batrachians;  92,  insects; 
16,  spiders;  7,  crawfish;  1,  earthworms;  2,  offal;  3,  fish;  and  14  were 
empty"  (Fisher). 

1894.   KENNARD,  F.  H.,  Auk,  XI,  197-210,  270.  (Biog.) 

339a.  B.  1.  alleni  Ridgw.  FLORIDA  RED-SHOULDERED  HAWK.  Adults 
of  this  species  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  those  of  B.I.  lineatus  by  their 
smaller  size,  grayish  white  head,  with  black  shaft  streaks  and  no  rufous,  the 
smaller  fuscous  tips  on  the  scapulars  and  interscapulars,  which  do  not  con- 
ceal the  ashy  gray  bases  of  the  feathers,  by  the  whitish  or  grayish  cheeks 
and  throat,  and  the  ochraceous-buff,  indistinctly  barred  underparts.  Im- 
mature birds  are  very  similar  to  those  of  B.  I.  lineatus,  and  can  be  distin- 
guished only  by  their  smaller  size  and  darker  color.  cfW.,  ll'OO;  T.,  7"50; 
B.,  1-20. 

Range. — S.  part  of  Lower  Austral  zone  and  S.  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States 
from  S.  C.  through  Tex.  into  Tamaulipas,  Mex. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Feb.  22. 

342.  Buteo  swainsoni  Bonap.    SWAINSON'S  HAWK.    Ad.  <?. — Upper- 
parts  fuscous-brown,  more  or  less  margined  with  rufous  or  buffy;  primaries 
unbarred,  three  outer  ones  "notched;"  tail  slightly  grayer  than  the  back, 
with  numerous  indistinct,  blackish  bars  showing  more  plainly  on  the  under 
surface;  breast  covered  by  a  large,  cinnamon-rufous  patch;  belly  white  or 
ochraceous-buff,  streaked,  spotted,  or  barred  with  blackish,  rufous,  or  buff. 
Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  larger,  the  breast  patch  of  the  same  color  as  the  back. 
c?  and  9  in  dark  or  melanistic    plumage.  —  Entire  plumage  fuscous,  the  under 
tail-  and  under  wing-coverts  and  the  tail  sometimes  spotted  or  barred.  Im. — 
Upperparts  fuscous-brown,  widely  margined  with  buffy  and  rufous;  base  of 
the  primaries  grayish,  and  sometimes  with  a  few  broken  bars;  tail  much  as  in 
the  ad.;   underparts  ochraceous-buff,  spotted  and  streaked   with   blackish. 
tfL.,  20'00;  W.,  15-00;  T.,  8'50;  B.  from  N.,  '75. 

Remarks. — Between  the  light  and  dark  phases  of  coloration  there  is  every 
degree  of  intergradation,  but  in  any  plumage  this  Hawk  may  be  distinguished 
from  our  other  species  by  having  only  three  outer  primaries  notched.  In  this 
respect  it  agrees  with  B.  platypterus,  from  which,  however,  it  differs  decidedly 
both  in  size  and  color. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  Fort  Yukon,  Alaska,  nw. 
Mackenzie,  and  Man.,  s.  to  Chile;  casual  in  Que.,  Ont.,  Maine,  and  Mass.; 
winters  from  S.  D.  southward.  SE.  Minn.,  S.  R.,  Apl.  26. 

Nest,  in  trees,  30-80  feet  up.  Eggs,  2-3,  varying  from  dull  bluish  white 
to  creamy  white,  sometimes  unmarked,  but  generally  more  or  less  spotted 
or  blotched  with  shades  of  cinnamon-brown,  2'30  x  1*72.  Date,  Tom  Green 
Co.,  Tex.,  Apl.  7;  Dry  Lake,  N.  D.,  May  12. 

Swainson's  Hawk  is  of  rare  occurrence  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Dr. 
Fisher  writes:  "By  preference  it  frequents  the  timber  in  the  vicinity 
of  streams,  though  often  it  is  found  far  out  on  the  prairie,  where  its 
only  perch  is  the  earth  mound  of  some  mammal,  or  some  other  slightly 
elevated  knoll." 

343.  Buteo  platypterus  platypterus  (Vieill.}.  BROAD-WINGED  HAWK. 
Ads. — Upperparts  dark  grayish  brown  or  fuscous,  more  or  less  margined 
with  buffy  and  rufous ;  three  outer  primaries  "notched"  and  without  ochraceous- 
buff  markings;  tail  fuscous,  with  two  bars  and  the  tip  grayish  white;  under- 
parts heavily  barred  with  brownish  ochraceous-buff.     Im. — Upperparts  like 
the  preceding;  tail  grayish  brown,  with  three  to  five  indistinct  black  bars  and 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES  299 

a  narrow  whitish  tip;  underparts  white  or  buffy  white,  streaked  and  spotted 
with  fuscous.  c?L.,  15*89;  W.,  10*68;  T.,  6*75;  B.  from  N.,  *70.  9  L.,  16*76; 
W.,  11*41;  T.,  7*09. 

Remarks. — Compared  with  the  other  members  of  this  genus,  the  three 
''notched"  primaries  and  small  size  are  the  principal  characters  of  this 
Hawk. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am. 
Breeds  from  cen.  Alberta, 
se.  Sask.,  n.  Ont.,  N.  B., 
and  Cape  Breton  Is.,  s. 
to  the  Gulf  coast  and 
cen.  Tex.,  mainly  e.  of 
the  Miss.;  winters  from 
the  Ohio  and  Delaware  FlQ  88  Three-notched  primaries  of  Broad-winged 
valleys  s.  to  Venezuela  Hawk.  (Reduced.) 

and  Peru. 

Washington,  uncommon  P.  R.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Mch. 
15-Oct.  23.  Cambridge,  uncommon  T.  V.  in  early  fall,  rare  in  spring  and 
summer;  Apl.  25-Sept.  30.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  not 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Oct.  4.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  11. 

Nest,  in  trees,  25-50  feet  up.  Eggs,  2-4,  dull  white  or  buffy  white,  spotted, 
blotched,  or  washed  with  ochraceous-buff  or  cinnamon-brown,  2*10  x  1*60. 
Date,  D.  C.,  Apl.  23;  Monroe  Co.,  Pa.,  May  10;  Lancaster,  N.  EL,  May  11; 
se.  Minn.,  May  29. 

"Of  all  our  Hawks,  this  species  seems  to  be  the  most  unsuspicious, 
often  allowing  a  person  to  approach  within  a  few  yards  of  it,  and,  when 
startled,  flies  but  a  short  distance  before  it  alights  again.  During  the 
early  summer  the  Broad-winged  Hawk  often  may  be  seen  sitting  for 
hours  on  the  dead  top  of  some  high  tree.  At  other  times  it  is  found 
on  the  smaller  trees  in  the  deep  woods,  along  streams,  or  on  the  ground, 
where  its  food  is  more  often  procured.  Although  sluggish  and  unusually 
heavy  in  its  flight,  it  is  capable  of  rapid  motion,  and  sometimes  soars 
high  in  the  air.  One  of  its  notes  resembles  quite  closely  that  of  the 
Wood  Pewee.  .  .  . 

"Of  65  stomachs  examined,  2  contained  small  birds;  15,  mice;  13, 
other  mammals;  11,  reptiles;  13,  batrachians;  30,  insects;  2,  earth- 
worms; 4,  crawfish;  and  7  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

344.  Buteo  brachyurus  Vieill.  SHORT-TAILED  HAWK.  Ads. — 
Upperparts  slaty  gray  or  fuscous  grayish  brown;  forehead  whitish;  tail 
barred  with  black  and  narrowly  tipped  with  white,  its  under  surface  grayish ; 
sides  of  the  breast  or  neck  with  some  rufous-brown  markings;  rest  of  the 
underparts  pure  white.  Im. — Similar,  but  upperparts  browner  and  margined 
with  cream-buff;  underparts  washed  with  cream-buff;  no  rufous-brown  on 
the  breast.  Dark  phase. — Fuscous-black  with  a  slight  metallic  luster  with, 
in  some  specimens,  more  or  less  concealed  white  spots  or  bars  more  evident 
below;  forehead  whitish;  tail  lighter  than  back,  barred  with  black,  its  under 
surface  and  the  under  surface  of  the  primaries  grayish.  L.,  17'00;  W.,  12*50; 
T.,  7*00;  Tar.,  2*35;  B.  from  N.,  '70. 

Range. — Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Brazil,  n.  to  e.  Mex.,  and  rarely  Fla. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  dull  white,  spotted  at  the  larger  end  with  small 
spots  and  blotches  of  reddish  brown  over  about  one-fourth  the  surface, 
2*16  x  1*61  (Pennock).  Date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  4.  (Ralph). 

A  rare  resident  in  Florida.  According  to  Mr.  C.  J.  Pennock,  who 
found  its  nest  at  St.  Marks  on  April  3,  its  call  somewhat  resembles 


300  HAWKS,  EAGLES   AND  KITES 

the  scream  of  the  Red-shouldered  Hawk,  but  is  finer  and  more,  pro- 
longed (Auk,  1890,  p.  56;  see  also  Scott,  Ibid.,  1889,  p.  243). 

The  MEXICAN  GOSHAWK  (846.  Asturina  plagiata)  is  a  tropical  species 
which  reaches  the  southwestern  border  of  the  United  States.  An  individual 
seen  by  Mr.  Robert  Ridgway  in  southern  Illinois,  August  19,  1871,  is  the  only 
known  instance  of  its  occurrence  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

347a.  Archibuteo  lagopus  sancti-johannis  (GmeL).  ROUGH-LEGGED 
HAWK.  Ad.,  light  phase. —  Upperparts  fuscous-brown,  margined  with 
whitish  and  ochraceous-buff;  inner  vanes  of  the  primaries  white  at  the 
base;  basal  half  of  the  tail  white  or  buffy,  end  with  two  or  three  grayish 
or  whitish  bars;  underparts  varying  from  white  to  ochraceous-buff,  streaked 
and  spotted  with  black,  these  marks  uniting  to  form  a  broken  band  across 
the  belly;  front  of  tarsi  entirely  feathered.  Im.,  normal  phase. — Similar  to 
the  ad.,  but  the  end  half  of  the  tail  without  bars  except  for  the  white  tip, 
the  underparts  more  heavily  marked  with  black,  the  belly  band  being  broad 
and  continuous.  Black  phase. — Plumage  more  or  less  entirely  black,  the 
primaries  and  tail  barred  with  whitish  arid  grayish.  L.,  22-00;  W.,  16*00; 
T.,  9'50. 

Remarks. — -Its  feathered  tarsi  and  heavily  marked  underparts  character- 
ize this  species. 

Range. — N.  A.  n.  of  Mex.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  zone  from  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  nw.  Alaska,  Arctic  coast,  and  11.  Ungava  s.  to  ceil.  B.  C.,  s.  Mack- 
enzie, s.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.;  winters  from  Ore.,  Colo.,  Minn.,  and  n.  bound- 
ary of  w.  U.  S.  s.  to  cen.  Calif.,  s.  N.  M.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  N.  C. 

Washington,  rare  and  irregular  W.  V.  Ossiiiing,  casual.  Cambridge, 
T.  V.,  not  uncommon,  Nov.-Dec.;  Mch.-Apl.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  W.  V., 
Nov.  20-Apl.  3.  Glen  Ellyn,  quite  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  12-Apl.  30.  SE. 
Minn.,  W.  V.,  Oct.  15-Mch. 

Nest,  on  rocky  ledges  or  in  trees.  Eggs,  2-5,  dull  white,  sometimes 
unmarked,  but  generally  more  or  less  spotted,  blotched,  or  scrawled  with 
cinnamon-brown  or  chocolate,  2*20  x  1'75.  Date,  Ft.  Chimo,  Lab.,  May  24. 

"The  Rough-leg  is  one  of  the  most  nocturnal  of  our  Hawks,  and 
may  be  seen  in  the  fading  twilight  watching  from  some  low  perch  or 
beating  with  measured,  noiseless  flight  over  its  hunting-ground.  It 
follows  two  very  different  methods  in  securing  its  food — one  by  sitting 
on  some  stub  or  low  tree  and  watching  the  ground  for  the  appearance 
of  its  prey,  as  the  Red-tail  does;  the  other  by  beating  back  and  forth 
just  above  the  tops  of  the  grass  or  bushes  and  dropping  upon  its  vic- 
tim, after  the  manner  of  the  Marsh  Hawk.  .  .  . 

"The  flight  of  the  Rough-leg  is  seldom  rapid  and  often  appears 
labored,  and  when  on  the  wing  this  Hawk  resembles  the  Osprey  more 
than  any  other  bird  of  prey.  .  .  . 

"Of  49  stomachs  examined,  40  contained  mice;  5,  other  mammals; 
1,  lizards;  1,  insects;  and  4  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

348.  Archibuteo  ferruginous  (Licht.).  FERRUGINOUS  ROUGH-LEG. 
Ad.,  light  phase. — Upperparts  mostly  rufous,  the  centers  of  the  feathers  fus- 
cous; tail  grayish  white,  margined  with  rufous;  legs  rufous,  barred  with 
black;  rest  of  underparts  white,  more  or  less  barred  with  rufous  on  the  sides 
and  belly;  tarsi  fully  feathered  in  front.  Im. — Upperparts  dark  grayish 
brown,  slightly  varied  with  ochraceous-buff;  tail  silvery  grayish  brown,  with- 
out bars,  the  base  white;  underparts  white,  lightly  spotted  and  streaked  with 
fuscous.  Dark  phase. — Dark  fuscous-brown,  more  or  less  varied  with  rufous; 
primaries  and  tail  as  in  the  ad.  L.,  23'00;  W.,  17'00;  T.,  10'50, 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 


301 


Remarks. — This  species  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  preceding  prin- 
cipally by  its  much  larger  bill  and  differently  colored  tail  and  underparts. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  Wash.,  sw.  Sask.,  and  s.  Man.,  to 
s.  Calif.,  Utah,  Colo.,  and  Kans.;  winters  from  Mont.,  to  L.  Calif,  and  n. 
Mex.,  and  casually  e.  to  Wise,  and  Ills. 

Nest,  in  trees  or  on  the  ground  in  rocky  places.  Eggs,  2-4,  "white,  or 
buffy  white,  usually  more  or  less  spotted,  blotched,  or  clouded  with  brown 
or  grayish  purple  (or  both),  2'42  x  1'88"  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Ft.  Totten,  N.  D., 
Apl.  12. 

This  bird  is  rarely  found  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Dr.  Fisher  remarks: 
"The  Squirrel  Hawk  is  preeminently  a  bird  of  the  prairie,  and,  unlike 
the  common  Rough-leg,  shows  little  partiality  to  the  vicinity  of  water, 
though  in  other  respects  it  closely  resembles  the  latter  bird  in  habits." 

34ft.  Aquila  chrysaetos  (Linn.).  GOLDEN  EAGLE.  Ads. — Back  of  the 
head  and  nape  pale,  buffy  ochraceous;  basal  two-thirds  of  the  tail  with 
broken  grayish  bars;  tarsus  white,  entirely  feathered;  rest  of  the  plumage 
fuscous-brown ;  quills  fuscous.  Im. — Similar,  but  base  of  the  tail  white ;  tarsus 
and  under  tail-coverts  ochraceous-buff.  <?  L.,  30'00-35"00;  Ex.,  78'00-84'00; 
W.,  23-00-24-70;  T.,  14-00-15'00;  Tar.,  3'65-3'80.  9  L.,  35'00-40'00;  Ex., 
84-00-90-00;  W.,  25'00-27'00;  T.,  15'00-16'00;  Tar.,  4'15-4'25  (Ridgw.^. 

Range. — N.  part  of  N.  Hemisphere.  In 
N.  A.  s.  to  middle  L.  Calif.,  cen.  Mex.,  w. 
Tex.,  S.  D.,  Man.,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Ont., 
N.  H.,  Maine,  and  N.  S.,  and  in  the  Alle- 
ghanies  to  sw.  N.  C. ;  less  common  e.  of 
the  Miss. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.  Qssining,  A.  V. 
Cambridge,  1  record.  N.  Ohio,  rare  W.  V. 
SE.  Minn.,  P.  R. 

Nest,  on  cliffs,  rocky  ledges,  or  in  trees. 
Eggs,  dull  white,  obscurely  or  distinctly 
blotched  or  speckled  with  shades  of  cinna- 
mon-brown, 2"93  x  2*34.  Date,  San  Benito 
Co.,  Calif.,  Feb.  19;  Gold  Hill,  Colo.,  Apl.  3. 

"It  seems  to  be  nowhere  a  common 
species  in  the  East,  but  it  is  much  more 
numerous  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  far  West.  It  is  confined  chiefly  to 
the  mountains  and  more  northern  lati- 
tudes, where  it  breeds.  It  is  able  to 
endure  intense  cold,  and  sometimes  re- 
mains far  north  in  winter.  In  fact,  its  movements  at  that  season 
are  more  in  the  form  of  wandering  for  food  than  regular  migration  to 
the  south. 

"The  food  consists  mainly  of  mammals  and  birds,  of  which  sper- 
mophiles,  rabbits,  fawns,  lambs,  turkeys,  grouse,  waterfowl,  and  other 
large  birds  form  the  principal  part,  though  offal  and  carrion  are  some- 
times taken.  ...  Of  6  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  feathers;  2, 
mammals;  2,  carrion;  and  1  was  empty"  (Fisher). 

In  view  of  the  ever-recurring  story  of  Golden  Eagles  bearing  away 
children,  it  is  well  to  say  that  Cameron  shows  that  six  pounds  is  about 
the  greatest  weight  a  Golden  Eagle  can  carry  while  on  the  wing. 


FIG.  89.    Foot  of  Golden  Eagle. 


302 


HAWKS,  EAGLES,  AND  KITES 


1905.  CAMERON,  E.  S.,  Auk,  XXII,  158-167;  XXV,  251-268  (biog.).— 
1909.  MACPHERSON,  H.  B.,  8vo,  1-45;  plls.  1-32  (Witherby,  London). 

351.  Haliseetus   albicilla    (Linn.).     GRAY    SEA   EAGLE.     Ads. — Tail 
white,  rest  of  plumage  varying  from  grayish  brown  to  fuscous.    Im. — "With 
plumage  largely  light  cinnamon-brown  or  isabella-color.    d"  L.,  31'00-34'00; 
W.,  23'00-26:00;  T.,  H'50-12'00"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N.  part  of  E.  Hemisphere,  breeding  from  Scotland,  n.  Europe, 
and  n.  Asia  to  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla;  in  migration  s.  to  Japan,  China, 
n.  India,  s.  Europe,  and  n.  Africa;  resident  in  Iceland  and  Greenland;  re- 
corded also  from  Cumberland  Sd. ;  casual  on  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

Nest,  on  cliffs  or  in  trees.  Eggs,  2-3,  dull  white,  "occasionally  with  small, 
faint  spots  of  light  brown"  (Davie),  3'00  x  2*35.  Date,  Crimea,  S.  Russia, 
Apl.  12.  (Thayer  Coll.) 

This  species  breeds  in  southern  Greenland. 

352.  Haliaeetus     leucocephalus     leucocephalus     (Linn.).       BALD 
EAGLE.    Ads. — Head,  neck,  and  tail  white,  rest  of  the  plumage  fuscous;  bill 
yellow;  tarsus  not  fully  feathered.    Im. — Fuscous,  more  or  less  varied  with 
white;  tail  fuscous,  more  or  less  mottled  with  white,  particularly  on  the 
inner  vanes  of  the  feathers;  bill  black.    <?  L.,  32*85;  Ex.,  84'10;  W.,  22'00; 

T.,  11-90;  B.,  2-48.  9  L.,  35'50;  Ex., 
89'00;  W.,  24-00;  T.,  12'25;  Weight, 
12  Ibs. 

Remarks. — At  any  age  the  Bald  Eagle 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  Golden 
Eagle  by  its  partly  feathered  tarsi. 

Range. — U.  S.  to  s.  L.  Calif,  and  n. 
Mex.,  breeding  in  suitable  locations 
throughout  its  range;  rare  and  local  in 
Calif,  and  in  the  arid  interior. 

Washington,  not  common  P.  R. 
Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  of 
irregular  occurrence  at  all  seasons.  N. 
Ohio,  tolerably  common  P.  R.  SE.  Minn., 
P.  R.,  becoming  rare. 

Nest,  generally  in  tall  trees,  sometimes 
on  cliffs.  Eggs,  2-3,  dull  white,  2'85  x 
2-20.  Date,  Brevard  Co.,  Fla.,  Nov.  25; 
Tampa,  Fla.,  Dec.  3;  coast  S.  C.,  Nov.  27, 
large  embryos;  Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb. 
11;  Stone  Is.,  Maine,  Apl.  21. 

Bald  Eagles  are  seldom  found  far 
from  the  water.  Here  they  may  be 
seen  soaring  overhead,  winging  their 
way  to  and  from  their  feeding-ground, 
or  occupying  some  favorite  perch,  gen- 
erally in  an  exposed  position.  They  subsist  principally  upon  fish.  As 
a  last  resort  they  sometimes  capture  these  themselves,  but  dead  fish 
cast  up  on  the  shore  are  eagerly  taken,  and  their  habit  of  robbing 
the  Fish  Hawk  of  his  well-earned  booty  is  too  well  known  to  be  com- 
mented upon.  In  some  localities,  particularly  in  the  South  during  the 
winter,  they  live  largely  upon  waterfowl  which  they  capture  themselves. 
The  voice  of  the  Bald  Eagle  has  a  weird,  human  quality.  Dr. 
Fisher  says:  "At  a  distance  the  note  of  the  Bald  Eagle  is  not  alto- 


FIG.  90.    Foot  of  Bald  Eagle. 


FALCONS,  CARACARAS,  ETC.  303 

gether  unpleasant,  resembling  somewhat  that  of  Sea  Gulls,  but  near- 
by it  is  grating  and  suggests  a  maniacal  laugh."  Dr.  William  L.  Ralph 
writes  in  Bendire's  'Life  Histories':  "The  cry  of  the  male  is  a  loud  and 
clear  cac-cac-cac,  quite  different  from  that  of  the  female — so  much  so 
that  I  could  always  recognize  the  sex  of  the  bird  by  it;  the  call  of  the 
latter  is  more  harsh  and  often  broken." 

The  conspicuous  white  head  and  tail  of  adults  of  this  species  render 
it  easy  of  identification  even  at  a  considerable  distance.  Young  birds 
too  closely  resemble  Golden  Eagles  to  be  distinguished  with  certainty, 
but  the  rarity  of  that  species  in  the  east  makes  it  probable  that  any 
Eagle  observed  is  a  Bald  Eagle. 

36.  FAMILY  FALCONID^E.    THE  FALCONS,  CARACARAS,  ETC. 

It  is  resemblance  in  structure  rather  than  in  habit  which  places  the 
members  of  the  genera  Falco  and  Polyborus  in  the  same  family.  In  the 
former,  predatory  bird-life  reaches  its  highest  development;  in  the  latter, 
we  have  birds  not  distantly  removed  from  Vultures  in  the  character  of 
their  food.  From  the  great  Arctic  Gyrfalcons,  nearly  two  feet  in  length, 
to  the  Indian  Pygmy  Falcon,  no  longer  than  a  Song  Sparrow,  the  Falcons 
are  keen  winged,  dashing,  fearless  hunters  among  birds.  They  have  not 
the  soaring  habits  of  the  Buteos,  from  which  they  may  be  distinguished 
by  their  more  pointed  wings  and  more  rapid  wing-stroke.  Their  nests 
are  less  bulky  than  those  of  our  buteonine  Hawks,  the  eggs  in  some 
species  being  laid  on  the  bare  rock  or  in  a  hollow  tree.  (For  Key  see 
antea  under  Buteonidce.) 

353.  Falco  islandus  Brunn.  WHITE  GYRFALCON.  Legs,  and  usually 
under  tail-coverts,  always  white,  unmarked.  Ads. — Head  white,  finely 
streaked  with  black;  scapulars,  interscapulars,  and  wing-coverts  white 
with  broad  bars  or  semi-lunes,  rarely  guttate  spots  of  slaty  fuscous;  tail 
sometimes  wholly  white,  usually  broadly  or  narrowly  barred  with  slaty 
fuscous;  underparts  white,  with  sometimes  a  few  small  grayish  spots  or 
streaks.  Im. — Similar,  but  upperparts  brownish  gray  with  white  margins 
and  broken  bars;  tail  barred  with  brownish  gray;  underparts  more  heavily, 
sometimes  uniformly  streaked.  L.,  22'00;  W.,  16'00;  T.,  lO'OO;  B.  from  N., 
•95. 

Remarks. — The  white,  unmarked  under  tail-coverts  and  prevailing  white 
color  will  distinguish  this  bird  from  any  form  or  phase  of  Falco  rusticolus. 

Binge. — Arctic  regions.  Resident  in  Greenland;  in  winter  casual  s. 
to  Ort.,  N.  S.,  and  Maine. 

Nest,  on  rocky  cliffs.  Eggs,  3-4,  varying  from  creamy  white,  spotted  or 
blotched  with  cinnamon-brown,  to  uniform  pale  reddish  brown,  spotted 
or  blotched  with  shades  of  the  same  color,  2'30  x  1*85.  Date,  Umanak, 
Greenland,  May  26  (Thayer  Coll.). 

"The  food  consists  of  waterfowl  and  other  birds — largely  of  vari- 
ous arctic  species  of  Grouse  which  are  captured  on  the  wing.  All  these 
northern  Falcons  were  formerly  esteemed  for  hawking,  as  they  still 
are  by  the  Mongol  races;  their  style  of  flight  is  magnificent — much 
swifter  than  that  of  the  Peregrine — and  both  are  deadly  'footers' 
(i.  e.,  tenacious  of  grip),  but  they  lack  spirit  and  dash"  (Saunders). 


304  FALCONS,  CARACARAS,  ETC. 

354.  Falco  rusticolus  rusticplus  (Linn.}.   GRAY  GYRFALCON.    Ads. — 
Head  streaked  with  buffy  or  whitish  and  fuscous,  in  about  equal  amounts; 
upperparts  grayish,  slaty  or  brownish  gray  barred  with  white  or  whitish; 
tail  barred  with  brownish  gray  and  white  in  about  equal  amounts;  below 
white  with  elongate  spots  from  chin  to  vent;  flank  plumes  barred,  under 
tail-coverts  barred  or  with  shaft-streaks.  Im. — Head  more  narrowly  streaked 
with  fuscous;  upperparts  browner  margined  with  whitish  and  with  more  or 
less  concealed  spots  or  broken  bars  of  whitish  or  buffy;  underparts  more 
heavily  streaked.   L.,  20'00;  W.,  15'50;  T.,  9'50;  B.  from  N.,  '90. 

Remarks. — In  any  plumage  the  various  races  of  rusticolus  are  to  be 
distinguished  from  islandus  by  their  barred,  streaked,  or  shaft-streaked 
under  tail-coverts.  The  distinctive  characters  of  our  three  races  of  rusticplus 
are  the  broadly-streaked  head  of  F.  r.  rusticolus,  the  barred  or  margined 
back  and  solid  or  comparatively  unstreaked  head  of  gyrfalco,  and  the  black 
back  and  almost  black  underparts  of  obsoletus^. 

Range. — Arctic  regions.  Breeds  in  Arctic  Am.  from  Alaska,  e.  to  s. 
Greenland;  in  winter  casual  s.  to  B.'C.,  Kans.,  Wise.,  Ont.,  and  Maine. 

Nest,  on  cliffs  or  in  trees.  Eggs,  3-4,  not  distinguishable  from  those 
of  the  preceding,  2'37  x  172.  Date,  Iceland,  Apl.  15  (Thayer  Coll.). 

35 la.  F.  r.  gyrfalco  (Linn.}.  GYRFALCON.  Similar  to  F.  r.  rusticolus 
but  darker;  ad.  less  distinctly  barred  above  and  with  the  head  fuscous, 
unstreaked.  Im. — Head  grayish  brown,  little  if  at  all  streaked  or  margined 
with  buffy;  back  grayish  brown,  almost  uniform,  or  but  slightly  margined 
or  spotted  with  buffy. 

Range. — Arctic  regions.  Breeds  in  Ellesmere  Land,  n.  Greenland,  and 
e.  to  Franz  Josef  Land;  in  winter  casual  s.  to  Minn.,  N.  Y.,  R.  L,  Mass., 
and  Maine. 

Nesting  date,  Ft.  Anderson,  Mack.,  May  9. 

354b.  F.  r.  obsoletus  (GmeL).  BLACK  GYRFALCON.  Head  fuscous, 
narrowly  margined  with  buffy,  rest  of  upperparts  uniform  slaty  fuscous, 
without  bars;  tail  the  same,  without  or  with  only  broken  bars;  underparts 
of  the  same  color  as  the  back ;  the  feathers  with  partly  concealed  buffy  spots 
or  margined  with  buffy. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Ungava;  s.  in  winter  to  N.  S.,  Que.,  Ont.,  and  Maine, 
and  casually  to  N.  Y.,  N.  H.,  Mass.,  and  R.  I. 

Nesting  date,  Ft.  Chimo,  Lab.,  May  22. 

355.  Falco    mexicanus    Schleg.     PRAIRIE    FALCON.      Ads.  —  Above, 
grayish  brown;  primaries  and  inner  webs  of  all  but  the  middle  tail-feathers 
with  numerous  buffy  bars  or  spots;  below,  white,  streaked  and  spotted  with 
dark  grayish  brown.    Im. — Similar,  but  with  the  upperparts  margined  with 
ochraceous-buff  or. buffy.    <?  L.,  17'00;  W.,  12'20;  T.,  7'00. 

Range. — Transition  and  Sonoran  zones  from  e.  border  of  the  Great 
Plains  and  from  s.  B.  C.  and  se.  Sask.  to  s.  L.  Calif.,  and  s.  Mex.;  casual  e. 
to  Minn,  and  Ills. 

Nest,  on  cliffs,  sometimes  in  hollow  trees.  Eggs,  2-5,  "creamy  white,  vin- 
aceous-white,  or  pale  vinaceous-buffy,  sprinkled,  speckled,  or  irregularly 
spotted  with  madder-brown,  2*06  x  1*60"  (Ridgw.).  Date,  Gilmer,  Wyo., 
Mch.  25. 

"The  Prairie  Falcon,  as  the  names  implies,  is  a  typical  plains  bird, 
and  inhabits  the  dry  interior.  .  .  . 

"The  flight  of  this  Hawk  is  swift  and  graceful,  though  in  most 
cases  it  is  carried  on  at  no  great  distance  from  the  ground.  It  is  not 
a  shy  bird,  except  in  sections  where  it  has  been  persecuted  and  has 
learned  that  man  is  its  worst  enemy'7  (Fisher). 


FALCONS,  CARACARAS,  ETC.  305 

356.  Falco   peregrinus    ana  turn    (Bonap.).     DUCK   HAWK.     Ads. — 
Upperparts  dark  bluish  slate-color;  primaries  barred  with  ochraceous;  tail 
indistinctly  barred  with  blackish  and  tipped  with  white;  underparts  cream- 
buff,  barred  and  spotted  with  black,  except  on  the  breast.    Im. — Upperparts 
fuscous,  more  or  less  margined  with  ochraceous  or  rufous ;  region  below  the 
eye  black;  ear-coverts  buffy;  wings  as  in  the  ad.;  upper  surface  of  the  tail 
barred  with  grayish,  under  surface  barred  with  ochraceous-buff;  uriderparts 
cream-buff  or  ochraceous-buff,  streaked,  spotted  or  barred  with  black,    d"  L., 
16-00;  W.,  12-25;  T.,  6'50;  B.  from  N.,  '68.    9  L.,  19'00;  W.,  14'00;  T.,  7;50. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  locally  (except  in  nw.  Coast  Region) 
from  Norton  Sound,  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  Boothia  Peninsula,  and  w.  cen. 
Greenland  s.  to  cen.  L.  Calif.,  Ariz.,  sw.  Tex.,  Kans.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  Pa.,  and 
Conn,  (in  mountains  to  S.  C.);  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Colo.,  and  N.  J.  (occas- 
ionally further  n.)  to  the  West  Indies  and  Panama;  occurs  also  in  s.  S.^A. 

Washington,  rare  and  irregular  W.  V.  Ossining,  casual.  Cambridge, 
rare  T.  V.,  casual  in  winter.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  4. 

Nest,  on  rocky  cliffs  and  in  the  hollow  limbs  of  tall  trees.  Eggs,  3-4, 
creamy  white,  heavily  marked  with  cinnamon-brown,  to  pale  reddish  brown, 
more  or  less  marked  with  shades  of  the  same  color,  2*05  x  1*68.  Date, 
Wyoming  Co.,  Pa.,  Apl.  18,  inc.  adv.;  Mt.  Tom,  Mass.,  Apl.  23. 

This  species  is  the  "Noble  Peregrine"  of  falconry.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  imagine  a  bird  more  highly  endowed  with  qualities  which 
make  the  ideal  bird  of  prey.  Its  strength  of  wing  and  talon  is  equaled 
by  its  courage.  Few  birds  fly  more  swiftly  than  the  Duck  Hawk.  Even 
Teal — those  winged  bullets — can  not  escape  it.  No  bird  is  more  daring. 
I  have  had  Duck  Hawks  dart  down  to  rob  me  of  wounded  Snipe  lying 
almost  at  my  feet,  nor  did  my  ineffective  shots  prevent  them  from 
returning.  Duck  Hawks  are  generally  found  near  water,  where  they 
prey  largely  on  water  birds. 

"Of  20  stomachs  examined,  7  contained  poultry  or  game  birds;  9, 
other  birds;  1,  mice;  2,  insects;  and  4  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

The  PEREGRINE  FALCON,  or  OLD  WORLD  DUCK  HAWK  (856.  Falco 
peregrinus  peregrinus)  is  of  casual  occurrence  in  Greenland. 

357.  Falco  columbarius  columbarius  (Linn.).   PIGEON  HAWK.   Ads. 
— Upperparts  slaty  blue,  a  broken  buffy  or  rusty  collar  on  the  neck;  pri- 
maries barred  with  white ;  tail  with  three  or  four  distinct  grayish  white  bars 
and  a  white  tip;  underparts  varying  from  cream-buff  to  deep  ochraceous, 
streaked  with  blackish,   except  on  the  throat.     Im. — Upperparts  fuscous 
or  brownish  fuscous,  a  broken  buffy  collar  on  the  nape;  primaries  barred 
with  ochraceous ;  tail  with  three  or  four  incomplete  buffy  bars  and  a  whitish 
tip;  underparts  much  as  in  the  ad.    L.,  IO'OO-13'OO;  W.,  8'00;  T.,  5'50;  B. 
from  N.,  '45. 

Remarks. — This  little  Falcon  bears  some  resemblance  to  a  Duck  Hawk, 
but  is  much  smaller. 

Range. — N.  A.  to  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska  and  nw.  Mackenzie  s. 
in  the  mountains  to  Calif,  and  s.  Ore.,  and  from  cen.  Keewatin,  n.  Ungava, 
and  N.  F.  s.  to  n.  Mich.,  cen.  Ont.,  and  Maine;  winters  from  Calif,  and  the 
Gulf  States  (casually  further  n.  )  s.  to  Venezuela. 

Washington,  not  uncommon  T.  V.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V., 
Apl.  1-May  11;  Aug.  10-Oct.  15.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  25-May 
5;  Sept.  25-Oct.  20;  occasional  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  rare  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn, 
regular  but  rare  T.  V.,  Apl.  26-May  5;  Sept.  10-Oct.  16.  SE.  Minn.,  Apl. 
13. 

Nest,  in  trees,  in  hollow  limbs,  or  on  cl'ffs.  Eggs,  4—5  creamy  white, 
more  or  less  heavily  marked  with  reddish  brown  or  chocolate,  to  reddish 


306  FALCONS,  CARACARAS,  ETC. 

brown  marked  with  shades  of  the  same  color,  1*65  x  1*20.  Date,  Bingham 
Co.,  Idaho,  May  13;  Lab.,  June  2. 

"This  Falcon,  with  the  exception  possibly  of  the  Broad-winged 
Hawk,  is  the  least  shy  of  all  our  diurnal  birds  of  prey,  and  often  may  be 
approached  within  a  few  rods.  It  frequents  the  more  open  country 
and  edges  of  woods,  and  is  common  along  the  shores  of  large  bodies  of 
water.  .  .  .  The  flight  is  very  rapid  and  resembles  that  of  the  Wild 
Pigeon  quite  closely;  nor  does  the  similarity  end  here,  for  while  sitting 
on  a  tree  the  general  poise  is  that  of  a  Pigeon  in  repose,  and  specimens 
have  been  mistaken  and  shot  for  the  latter  bird.  .  .  . 

"Of  56  stomachs  examined,  2  contained  poultry;  41,  small  birds; 
2,  mice;  16,  insects;  and  5  were  empty "  (Fisher). 

The  MERLIN  (358.1.  Falco  asalori)  and  the  KESTREL  (859.1.  Falco 
tinnunculus] ,  both  Old  World  species,  have  each  been  recorded  once  from 
Greenland. 

360.  Falco  sparverius  sparverius  Linn.    SPARROW  HAWK.    Ad.  &. — 

Back  rufous,  more  or  less  barred  with  black;  tail  rufous,  a  black  band  near 
its  end,  the  tip  white;  head  slaty  blue,  with  generally  a  rufous  spot  on  the 
crown;  wing-coverts  slaty  blue,  primaries  barred  with  white;  a  black  mark 
before  and  behind  the  white  ear-coverts ;  underparts  varying  from  cream-buff 
to  ochracepus-buff;  belly  and  sides  spotted  with  black.  Ad.  9. — Back, 
tail,  and  wing-coverts  rufous,  barred  with  black;  head  as  in  the  male;  under- 
parts more  or  less  heavily  streaked  with  dark  ochraceous-buff.  Im. — Closely 
resemble  the  adults.  L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  7'30;  T.,  4'80;  B.  from  N.,  '45. 

Range. — N.  A.  e.  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  Breeds  from  the  Upper  Yukon,  nw. 
Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  Tex.  and  the  e.  Gulf  States  (except 
Fla.);  winters  from  Kans.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  and  Mass.  s.  through  e.  Mex.  to 
Costa  Rica. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  rare  S.  R.  Ossining,  rather  rare  P.  R. 
Cambridge,  P.  R.,  common  in  summer,  rare  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common 
P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  rather  rare  S.  R.,  Mch.  10-Oct.  26. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  frequently  in  a  Woodpecker's  deserted  nest. 
Eggs,  3-7,  creamy  white  to  rufous,  generally  finely  and  evenly  marked  with 
shades  of  the  ground  color,  1*40  x  1*12.  Date,  Nazareth,  Pa.,  Apl.  9;  Cam- 
bridge, May  5. 

An  old  stub  or  branchless  trunk  of  a  dead  tree  standing  well  out 
in  a  field  is  the  kind  of  perch  the  Sparrow  Hawk  most  frequently 
chooses.  From  this  lookout,  like  a  Loggerhead  Shrike,  he  awaits  the 
appearance  of  game  below.  Generally  it  is  a  grasshopper  which  falls 
his  victim.  When  he  detects  one,  he  flies  directly  over  it,  and  poises 
on  hovering  wings  until  the  right  opportunity  offers,  when  he  drops 
lightly  downward,  clutches  his  prey  in  his  talons,  and  then  returns  to 
his  perch  to  devour  it  at  leisure. 

The  Sparrow  Hawk's  call  is  a  rather  high,  quickly  repeated  killy- 
killy-killy-killy,  which  in  some  sections  gives  it  the  name  of  "Killy 
Hawk/' 

"Of  320  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  a  game  bird;  53,  other 
birds;  89,  mice;  12,  other  mammals;  12,  reptiles  or  batrachians;  215 
insects;  29,  spiders;  and  29  were  empty"  (Fisher). 


OSPREYS  307 

360c.  P.  s.  paulus  (Howe).  FLORIDA  SPARROW  HAWK.  Similar  to 
F.  s.  sparverius  but  "rufous  of  upperparts  very  dark,  particularly  on  the 
rectrices.  Tail  and  wings  short.  Bill  large  and  heavy."  (Howe,  Cont.  to  N. 
A.  On.,  I,  1902,  28.) 

Range. — Florida  Peninsula. 

Nesting  date,  Ft.  Thompson,  Fla.,  Apl.  1. 

The  CUBAN  SPARROW  HAWK  (86 1.  Falco  sparveroides)  is  of  accidental 
occurrence  in  the  Florida  Keys.  It  has  two  color  phases;  in  one,  the  under- 
parts,  including  the  under  wing-coverts,  are  white;  in  the  other,  these  parts 
are  rufous. 

362.  Polyborus  cheriway  (Jacq.).  AUDUBON'S  CARACARA.  Ads. — 
Face  bare;  crown,  lower  back,  wings,  and  belly  black;  throat  buffy;  nape, 
interscapulars,  and  breast  barred  with  black  and  buffy;  tail  white,  barred 
and  tipped  with  black.  Im. — Similar,  but  browner,  and  with  few  or  no  bars 
on  the  interscapulars  and  breast.  L.,  22*00;  W.,  16*00;  B.  from  N.,  1*25. 

Range. — N.  L.  Calif.,  Ariz.,  Tex.,  and  s.  cen.  Fla.  s.  to  Guiana  and 
Ecuador;  accidental  in  Ont. 

Nest,  in  a  cabbage  palmetto  or  on  the  tops  of  dense  bushes.  Eggs,  2-3, 
varying  from  cream-buff  to  rufous,  heavily  marked  with  shades  of  reddish 
brown  and  chocolate,  2*35  x  1*85.  Date,  Lake  Kissimmee,  Fla.,  Mch.  19. 

Caracaras  frequently  associate  with  Vultures  and  feed  on  carrion, 
but  they  also  capture  their  own  food.  This  consists  largely  of  frogs, 
lizards,  and  small  snakes,  which  the  birds  find  while  walking  about 
on  the  ground  in  search  of  them.  Their  flight  is  strong,  rapid,  and 
direct,  and  bears  no  resemblance  to  that  of  a  Vulture. 

37.  FAMILY  PANDIONID^E.  OSPREYS.   (Fig.  20.) 

The  Fish  Hawk  or  Osprey  has  occasioned  systematists  no  little 
difficulty,  and  it  is  variously  placed  in  its  own  subfamily,  family,  or 
even  suborder.  There  is  virtually  but  a  single  species  which  ranges 
throughout  the  world,  presenting  in  this  wide  area  only  sufficient  varia- 
tion on  which  to  base  the  three  or  four  currently  recognized  forms. 
Unlike  most  Raptorial  birds,  Ospreys  sometimes  nest  in  close  proximity 
to  one  another,  drawn  together  not  by  sociability  of  temperament, 
but  by  community  of  interests.  On  Gardiner's  Island,  L.  I.,  there  are 
about  two  hundred  Osprey  nests,  the  protection  of  an  insular  home  and 
an  abundant  food  supply  being  the  principal  factors  in  the  development 
of  this  "colony." 

The  firm,  dense  plumage,  large  claws,  the  spicules  which  thickly 
beset  the  grasping  surface  of  the  toes,  and  the  reversible  outer  toe 
are  all  distinctive  characters  and  the  evident  outcome  of  the  Osprey's 
specialized  feeding  habits. 

364.  Pandion  haliaetus  carolinensis  (GmeL).  OSPREY.  (Fig.  20.) 
Ad.  d". — Upperparts  fuscous,  the  head  and  nape  varied  with  white;  tail  with 
six  to  eight  obscure  bands,  more  distinct  on  the  inner  web;  underparts 
white,  breast  sometimes  slightly  spotted  with  grayish  brown.  Ad.  9 . — Simi- 
lar, but  the  breast  always  spotted  with  grayish  brown.  L.,  23*10;  W.,  18*25; 
T  .  3*40. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  nw.  Mackenzie,  cen. 
22 


308  OSPREYS:  OWLS 

Keewatin,  s.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  L.  Calif.,  w.  Mex.,  and  the  Gulf  coast; 
winters  from  the  s.  U.  S.  through  L.  Calif,  and  Mex.  to  the  West  Indies  and 
Cen.  Am.;  occurs  also  in  S.  A.  s.  to  Peru  and  Paraguay. 

Washington,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Mch.  19-Nov.  30.  Ossining,  common 
T.  V.,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl.  3-May  26;  Sept.  29-Oct.  20.  Cambridge,  rather 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.-May;  Sept.-Oct.  N.  Ohio,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Oct. 
Glen  Ellyn,  two  records,  May  and  Sept. 

Nest,  generally  in  a  tree,  20-50  feet  up,  sometimes  on  rocks,  rarely  on 
the  ground.  Eggs,  2-4,  extremely  variable,  sometimes  dull  white,  unmarked, 
sometimes  almost  solid  chocolate,  but  generally  buffy  white,  heavily  marked 
with  chocolate,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  2*45  x  1*80.  Date,  Bull's  Mt.,  Md., 
Apl.  20;  Shelter  Is.,  N.  Y.,  May  3;  Carver's  Harbor,  Maine,  May  8. 

This  species  lives  in  colonies,  and  also  in  pairs,  along  our  coasts, 
returning  year  after  year  to  the  same  nesting-ground.  Its  food  consists 
solely  of  fish,  which,  as  a  rule,  it  captures  alive.  Winging  its  way  slowly 
over  the  water,  it  keeps  a  keen  watch  for  fish  which  may  appear  near 
the  surface.  When  one  is  observed,  it  pauses,  hovers  a  moment,  and 
then  closing  its  wings  descends  with  a  speed  and  directness  of  aim  that 
generally  insure  success.  It  strikes  the  water  with  great  force,  making  a 
loud  splash,  and  frequently  disappears  for  a  moment  before  rising  with 
its  prey  grasped  in  its  powerful  talons.  As  a  rule,  it  carries  its  food  to 
some  favorite  perch,  there  to  devour  it. 

The  alarm-note  of  the  -Fish  Hawk  is  a  high,  rapidly  repeated,  com- 
plaining whistle,  which  is  sometimes  varied  and  prolonged  to  the  sem- 
blance of  a  song. 

1892.  ALLEN,  C.  S.,  Auk,  IX,  313-321  (on  Plum  Is.).— 1908.  CHAP- 
MAN*, F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  47-59  (Gardiner's  Is.). 

38.  FAMILY  ALUCONID^E.  BARN  OWLS.   (Fig.  47.) 

The  Barn  Owls,  numbering  some  twenty-five  species  and  subspecies, 
are  found  nearly  throughout  the  temperate  and  tropical  regions.  They 
differ  from  other  Owls  in  structure,  but  share  with  them  the  character- 
istic habits  of  the  Strigidce,  the  other  of  the  two  Owl  families. 

365.  Aluco  pratincola  (Bonap.).  BARN  OWL.  (Fig.  47.)  Ads. — 
Upperparts  mixed  with  gray  and  ochraceous-buff,  finely  speckled  with  black 
and  white;  tail  varying  from  white  to  ochraceous-buff,  generally  mottled 
with  black,  and  sometimes  with  three  or  four  narrow  black  bars ;  underparts 
and  facial  disk  varying  from  pure  white  to  deep  ochraceous-buff,  the  former 
generally  with  numerous  small,  black,  round  spots,  the  facial  disk  narrowly 
margined  by  ochraceous-buff  or  rufous;  eyes  black.  L.,  18*00;  W.,  13*25; 
T.,  5*50;  B.,  1'30. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Upper  and  Lower  Austral  zones  from  n. 
Sacramento  Valley,  Calif.,  Colo.,  Nebr.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  w.  N.  Y.,  s.  to 
the  Gulf  States  and  s.  Mex.,  and  casually  to  Ore.,  Minn.,  Mich.,  Ont.,  Vt., 
and  Mass. 

Washington,  not  rare  P.  ±1.    Ossining,  A.  V. 

Nest,  in  a  tower  or  steeple,  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  bank.  Eggs,  white,  5-9, 
1-72  x  1'30.  Date,  D.  C.,  Apl.  16;  Delaware  Co.,  Pa.,  Apl.  24. 

The  Barn  Owl  conceals  itself  so  well  during  the  day  that,  in  my 
experience,  it  is  a  difficult  bird  to  observe,  even  in  localities  where  it  is 


PLATE  XVIII 


1 


Long-eared  Owl. 
Barn  Owl. 
Saw-whet  Owl 


HEADS  OF  OWLS 
Hawk  Owl. 
Great  Horned  Owl. 
Snowy  Owl. 
Screech  Owl. 


Short-eared  Owl. 
Barred  Owl. 
Richardson's  Owl 


OWLS  309 

common.  For  this  reason  the  capture  of  one  of  these  odd-visaged  birds 
is  frequently  the  cause  of  much  excitement  over  the  supposed  discovery 
of  an  animal  entirely  new  to  science,  and  which,  by  the  local  press,  is 
generally  considered  half  bird,  half  monkey! 

The  only  notes  I  have  ever  heard  from  the  Barn  Owl  are  a  sudden 
wild,  startling  scream,  a  high,  rapidly  repeated  cr-r-ree,  cr-r-ree,  cr-r-ree, 
and,  in  captive  birds,  a  hissing  sound;  but  Bendire  mentions  "a  feeble, 
querulous  note  like  qudek-qudek,  or  dek-dek,  sounding  somewhat  like 
the  call  of  the  Night  Hawk  (Chordeiles  virginianus) ,  frequently  repeated, 
only  not  so  loud." 

"Of  29  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  poultry;  3,  other  birds; 
17,  mice;  17,  other  mammals;  4,  insects;  and  7  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

39.  FAMILY  STRIGID^.    HORNED  OWLS,  HOOT  OWLS,  ETC.    (Fig.  48.) 

Owls  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  About  two  hundred  and 
fifty  species  are  known,  of  which  nineteen  inhabit  North  America. 
Many  species  respond  readily  to  the  influences  of  their  environment 
and  hence  appear  in  a  number  of  racial  or  subspecific  forms.  Of  the 
Screech  Owl,  for  example,  there  are  nine  North  American  races,  and  of 
the  Horned  Owls,  eight.  With  few  exceptions,  Owls  are  woodland  birds, 
but  some  species  live  in  grassy  marshes  or  dry  plains,  while  others  make 
their  home  in  towers,  steeples,  or  outbuildings.  Owls  are  nocturnal 
birds  of  prey,  and  for  this  reason  feed  more  largely  on  small  mammals — 
most  of  which  are  nocturnal — than  do  the  diurnal  birds  of  prey.  They 
are  therefore  of  even  greater  value  to  the  agriculturist  than  Hawks. 
Their  prey  is  captured  with  their  talons,  and,  unless  too  large,  is  swal- 
lowed entire.  The  bones  and  hair  are  afterward  ejected  at  the  mouth 
in  matted  pellets. 

Owls'  eyes  are  so  fixed  in  their  sockets  that  they  can  not  look  from 
one  point  to  another  by  simply  "rolling"  the  eyeball,  but  are  obliged 
to  turn  their  head.  The  weird,  almost  human,  voices  of  Owls  add  not 
a  little  to  the  superstitious  fear  with  which  they  are  frequently  regarded. 
The  eggs  of  Owls  are  uniformly  white,  unmarked.  The  young  are  thickly 
covered  with  white  down. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  Wing  over  lO'OO. 

A.  Belly  without  bars,  striped  longitudinally. 

a.  Upperparts  with  cross-bars. 

a1.  Toes  feathered 368.  BARRED   OWL. 

a2.  Toes  nearly  bare 368a.  FLORIDA  BARRED  OWL. 

b.  Upperparts  striped  longitudinally    .     .     .     367.  SHORT-EARED  OWL. 

B.  Belly  with  cross-bars. 

a.  With  conspicuous  'horns'  or  'ears.' 

a1.  Wing  over  13'00     .     .     .     375.  GREAT  HORNED  OWL  and  races. 
a2.  Wing  under  13'00 366.  LONG-EARED  OWL. 

b.  Without  'horns'  or  'ears.' 

ft1.  Plumage  white,  more  or  less  barred  with  black    376.   SNOWY  OWL. 
b2.  Plumage  fuscous,  mottled  and  barred  with  whitish. 

370.  GREAT  GRAY  OWL. 


310  OWLS 

II.  Wing  under  lO'OO. 

A.  Toes  heavily  feathered. 

a.  Wing  more  than  6"00. 

a1.  Tail  more  than  6*00 377a.  HAWK  OWL. 

a2.  Tail  less  than  6'00 371.  RICHARDSON'S  OWL. 

b.  Wing  less  than  6'00 372.  SAW-WHET  OWL. 

B.  Toes  thinly,  if  at  all  feathered. 

a.  Tarsi  heavily  feathered;  with  conspicuous  'horns.' 

373.  SCREECH  OWL.     373a.  FLORIDA  SCREECH  OWL. 

b.  Tarsi  partly  bare;  no  'horns'  .     .     378a.  FLORIDA  BURROWING  OWL. 

366.  Asio    wilsonianus    (Less.).      LONG -EARED    OWL.       Ads. —  Ear- 
tufts  conspicuous,  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  black  bordered  by  white  and 
buffy;  upperparts   fuscous-brown  mottled  with  white,   the    bases    of    the 
feathers  ochraceous-buff;  tail  with  six  to  eight  fuscous  cross-bars;  facial  disk 
buffy  bordered  by  black;  underparts  mixed  white  and  ochraceous-buff,  the 
breast  broadly  streaked,  the  sides  and  belly  irregularly  barred  with  fuscous; 
eyes  yellow.   L.,  14*80;  W.,  11'90;  T.,  6'00;  B.,  1'06. 

Range. — Temperate  N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  s. 
Keewatin,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  n.  Tex.,  Ark.,  and  Va.;  winters 
from  s.  Canada  to  Ga.,  La.,  and  cen.  Mex. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  rare 
P.  R.,  but  sometimes  common  in  fall  and  winter.  N.  Ohio,  uncommon  P.  R. 
Glen  Ellyn,  rare,  fall  records  only,  Nov.  7-Dec.  14. 

Nest,  generally  in  an  old  Crow's,  Hawk's,  or  Squirrel's  nest.  Eggs,  white, 
3-6,  1'65  x  1*30.  Date,  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  Mch.  31;  Cambridge,  Apl.  1: 
se.  Minn.,  Apl.  16. 

"This  species,  like  the  Screech  Owl,  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and 
differs  from  the  Short-eared  Owl  in  never  hunting  during  the  day- 
time. It  usually  spends  the  day  in  some  evergreen  woods,  thick  wil- 
low copse,  or  alder  swamp,  although  rarely  it  may  be  found  in  open 
places.  .  .  . 

"The  bird  is  not  wild,  and  will  allow  itself  to  be  closely  approached. 
When  conscious  that  its  presence  is  recognized,  it  sits  upright,  draws 
the  feathers  close  to  the  body,  and  erects  the  ear-tufts,  resembling  in 
appearance  a  piece  of  weather-beaten  bark  more  than  a  bird.  .  .  . 

"Like  the  other  Owls,  its  flight  is  slow  and  wavering,  but  in  com- 
mon with  them  it  is  buoyant  and  devoid  of  any  appearance  of  heavi- 
ness. The  note  of  this  Owl  is  said  by  some  to  resemble  the  noise  made 
by  kittens,  while  others  state  it  is  like  the  barking  of  small  dogs. 

"Of  107  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  a  game  bird;  15,  other 
birds;  84,  mice;  5,  other  mammals;  1,  insects;  and  15  were  empty" 
(Fisher). 

367.  Asio    flammeus   (Pont.).    SHORT-EARED    OWL.    Ad.  & — Ear-tufts 
very  short,  difficult  to  distinguish  in  a  dried  skin;  upperparts  fuscous,  the 
feathers  margined  with  cream-buff  or  ochraceous-buff,   not  mottled  with 
white;  tail  with  ochraceous-buff  and  fuscous  bands  of  about  equal  width; 
underparts  whitish,  the  breast  broadly  and  the  belly  more  finely  streaked 
with  fuscous;  eyes  yellow.   Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  underparts  rich  ochraceous- 
buff.    L.,  15'50;  W.,  12'7o;  T.,  6'05;  B.,  1'20. 

Range. — Nearly  cosmopolitan.  In.  N.  A.  breeds  irregularly  and  locally 
from  Arctic  zones  s.  to  Calif.,  Colo.,  s.  Kans.,  Mo.,  n.  Ind.,  and  Mass.; 
winters  from  Calif.,  Wyo.,  Minn.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  and  Mass.,  s.  to  La.,  Cuba, 
and  Guatemala;  common  in  Hawaii. 


OWLS  311 

Washington,  common  W.  V.  Ossining,  casual.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  Mch. 
15-Apl.  15,  rare;  Oct. -Nov.,  uncommon.  N.  Ohio,  uncommon  P.  R.  Glen 
Ellyn,  rare,  Dec.  11-May  15.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  in  grassy  marshes.  Eggs,  white,  4-7,  1'60  x  1'25. 
Date,  St.  Clair  Flats,  Mich.,  Apl.  20. 

This  species  might  well  be  named  Marsh  Owl,  for,  unlike  most  of 
our  Owls,  it  does  not  frequent  the  woods,  but  lives  in  grassy  marshes. 
It  is  not  shy  and  does  not  take  wing  until  almost  stepped  upon,  when 
it  arises  noiselessly  and  flies  low  over  the  marsh.  Sometimes  it  alights 
on  a  knoll  or  slight  elevation,  and  watches  the  intruder  in  the  intent, 
half-human  manner  of  Owls. 

During  the  migrations  and  in  the  winter  this  bird  is  occasionally 
found  in  flocks  or  colonies  containing  one  or  two  hundred  individuals. 

"Of  101  stomachs  examined,  11  contained  small  birds;  77,  mice; 
7,  other  mammals;  7,  insects;  and  14  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

368.  Strix  varia  varia  Barton.  BARRED  OWL.  (Fig.  48.)  Ads. — No 
ear-tufts;  upperparts  grayish  brown,  each  feather  with  two  or  three  white 
or  buffy  white  bars ;  tail  with  six  to  eight  similar  bars ;  facial  disk  gray,  finely 
barred  or  mottled  with  fuscous;  underparts  white,  more  or  less  tinged  with 
buffy,  the  breast  barred,  the  sides  and  belly  broadly  streaked  with  fuscous; 
bill  yellow;  legs  and  feet  feathered  to  or  near  the  bases  of  the  nails;  eyes 
brownish  black.  L.,  20'00;  W.,  13'50;  T.,  9'50;  B.,  1'50. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  Keewatin,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to 
e.  Kans.  and  Ga.,  and  w.  to  e.  Wyo.,  and  e.  Colo. 

Washington,  not  common,  rare  P.  R.  Ossining,  rare  P.  R.  Cambridge, 
P.  R.,  sometimes  common  in  Nov.  and  Dec.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen 
Ellyn,  rare  and  local  P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  P.  R. 

Nest,  in  a  hollow  tree;  sometimes  in  an  old  Crow's  or  Hawk's  nest.  Eggs, 
white,  2-4,  2'00  x  1'65.  Date,  New  London,  Conn.,  Mch.  22;  Black  Hawk 
Co.,  Iowa,  Mch.  1;  se.  Minn.,  Mch.  7. 

The  deep-toned,  questioning  voice,  the  absence  of  "horns,"  and  the 
dark  brown,  nearly  black  eyes,  combine  to  make  Barred  Owls  appear 
among  the  most  human  of  these  strangely  human  birds.  They  inhabit 
large  tracts  of  woodland,  and  are  generally  resident  in  certain  localities. 
Their  notes  are  uttered  more  or  less  throughout  the  year,  but  are  more 
frequently  heard  during  the  nesting  season.  As  a  rule  they  call  only 
during  the  first  part  of  the  night  and  again  before  sunrise,  but  on 
moonlight  nights  they  call  throughout  the  night,  and  occasionally 
they  may  be  heard  during  the  day.  They  readily  respond  to  an  imi- 
tation of  their  cries,  and  even  at  midday  I  have  drawn  them  from 
their  nesting-place  to  meet  a  supposed  intruder  on  their  domain.  Un- 
der favorable  circumstances  they  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  at 
least  half  a  mile. 

Their  usual  call  is  a  sonorous  whoo-whod-whdo  who-whbd,  t6-wh66- 
ah.  This  is  varied,  both  as  to  relative  position  and  length  of  the  syl- 
lables, by  the  same  individuals,  and  is  apparently  the  cry  of  ques- 
tion and  response.  When  two  birds,  perhaps  rival  males,  come  together, 
there  ensues  a  striking  medley  of  wha-whas  mingled  with  rolling  whoo- 
&hs,  the  whole  reminding  one  of  deep-voiced,  mirthless  laughter.  Some- 
times two  birds  give  a  concerted  performance.  One  utters  about  ten 


312  OWLS 

rapid  hoots,  while  the  other,  in  a  slightly  higher  tone,  hoots  half  as  fast, 
both  performers  ending  together  with  a  whoo-ah.  At  times  they  utter  a 
single;  prolonged  whoo-ah,  and  more  rarely  a  weird,  gasping  shriek, 
emphasized  at  its  conclusion  like  a  cry  of  distress. 

"Of  109  stomachs  examined,  5  contained  poultry  or  game;  13, 
other  birds;  46,  mice;  18,  other  mammals;  4,  frogs;  1,  a  lizard;  2,  fish; 
14,  insects;  2,  spiders;  9,  crawfish;  and  20  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

368a.  S.  v.  alleni  Ridgw.  FLORIDA  BARRED  OWL.  Similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding, but  averaging  somewhat  darker,  and  with  the  toes  nearly  naked. 
W.,  12-50;  T.,  8'50. 

Range. — Coast  strip  of  S.  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  from  e.  Tex.  to  Fla. 
and  S.  C. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Jan.  5. 

370.  Scotiaptex    nebulosa    nebulosa    (Forst.).      GREAT  GRAY  OWL. 
Ads. — No  ear-tufts,  size  very  large;  upperparts  fuscous,  everywhere  mot- 
tled with  white,  and  with  little  or  no  buffy;  facial  disk  gray,  barred  with 
black;  underparts  white,  the  breast  broadly  streaked,  the  belly  and  sides 
irregularly  barred  and  streaked  with  fuscous ;  legs  arid  feet  heavily  feathered ; 
bill  and  eyes  yellow.    L.,  27'00;  W..  17'5();  T.,  12'00. 

Range. — Boreal  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Hudsoiiian  and  upper  Canadian  zones 
from  tree  limit  in  cen.  Alaska  and  nw.  Mackenzie  s.  to  cen.  Alberta  and  cen. 
Keewatin;  winters  in  the  s.  Canadian  Provinces,  straggling  to  n.  Calif., 
Wyo.,  Nebr.,  Minn.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  n.  N.  J.,  N.  Y.,  and  New  England. 

Cambridge,   very  rare  and   irregular  W.   V.     SE.    Minn.,   rare  W.   V. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  white,  2-4,  2' 16  x  1*71:  Date,  Buffalo  Lake, 
Alberta,  Apl.  10  (Norris). 

"Dr.  Ball  considers  it  a  stupid  bird,  and  states  that  sometimes  it 
may  be  caught  in  the  hands.  Its  great  predilection  for  thick  woods, 
in  which  it  dwells  doubtless  to  the  very  limit  of  trees,  prevents  it  from 
being  an  inhabitant  of  the  barren  grounds  or  other  open  country  in 
the  north.  .  .  .  The  note  of  this  Owl  is  said  to  be  a  tremulous,  vibrat- 
ing sound,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  the  Screech  Owl.  .  .  . 

"Of  9  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  a  small  bird;  7,  mice;  and 
-1,  other  mammals"  (Fisher). 

371.  Cryptoglaux    funerea    richardsoni    (Bonap.).      RICHARDSON '.s 
(  WL.   Ads. — Upperparts  grayish  brown,  both  the  head  and  back  spotted  with 
v  bite;  tail  with  four  or  five  imperfect  white  bars;  underparts  white,  heavily 
s'roaked  with  grayish  brown;  legs  and  feet  heavily  feathered,  whitish,  barred 
vsith  grayish  brown;  eyes  yellow.  '  Im. — Upperparts  dark  cinnamon-brown, 
uith  a  few  more  or  less  concealed  white  spots;  tail  as  in  the  ad.;  breast 
like  the  back;  belly  ochraceous-buff.    L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  6'75;  T.,  4'40. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  and  upper  Canadian  zones 
from  limit  of  trees  in  cen.  Alaska  and  n.  cen  Mackenzie  s.  to  n.  B.  C., 
n.  Alberta,  and  Magdalen  Islands;  s.  in  winter  to  s.  Canada  but  rare  east- 
ward; casual  s.  to  Ore.,  Colo.,  Nebr.,  Ills.,  Pa.,  and  New  England. 

Cambridge,  very  rare  W.  V. 

Nest,  in  holes  in  troos  (and  in  old  nests  of  other  birds?).  Eggs,  white, 
3-7,  1'35  x  1'14.  Date,  Ft.  Simpson,  Mack.,  May  7. 

"Richardson's  Owl  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  remaining  quiet  dur- 
ing the  djvy  ii!  tlic  thick  foliage  of  the  trees  or  bushes.  In  fact,  its 
vision  is  apparently  so  affected  by  bright  light  that  many  specimens 


OWLS  313 

have  been  captured  alive  by  persons  walking  up  and  taking  them  in 
their  hands.  On  this  account  the  Eskimo  in  Alaska  have  given  it  the 
name  of  'blind  one.'  "The  song  of  this  Owl,  according  to  Dr.  Merriam 
(Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club.,  VII,  1882,  p.  237),  is  a  low  liquid  note  that  resem- 
bles the  sound  produced  by  water  slowly  dropping  from  a  height" 
(Fisher). 

372.  Cryptoglaux  acadica  acadica  (GmeL).     SAW-WHET  OWL.    Ads. — 
Upperparts  dark  cinnamon-brown,  the  head  finely  streaked,  the  back  spotted 
with  white;  tail  with  three  or  four  imperfect  white  bars;  underparts  white, 
heavily  streaked  with  cinnamon-brown  or  dark  rufous;  legs  and  feet  feath- 
ered, buffy  white,  unbarred;  eyes  yellow.    Im. — Upperparts  as  in  the  ad., 
but  head  and  back  with  little  or  no  white;  breast  like  the  back;  belly  ochra- 
ceous-buff.   L.,  8'00;  W.,  5;40;  T.,  2'80;  B.,  '60. 

Remarks. — Its  small  size  and  absence  of  'ears'  at  once  distinguish  this 
species  from  any  Owl  of  eastern  North  America  except  C.  f.  richardsoni,  from 
which  it  may  be  known  by  its  lighter  color,  streaked  instead  of  spotted  head, 
and  unbarred  legs  and  feet. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  and  e.  B.  C.,  Alberta,  Man.,  Que.,  N.  B.f 
and  N.  S.  s.  to  cen.  Ariz.,  s.  Nebr.,  n.  Ind.,  Pa.,  and  Md.  (in  mts.);  winters 
s.  to  s.  Calif.,  La.,  Va.  (casually  to  the  Carolinas),  and  Maine;  casual  or 
accidental  in  Mex.  and  Guatemala. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.,  Oct.-Mch.  Ossining,  rather  rare  W.  V.,  Oct. 
28-Jan.  13.  Cambridge,  not  uncommon,  W.  V.,  Nov.-Mch.  N.  Ohio, 
rare  P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon,  P.  R. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree;  frequently  a  Woodpecker's,  sometimes  a  Squir- 
rel's deserted  nest.  Eggs,  white,  3-5,  1*19  x  1*00.  Date,  Trenton  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  Mch.  31;  Farmiiigton,  Maine,  May  21;  se.  Minn.,  May  9  (hatching). 

"This  species  is  not  migratory,  but  is  more  or  less  of  an  irregular 
wanderer  in  its  search  for  food  during  the  fall  and  winter.  It  may 
be  quite  common  in  a  locality  and  then  not  be  seen  again  for  several 
years.  It  is  nocturnal,  seldom  moving  about  in  the  daytime,  but  pass- 
ing the  time  in  sleeping  in  some  dark  retreat.  So  soundly  does  it  sleep 
that  oftentimes  it  may  be  captured  alive.  .  .  . 

"During  the  day  it  frequents  the  thick  evergreen  woods,  though 
sometimes  it  is  found  in  comparatively  open  groves,  but  always  in 
dense  trees.  .  .  .  The  note  of  this  species  is  peculiar  and  has  a 
rasping  character,  resembling  the  sound  made  when  a  large-toothed 
saw  is  being  filed;  hence  the  name.  It  is  more  often  heard  during  March 
and  early  April,  though  occasionally  it  is  heard  at  other  times  of  the 
year. 

"The  flight  resembles  that  of  the  Woodcock  very  closely — so  much 
so,  in  fact,  that  the  writer  once  killed  a  specimen  as  it  was  flying  over 
the  alders,  and  not  until  the  dog  pointed  the  dead  bird  was  he  aware 
of  his  mistake.  .  .  . 

"Of  22  stomachs  examined,  17  contained  mice;  1,  a  bird;  1,  an  insect; 
and  3  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

1911.    TAVERNER,  P.  A.,  and  SWALES,  B.  H.,  Auk,  XXVIII,  329-334 

(migration). 

373.  Otus  asio  asio  (Linn.}.    SCREECH  OWL.  Size  small;  ear-tufts  con- 
spicuous, about  an  inch  in  length.     Ads.  rufous  phase. — Upperparts  bright 


314  OWLS 

rufous,  finely  streaked  with  black;  underparts  white,  the  feathers  centrally 
streaked  with  black  and  irregularly  barred  with  rufous;  toes  rather  scantily 
feathered;  eyes  yellow.  Gray  phase. — Upperparts  generally  brownish  gray, 
streaked  with  black  and  finely  mottled  with  ochraceous-buff;  underparts 
white,  finely  streaked  and  more  finely  and  irregularly  barred  with  black, 
more  or  less  bordered  by  rufous.  Nestling. —  Entire  plumage  regularly 
barred  with  grayish  or  rufous  and  white.  L.,  9'40;  W.,  6'40;  T.,  3 '09; 
B.,  '63. 

Remarks. — This  bird  may  be  known  by  its  small  size  and  ear-tufts.  Its 
color  phases  are  not  dependent  upon  age,  sex,  or  season,  and  both  phases  are 
sometimes  represented  in  the  same  brood.  Between  the  two  there  is  a  com- 
plete intergradation.  (See  frontispiece.) 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  from  Minn.,  Ont.,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  ne.  Tex.,  and  Ga., 
and  w.  to  about  the  100th  meridian;  accidental  in  England. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge, 
common  P.  R.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  P.  R.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  P.  R. 

Nest,  generally  in  a  hollow  tree.  Eggs,  white,  4-6,  1*55  x  1*22.  Date, 
Chevy  Chase,  Md.,  Apl.  6;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  Apl.  6;  Cambridge,  Apl.  15: 
Milton,  Mass.,  Apl.  9;  Poweshiek  Co.,  Iowa,  Apl.  9. 

The  Screech  Owl  frequently  makes  its  home  near  our  dwellings, 
and  sometimes  selects  a  convenient  nook  in  them  in  which  to  lay  its 
eggs.  But  its  favorite  retreat  is  an  old  apple  orchard,  where  the  hollow 
limbs  offer  it  a  secure  refuge  from  the  mobs  of  small  birds  which  are 
ever  ready  to  attack  it.  A  search  in  the  trees  of  an  orchard  of  this  kind 
rarely  fails  to  result  in  the  discovery  of  one  or  more  of  these  feathered 
inhabitants  who  may  have  resided  there  for  years.  They  attempt  to 
escape  capture  by  a  show  of  resistance  and  a  castanetlike  cracking  of 
the  bill,  but  when  brought  from  their  hiding-place  sit  quietly,  dazzled 
for  a  moment  by  the  sudden  light.  They  then  elongate  themselves 
and  almost  close  their  eyes,  thus  rendering  themselves  as  inconspicuous 
as  possible.  How  differently  they  appear  when  the  western  sky  fades 
and  their  day  begins!  Is  any  bird  more  thoroughly  awake  than  a  hungry 
Screech  Owl?  With  ear-tufts  erected,  and  his  great,  r6und  eyes  opened 
to  the  utmost,  he  is  the  picture  of  alertness. 

When  night  comes,  one  may  hear  the  Screech  Owl's  tremulous, 
wailing  whistle.  It  is  a  weird,  melancholy  call,  welcomed  only  by 
those  who  love  Nature's  voice  whatever  be  the  medium  through  which 
she  speaks. 

"Of  255  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  poultry;  38,  other  birds; 
91,  mice;  11,  other  mammals;  2,  lizards;  4,  batrachians;  1,  fish;  100, 
insects;  5,  spiders;  9,  crawfish;  7,  miscellaneous;  2,  scorpions;  2,  earth- 
worms; and  43  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

1893.  HASBROUCK,  E.  M.,  Am.  Nat.,  521-533,  638-649;  ALLEN,  J.  A., 
Auk,  347-351.— 1896.  CHADBOURNE,  A.  P.,  Auk,  XIII,  321-325;  XIV,  33- 
39.  (dichromatism).— 1911.  SHERMAN,  A.,  Auk,  XXVIII,  155-168  (home- 
life). 

373a.  O.  a.  floridanus  (Ridgw.).  FLORIDA  SCREECH  OWL.  Much  like 
the  preceding,  but  smaller,  with  the  colors  deeper  and  markings  of  the 
underparts  heavier.  W.,  5'95;  T.,  2'80.  The  rufous  phase  is  rare  in  this  sub- 
species. 


OWLS  315 

Range. — Gulf  and  S.  Atlantic  States  from  se.  Tex.  to  S.  C.,  chiefly  near 
the  coast. 

Nesting   date,  Archer,  Fla.,  Mch.  31. 

375.  Bubo  virginianus  virginianus  (Gmel).     GREAT  HORNED  OWL. 

Ads. — Size  large;  ear-tui'ts  conspicuous,  nearly  two  inches  in  length;  upper- 
parts  mottled  with  varying  shades  of  ochraceous-buff  and  black;  facial 
disk  ochraceous-buff;  ear-tufts  black  and  ochraceous-buff;  a  white  patch 
on  the  throat,  rest  of  the  underparts  ochraceous-buff,  barred  with  black; 
legs  and  feet  feathered;  eyes  yellow.  <?  L.,  22'00;  W.,  15*00;  T.,  8'50;  B.,  1'60. 

Range.— E.  N.  Am.  from  Ont.,  Que.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  the  Gulf 
coast  and  Fla.;  w.  to  Wise.,  e.  Minn.,  Iowa,  and  e.  Tex. 

Washington,  rare  P.  R.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  P.  R.  Cambridge, 
uncommon,  autumn  or  winter.  N.  Ohio,  rare  P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  P.  R. 

Nest,  generally  in  an  old  Crow's,  Hawk's  or  squirrel's  nest.  Eggs,  white, 
2-3,  2'20  x  1-80.  Date,  Merritt's  Is.,  Fla.,  Dec.  17;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  Feb. 
15;  Cambridge,  Feb.  22;  Black  Hawk  Co.,  Iowa,  Feb.  14;  se.  Minn.,  Feb.  21. 

This  "tiger  among  birds"  is  an  inhabitant  of  heavily  forested  regions, 
and  is  common  therefore  only  in  the  wilder,  less  settled  portions  of 
our  country.  It  is  the  only  one  of  our  resident  Owls  which  destroys 
poultry  and  birds  in  any  numbers,  but,  in  spite  of  its  frequent  visits 
to  the  farmyard,  Dr.  Fisher  considers  that  in  many  localities  it  is  a 
"beneficial  species"  because  of  its  great  fondness  for  rabbits. 

Its  usual  call  is  a  loud,  deep-toned  whoo,  hoo-hoo-hoo,  whodo,  whodo. 
The  syllables  are  all  on  the  same  note,  and  bear  some  resemblance  to 
a  bass-voiced  dog  barking  in  the  distance. 

A  much  rarer  call  is  a  loud,  piercing  scream,  one  of  the  most  blood- 
curdling sounds  I  have  ever  heard  in  the  woods. 

"Of  127  stomachs  examined,  31  contained  poultry  or  game  birds; 
8,  other  birds;  13,  mice;  65,  other  mammals;  1,  a  scorpion;  1,  fish; 
10,  insects,  and  17  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

375b.  B.  v.  subarcticus  (Hoy).  ARCTIC  HORNED  OWL.  Similar 
to  the  preceding,  but  much  lighter  in  color,  the  ochraceous-buff  markings 
largely  replaced  by  gray  or  white. 

Range. — Breeds  from  nw.  Mackenzie  and  cen.  Keewatin  to  valley  of 
the  Sask.,  and  probably  in  the  glacier  region  of  Mt.  St.  Elias  and  Mt.  Fair- 
weather;  s.  in  winter  to  n.  U.  S.  from  Idaho  to  Wise. 

Cambridge,  one  record.   SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  W.  V. 

375f.  B.  y.  heterocnemis  (Ober.).    LABRADOR  HORNED  OWL.    Similar 
to  B.  v.  virginianus,  but  much  darker,  the  prevailing  color  fuscous  or  dusky. 
Range. — Northern  Ungava  and  Labrador. 

376.  Nyctea    nyctea    (Linn.).      SNOWY   OWL.      Ad.    d". — Size   large; 
no  ear-tufts;  white,  more  or  less  barred  with  dark  grayish  brown  or  fuscous; 
legs  and  feet  heavily  feathered;  eyes  yellow.    Ad.   9. — Similar,  but  more 
heavily  barred.    L.,  25'00;  W.,  17'00;  T.,  9'50;  B.,  1'50. 

Range. — N.  parts  of  N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.  breeds  from  Arctic 
regions  s.  to  cen.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  and  n.  Ungava;  winters  from 
the  Arctic  coast  s.  to  the  s.  Canadian  Provinces  and  Mont.,  and  irregularly 
to  the  Middle  States  and  Ohio  Valley,  straggling  to  Calif.,  Tex.,  La.,  N.  C., 
and  Bermuda. 

Washington,  casual  W.  V.  Ossining,  A.  V.  Cambridge,  rare  and  irregu- 
lar W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  rare  W.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  very  rare  W.  V.  SE.  Minn., 
common  W.  V.,  Oct.-Apl. 


316  OWLS 

•     Nest,  on  the  ground.   Eggs,  white,  3-10,  2'24  x  1*76.   Date,  Pt.  Barrow, 
Alaska,  June  7. 

"The  Snowy  Owl  is  diurnal  in  its  habits,  but  like  most  birds  is 
more  active  in  search  of  prey  during  the  early  morning  and  again 
toward  dusk.  Like  many  of  the  Hawks,  it  occupies  a  commanding 
perch  for  hours,  watching  what  is  going  on  about  it,  occasionally  vary- 
ing the  monotony  by  dropping  on  a  mouse  or  launching  out  over  the 
broad  country,  soon  to  return  to  its  perch.  During  its  southern  wan- 
derings it  is  very  partial  to  localities  in  the  vicinity  of  water,  especially 
the  barren  sand  wastes  along  the  seashore  or  extensive  marshy  flats 
bordering  the  bays  and  rivers.  .  .  . 

"The  flight  is  firm,  smooth,  and  noiseless,  and  may  be  long  pro- 
tracted. It  is  capable  of  rapid  flight,  and,  according  to  Audubon,  is 
able  to  capture  Ducks,  Pigeons,  and  even  Grouse  on  the  wing,  striking 
them  down  after  the  manner  of  the  Duck  Hawk. 

"Of  38  stomachs  examined,  2  contained  game  birds;  9,  other  birds; 
18,  mice;  2,  other  mammals;  and  12  were  empty"  (Fisher). 

1906.   DEANE,  R.,  Auk,  XXIII,  283-298  (flight  of). 

377a.  Surnia  ulula  caparoch  (Mull.).  HAWK  OWL.  Ads. — Size 
medium;  no  ear-tufts;  upperparts  dark  grayish  brown  or  fuscous;  head  and 
hindneck  spotted  with  white;  back,  and  especially  tertials,  barred  with 
white;  tail  with  broken  whitish  bars,  long  and  rounded,  the  outer  feathers 
more  than  an  inch  shorter  than  the  middle  ones;  middle  of  the  throat  with 
a  fuscous  spot,  and  below  it  a  white  one;  sides  of  the  neck  and  upper  breast 
streaked  with  fuscous,  rest  of  the  uriderparts  barred  with  fuscous  and 
white;  legs  and  feet  fully  feathered.  L.,  IS'OO;  W.,  8'75;T.,  7'25. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  nw.  Mackenzie,  and 
Hudson  Strait  to  s.  B.  C.,  cen.  Alberta  (casually  Mont.),  and  Ungava; 
winters  s.  to  the  s.  Canadian  Provinces,  casually  to  Wash.,  Nebr.,  Ind., 
Ohio,  N.  Y.,  R.  I.,  Mass.,  and  Maine,  occasional  in  England. 

Cambridge,  very  rare  in  late  fall.  N.  Ohio,  rare  W.  V.  SE.  Minn., 
uncommon  W.  V.,  Oct.-Mch. 

Nest,  in  coniferous  trees  or  in  the  holes  of  dead  trees  or  stubs.  Eggs, 
white,  3-7,  1'50  x  T23.  Date,  Red  Deer,  Alberta,  Apl.  16. 

"The  Hawk  Owl  is  strictly  diurnal,  as  much  so  as  any  of  the  Hawks, 
and  like  some  of  them  often  selects  a  tall  stub  or  dead-topped  tree  in 
a  comparatively  open  place  for  a  perch,  where  it  sits  in  the  bright 
sunlight  watching  for  its  prey.  • 

"Although  the  flight  is  swift  and  hawklike,  it  has  nevertheless  the 
soft,  noiseless  character  common  to  the  other  Owls;  when  starting 
from  any  high  place,  such  as  the  top  of  a  tree,  it  usually  pitches 
down  nearly  to  the  ground,  and  flies  off  rapidly  above  the  tops  of 
the  bushes  or  high  grass,  abruptly  arising  again  as  it  seeks  another 
perch. 

"The  note  is  a  shrill  cry,  which  is  uttered  generally  while  the  bird 
is  on  the  wing"  (Fisher). 

378a.  Spec ty to  cunicularia  floridana  Ridgw.  FLORIDA  BUR- 
ROWING OWL.  Ad*. — Size  small;  no  ear-tufts;  Zry/s  and  feet  nwirlu  naked; 
upperparts  grayish  brown,  spotted  and  barred  with  white;  throat  white,  rest 


PAROQUETS  317 

of  the  underparts  barred  with  grayish  brown  and  white  in  about  equal 
amounts.  L.,  9'00;  W.,  6'50;  T.,  3'00;  Tar.,  1'75. 

Range. — Southern  Fla.,  chiefly  in  the  Kissimmee  'prairie'  region  of 
Osceola,  Polk,  and  DeSoto  Counties,  and  also  Manatee  County. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  the  ground  excavated  by  the  bird.  Eggs,  white,  5-7, 
1*23  x  1*03.  Date,  Ft.  Thompson,  Fla.,  Mch.  26. 

This  diurnal  Owl  is  locally  abundant  in  its  restricted  range.  Excel- 
lent accounts  of  its  habits  will  be  found  under  the  following  references: 
Rhoads,  Auk,  IX,  1892,  1-8;  Scott,  Ibid.,  216-218;  Palmer,  Ibid,  1896, 
100-108. 

The  BURROWING  OWL  (378.  Speotyto  cunicularia  hypog<za),is  well  known 
in  the  western  United  States  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  Minnesota,  and 
Louisiana,  and  from  British  Columbia,  and  Manitoba  s.  to  Panama;  it  is 
migratory  north  of  Oregon  arid  northern  Kansas;  and  accidental  in  New 
York  and  Massachusetts. 


ORDER   PSITTACI.     PARROTS,   MACAWS,   PAROQUETS, 
COCKATOOS 

40.  FAMILY  PSITTACID.E.    PARROTS  AND  PAROQUETS.   (Fig.  51.) 

The  order  Psittaci  is  divided  into  six  families  containing,  in  all, 
about  five  hundred  and  sixty  species.  The  American  species,  some  one 
hundred  and  ninety  in  number,  are  included  in  the  present  family 
which  has  also  about  two  hundred  and  forty  members  in  the  Old  World. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Thick-billed  Parrot  (Rhynchopsitta  pachy- 
rhyncha),  which  rarely  enters  Arizona  from  Mexico,  the  Carolina 
Paroquet  is  the  only  species  inhabiting  the  United  States,  and  it  is  not 
found  south  of  our  boundaries.  Parrots  and  Paroquets — the  dividing 
line  between  the  two  can  not  be  sharply  drawn — are  forest-inhabiting, 
fruit-  and  seed-eating  birds.  They  are  poor  walkers,  good  climbers, 
and  strong  fliers,  making  extended  flights  in  search  of  food.  Their 
voices  in  Nature  are  harsh  and  discordant;  nevertheless,  almost  all  the 
species  possess  the  power  of  speech.  Some,  however,  rarely  learn  to 
talk,  while  others  invariably  do.  The  red-tailed,  gray  African  Parrot 
(Psittacus  erythacus)  takes  first  rank  for  ability  in  this  direction,  while 
the  Mexican  Double  Yellow-head  (Amazona  oratrix)  is  usually  accorded 
second  place.  Parrots  are  believed  to  mate  for  life.  They  nest  in  holes, 
usually  in  trees,  and  lay  white  eggs.  The  young  are  hatched  with  a 
covering  of  white  down  and  are  reared  in  the  nest. 

382.  Conuropsis  carolinensis  (Linn.).  CAROLINA  PAROQUET.  (Fig. 
51.)  Ads. — Head  and  neck  all  around  yellow;  forehead  and  cheeks  deep 
orange;  bend  of  the  wing  and  tibiae  orange;  rest  of  the  plumage  bright  green; 
the  inner  vanes  of  the  wing-feathers  fuscous;  the  under  surface  of  the  tail 
yellowish.  Im. — Similar,  but  the  head  and  neck  green  like  the  back;  fore- 
head and  region  in  front  of  the  eye  orange;  tibiae  and  bend  of  the  wing 
without  orange.  L.,  12'50;  W.,  7'40;  T.,  6'50. 

Range. — S.  Fla.,  ne.  and  e.  of  Lake  Okeechobee;  formerly  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  se.  U.  S.  w.  to  Tex.,  Okla.,  and  et  Colo,  and  n.  to  Nebr., 


318  CUCKOOS 

Iowa,  Wise.,  and  s.  border  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  casually  to  N.  Y. 
and  Pa. 

Washington,  extinct,  known  only  from  specimens  shot  :'n  Seut.,  1865. 

Nest,  said  to  be  in  a  hollow  cypress  or  sycamore  tree,  but  no  au+b^ntic 
account  of  the  nidification  of  this  species  has  been  published.  Eggs  (laid 
in  captivity),  white,  1'44  x  1'12.  Date,  probably  lay  in  June. 

The  complete  extermination  of  the  Paroquet  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  its  range  is  due  chiefly  to  four  causes :  first,  it  was  destructive  to 
fruit  orchards,  and  for  this  reason  was  killed  by  agriculturists;  second, 
it  has  been  trapped  and  bagged  in  enormous  numbers  by  professional 
bird-catchers;  third,  it  has  been  killed  in  myriads  for  its  plumage;  and, 
fourth,  it  has  been  wantonly  slaughtered  by  so-called  sportsmen.  In 
short,  in  the  present  century  the  Paroquet  has  always  disappeared  soon 
after  its  haunts  were  invaded  by  civilized  man.  At  present  it  it  appar- 
ently restricted  to  southern  Florida,  and  there  mainly  if  not  wholly  to 
the  'hammocks'  northeast  and  east  of  Lake  Okeechobee,  where  in 
April,  1904,  near  Taylor  Creek,  I  saw  thirteen  birds. 

1891.  HASBROUCK,  E.  M.,  Auk,  VIII,  369-379;  BUTLER,  A.,  Ibid., 
1892,  IX  49-56  (range). 


XIV.  ORDER  COCCYGES.   CUCKOOS,  KINGFISHERS,  ETC. 

41.  FAMILY  CUCULID^E.  CUCKOOS,  ANIS,  ETC.  (Fig.  53.) 

Only  thirty-five  of  the  some  one  hundred  and  ninety  known  species 
of  Cuckoos  are  found  in  the  New  World,  and  they  are  largely  confined 
to  the  tropics. 

Cuckoos,  as  a  rule,  are  rather  solitary  birds,  inhabiting  wooded 
areas.  The  Anis,  however,  are  always  gregarious  and  live  in  open  places. 
Their  flight  is  weak,  generally  from  tree  to  tree,  and  their  feet  are  largely 
used  as  a  means  of  progression.  Some  species  hop,  others  walk,  and  one 
is  celebrated  for  his  speed  as  a  runner.  They  are  possessed  of  peculiar 
vocal  powers,  and  their  strange  calls  are  frequently  the  origin  of  their 
popular  names.  Many  species  are  remarkable  for  the  irregularity  of 
their  breeding  habits.  The  Old  World  Cuckoo  (Cuculus  canorw),  like 
our  Cowbird,  places  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  and  leaves  to 
them  the  duties  of  incubation  and  rearing  of  the  young.  The  Anis  are 
communistic,  and  build  but  one  nest,  in  which  several  females  lay  and 
share  the  task  of  incubation.  The  smaller  species  are  insectivorous, 
but  the  larger  ones  add  small  reptiles  and  batrachians  to  their  fare. 
The  eggs  of  all  North  American  species  are  white  or  bluish  white,  and 
are  sometimes  laid  at  such  widely  separated  intervals  that  the  same 
nest  may  contain  fresh  eggs  and  young  birds.  The  young  are  hatched 
naked  and  the  feathers  of  the  Juvenal  plumage,  which  is  the  first  to  be 
acquired,  remain  in  their  sheaths  until  they  are  well-grown. 

383.  Crotophaga  ani  Linn.  ANT.  Ads.  —  Bill  much  compressed 
vertically,  nearly  as  high  as  long.  Black,  feathers  of  foreparts  of  the  body 


CUCKOOS  319 

with  irridescent  margins;  wings  and  tail  wifh  bluish  reflections;  tail  much 
rounded.    L.,  12'50;  T.,  775;  W.,  5'75;  B.,  '95;  depth,  '85. 

Range. — West  Indies,  Yucatan,  and  e.  S.  A.;  rare  or  casual  in  La.  and 
S.  Fla.,  accidental  near  Phila.,  and  Edenton,  N.  C. 

The  GROOVE-BILLED  ANT  (384-  Crotophaga  sulcirpstris]  of  our  Mexican 
border  and  southward,  has  been  reported  from  Florida  (Lake  Worth,  Jan. 
1891),  but  it  seems  not  improbable  that  the  bird  in  question  was  Crotophaga 
ani.  (Auk,  1891,  313.) 

386  Coccyzus  minor  minor  (Gmel.}.  MANGROVE  CUCKOO.  Ads. — • 
Upperparts  brownish  gray,  grayer  on  head,  with  glossy  reflections;  wings 
and  middle  pair  of  tail-feathers  like  back;  outer  tail-feathers  black,  broadly 
tipped  with  white;  ear-coverts  black;  underparts  ochraceous-buff,  bill  black, 
lower  mandible  yellow  except  at  tip;  L.,  12'50;  W.,  5'40;  T.,  50;  B.  from  N. 
•80. 

Range. — Key  West,  Fla.,  West  Indies  (except  Bahamas),  and  coast 
of  Mex.,  and  Cen.  Am.  to  ne.  S.  A. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  sticks,  in  low  trees  and  bushes.  Eggs,  3-4,  greenish 
blue.  Date,  Manatee  Co.,  Fla.,  May  28. 

This  bird  is  apparently  a  rare  summer  resident  on  the  Gulf  coast 
of  Florida,  but  its  relationships  in  this  region  to  the  following  race 
appear  to  be  unknown. 

386a.  C.  m.  maynardi  Ridgw.  MAYNARD'S  CUCKOO.  Similar  to 
the  preceding,  but  with  a  slightly  smaller  bill  and  much  paler  underparts, 
the  throat  and  breast  being  grayish  white,  very  faintly  washed  with  ochra- 
ceous,  which  becomes  stronger  on  the  belly.  B.  from  N.,  "75. 

Range. — Florida  Keys  and  the  Bahamas. 

This  bird  is  a  regular  summer  resident  in  the  Florida  Keys  and 
probably  adjoining  Atlantic  mainland  (Scott,  Auk,  1889,  p.  250). 

387.  Coccyzus  americanus  americanus  (Linn.).  YELLOW-BILLED 
CUCKOO.  (Fig.  53.  )  Ads. — Upperparts  brownish  gray  with  slight  greenish 
gloss;  most  of  the  wing-feathers  rufous,  except  at  the  tip;  outer  tail-feathers 
black,  conspicuously  tipped  with  white,  which  extends  down  the  outer  vane 
of  the  outer  feather;  underparts  dull  whitish;  bill  black,  the  lower  mandible 
yellow  except  at  the  tip. 
L.,  12-20;  W.,  5'70;  T., 
6'20;  B.  from  N.,  '76. 

Remarks. — This  spe- 
cies bears  a  general  re- 
semblance to  the  Black- 
billed  Cuckoo,  but  may 
always  be  known  from  FIG.  91.  Tail-feathers  of  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo, 

that  species  by  its  yel- 
low lower   mandible,  rufous  wing-feathers,    and   black,    white-tipped   tail- 
feathers. 

Range. — Breeds  mainly  in  Austral  zones  but  reaching  into  Transition, 
from  N.  D.,  Minn.,  s.  Ont.,  Que.,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  Mcx.,  La.,  and  n.  Fla., 
and  w.  to  S.  D.,  Nebr.,  and  Okla.;  migrates  through  the  West  Indies  and 
Cen.  Am. ;  winters  s.  to  Argentina. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  May  3-Oct.  13.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.t 
May  4-Oct.  31.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  May  12-Sept.  15.  N.  Ohio, 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  25.  Glen  Ellyn,  quite  common  S.  R.,  May  15- 
Sept.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  21-Aug.  20. 

Nest,  a  platform  of  small  sticks,  with  a  few  grasses  or  catkins,  generally 
in  low  trees  or  vine-covered  bushes,  4-10  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  pale  greenish 


320  KINGFISHERS 

blue,  1'22  x  "92.    Date,  Gainesville,  Fla.,  Apl.  9,  laying;  Buckingham  Co., 
Va.,  May  13;  Cambridge,  May  25;  Mt.  Carmel,  Ills.,  May  20. 

A  long,  slim,  dovelike  bird  slips  noiselessly  by  and  disappears  in 
the  depths  of  a  neighboring  tree.  If  you  can  mark  his  position  you 
will  find  him  perched  motionless,  and  apparently  slightly  dazed.  After 
a  moment  he  recovers  and  begins  to  hop  about  the  tree  in  an  active 
search  of  his  favorite  fare  of  caterpillars.  He  is  especially  fond  of  the 
kind  which  make  nests  in  trees,  commonly  known  as  "tent  cater- 
pillars," and  if  you  examine  the  conspicuous  homes  of  these  pests  you  • 
will  frequently  find  them  punctured  with  many  holes  made  by  the 
Cuckoo's  bill.  A  Cuckoo  I  shot  at  six  o'clock  one  September  morning 
had  the  partially  digested  remains  of  forty-three  of  these  caterpillars 
in  his  stomach. 

The  notes  of  the  Cuckoo  are  strikingly  characteristic,  and  while 
subject  to  much  variation  may  be  fairly  represented  by  the  syllables 
tut-tut,  tut-tut,  tut-tut,  tut-tut,  cl-uck-cl-uck-cl-uck,  cl-uck-cl-uck,  cl-uck, 
cow,  cow,  cow,  cow,  cow,  cow.  It  is  not  usual,  however,  to  hear  the 
whole  song  given  at  once. 

388.  Coccyzus  erythrophthalmus  (Wils.).  BLACK-BILLED  CUCKOO. 
Ads. — Upperparts  grayish  brown  with  a  slight  green  gloss;  wings  arid  tail 
the  same,  the  latter  narrowly  tipped  with  white;  underparts  dull  white; 
bill  black.  L.,  11'83;  W.,  5'50;  T.,  6'26;  B.  from  N.,  '74. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Yellow-billed 
Cuckoo  chiefly  by  the  absence  of  rufous  in  the  wings,  black  in  the  tail,  and 

yellow     in     the     lower 
mandible. 

Range. — N.  and  S. 
A.  Breeds  mainly  in  the 
Transition  zone  from 

r     se.   Alberta,  s.   Man.,  s. 

FIG.  92.    Tuil-f  eathers  of  Black-billed  Cuckoo.  Que.,    and    Prince    Ed- 

ward   Is.    s.    to   Kans., 
Ark.,  N.  C.,  and  mts.  of  Ga.;  winters  in  S.  A.,  to  Peru. 

Washington,  rather  rare  S.  R.,  May  5-Oct.,  6.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
May  3-Oct.  7.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  May  12-Sept.  20.  N.  Ohio, 
tolerably  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sopt.  25.  Glen  Ellyn,  S.  R.,  May  5-Oct.  21. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  8-Sept.  27. 

Nest,  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding,  but  more  compactly  built;  location 
the  same.  Eggs,  2-5,  greenish  blue,  of  a  deeper  shade  than  those  of  the 
preceding  species,  1'14  x  *85.  Date,  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  28;  Cambridge, 
May  20;  Mt.  Carmel,  Ills.,  May  7;  se.  Minn.,  May  16. 

This  species  resembles  the  preceding  in  habits.  The  two  birds  may 
be  distinguished  in  life  by  the  differences  in  the  color  of  their  bills  and 
tails.  William  Brewster  has  called  my  attention  to  an  easily  recognizable 
difference  in  their  calls.  The  present  species  has  a  much  softer  voice, 
and  the  cow,  cow  notes  are  connected. 

42.  FAMILY  ALCEDINID^.  KINGFISHERS.  (Fig.  50.) 

Kingfishers  are  most  numerous  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the 
majority  of  the  some  one  hundred  and  ninety  known  species  are  found 


KINGFISHERS  321 

there.  There  are  only  seven  American  species,  all  contained  in  the 
genus  Ceryle,  which  has  also  five  representatives  in  Africa  and  India. 
Our  seven  species  are  confined  chiefly  to  the  tropics,  only  one  advanc- 
ing north  of  southern  Texas.  They  are  solitary  birds  of  somewhat 
local  habit.  All  the  American  species  are  fish-eaters  and  are  rarely 
found  far  from  the  water.  Some  of  the  Old-World  species,  how- 
ever, are  forest-inhabiting  and  feed  on  small  insects,  mollusks,  etc. 
Kingfishers  nest  in  holes,  usually  made  by  themselves  in  a  bank,  and 
lay  white  eggs.  The  young  are  hatched  naked,  and  the  Juvenal  plumage 
is  the  first  to  be  acquired. 

390.  Ceryle  alcyon  (Linn.).  BELTED  KINGFISHER.  (Fig.  52.)  Ad.  <?. — 
Upperparts  bluish  gray;  wings  with  small  white  spots,  most  of  the  feathers 
tipped  with  white,  the  inner  webs  of  the  primaries  white  at  the  base;  tail- 
feathers  with  numerous  spots  and  broken  bands  of  white;  a  white  spot 
before  the  eye;  throat  white,  this  color  passing  on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck 
and  nearly  meeting  on  the  back  of  the  neck;  a  band  across  the  breast,  and  the 
sides  bluish  gray — in  immature  specimens  tinged  with  rufous — lower  breast 
and  belly  white.  Ad.  9. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  the  sides  and  a  band  on 
the  belly  rufous.  L.,  13'02;  W.,  6'17;  T.,  3'60;  B.,  2'00. 

Range. — N.  A.  and  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  nw.  Mackenzie, 
cen.  Keewatin,  n.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  the  s.  border  of  U.  S.;  winters  from 
B.  C.,  Nebr.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  Ohio  and  Va.  s.  to  the  West  Indies,  Colombia, 
Guiana,  and  irregularly  as  far  n.  as  Mass.,  N.  H.,  and  Ont. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.,  except  in  midwinter.  Ossining,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  1-Nov.  23;  casual  in  winter.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
10-Nov.  1;  rare  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  20-Nov.  1;  rare 
W.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  isolated  pairs,  Apl.  1— Nov.  19.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S. 
R.,  Mch.  21-Dec.  12. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  bank,  about  six  feet  from  the  entrance.  Eggs,  5-8, 
white,  1'34  x  T05.  Date,  Shelter  Is.,  N.  Y.,  May  4;  Cambridge,  May  15; 
se.  Minn.,  May  9. 

The  shores  of  wooded  streams  or  ponds  are  the  chosen,  haunts  of 
the  Kingfisher.  Silently  he  perches  on  some  limb  overhanging  the 
water,  ever  on  the  alert  for  food  or  foe.  Paddle  toward  him  as  quietly 
as  you  please,  just  as  you  reach  his  danger  line  he  drops  from  his  perch 
and  with  loud,  rattling  call  flies  on  ahead.  This  may  be  repeated  several 
times,  until  finally  the  limits  of  his  wanderings  are  reached,  when  he 
makes  a  wide  detour  and  returns  to  the  starting  point. 

The  Kingfisher  hunts  after  the  manner  of  the  Fish  Hawk.  In  passing 
over  the  water  it  needs  only  the  glint  of  a  shining  fin  or  scale  just  beneath 
the  surface  to  catch  his  watchful  eye.  On  quickly  moving  wings  he 
hovers  over  the  place,  waiting  only  a  fair  chance  to  plunge  on  the 
unsuspecting  fish  below.  Emerging  from  the  water  with  his  prey  in 
his  bill,  he  shakes  the  spray  from  his  plumage,  and,  with  an  exultant 
rattle,  flies  away  to  some  favorite  perch. 

1905.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Home-Life  of  Wild  Birds,  136-145.— 1907.  FIN- 
LEY,  W.  L.,  American  Birds,  139-147. 


322  WOODPECKERS 

XV.  ORDER  PIGI.     WOODPECKERS,  WRYNECKS,  ETC. 

43.  FAMILY  PICID^S.  WOODPECKERS.   (Fig.  54.) 

Woodpeckers  occur  in  all  wooded  parts  of  the  world,  except  in  the 
Australian  region  and  Madagascar.  Some  three  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  species  are  known,  of  which  about  one-half  are  confined  to  the  New 
World.  Twenty-four  of  this  number  are  found  in  North  America. 
Woodpeckers  are  rather  solitary  birds,  but  are  sometimes  found  asso- 
ciated in  scattered  companies  during  their  migrations.  Above  all 
other  birds  they  are  especially  adapted  to  creep  or  climb.  The  peculiar 
structure  of  the  foot,  with  its  two  toes  directed  forward  and  two  back- 
ward (except,  in  North  America,  in  one  genus),  assists  them  in  clinging 
to  an  upright  surface,  while  the  pointed,  stiffened  tail-feathers  serve 
as  a  prop.  The  stout,  chisel-like  bill  of  the  more  typical  species  is  used 
to  cut  away  wood  and  expose  the  hiding-places  of  grubs,  etc.;  then  the 
long,  distensible  tongue,  with  its  horny,  spearlike  tip,  is  thrust  forward 
the  food  impaled  and  drawn  out.  The  vocal  powers  of  Woodpeckers 
are  supplemented  by  the  bill  which  is  used  to  beat  the  long,  rolling  call 
forming  their  love-song.  The  eggs  of  Woodpeckers  are  uniformly  white, 
and  are  placed  in  a  hole,  generally  in  a  dead  tree  or  limb,  hollowed  out 
by  the  bird. 

1901.   ECKSTORM,  F.  H.,  The  Woodpeckers  (Houghton,  Mifflin). 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  No  red  on  the  head  or  nape. 

1.  Underparts  not  streaked  or  spotted. 

A.  Entire  underparts  black. 

a.  Wing  about  10*00,  bill  ivory-white. 

392.  IVORY-BILLED  WOODPECKER  9. 

B.  Underparts  white,  without  black  spots  or  streaks. 

a.  Wing  under  4'00;  outer  tail-feathers  barred  with  black. 

394.  DOWNY  WOODPECKER  and  races   9. 
b  Wing  over  4'00,  outer  tail-feathers  white,  without  black  bars. 

393.  HAIRY  WOODPECKER  and  races   9. 

2.  Underparts  with  black  spots,  bars,  or  streaks. 

a.  Back  entirely  black  .     .     400.  ARCTIC  THREE-TOED  WOODPECKER. 
6.  Back  black  and  white. 

b1.  Outer  tail-feathers  entirely  white,  crown  yellow  or  spotted  with 
white 401.  AM.  THREE-TOED  WOODPECKER. 

62.  Outer  tail-feathers  barred  with  black,  no  black  patch  on  the 

breast,  ear-coverts  white 

395.  RED-COCKADED  WOODPECKER  9. 

63.  Outer  tail-feathers  black,  with  generally  a  narrow  white  margin; 

rump  white 406.  RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER  9. 

64.  Outer  tail-feathers  black  and  white,  a  large  black  patch  on  the 

breast 402.  YELLOW-BELLIED  SAPSUCKER  9. 

II.  With  red  on  the  head  or  nape. 
1.  Whole  top  of  head  red. 
A.  Throat  red. 

a.  Primaries  spotted  with  white,  belly  yellowish. 

402.  YELLOW-BELLIED  SAPSUCKER  d*. 
6.  Primaries  black,  rump  and  belly  white. 

406.  RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER  <?• 


WOODPECKERS  323 

B.  Throat  white. 

a.  Breast  and  belly  black  .     .  405,  405a.  PILEATED  WOODPECKER  d». 

b.  Breast  black  or  blackish,  sides  streaked,   belly  yellowish  white. 

402.  YELLOW-BELLIED  SAPSTJCKER  9. 

c.  Underparts  tinged  with  red,  without  streaks  or  spots. 

409.  RED-BELLIED  WOODPECKER  d*. 

2.  Crown  black,  brown  or  gray,  a  red  band  across  the  nape,  a  red  crest  on 
the  back  of  the  head,  or  small  patches  of  red  on  cither  side  of  the  nape. 

A.  Underparts  largely  or  wholly  black,  wing  over  8'00. 

a.  Bill  ivory-white     ....     392.  IVORY -BILLED  WOODPECKER  <?. 

b.  Bill  blackish 405,  405a.   PILEATED  WOODPECKER  9. 

B.  Underparts  not  largely  black;  wing  under  8'00. 

a.  Underparts  more  or  less  spotted  or  streaked  with  black. 
a1.  A  black  patch  on  the  breast,  throat  brown,  rump  white. 

412,  412a.  FLICKER. 

a2.  Head  black,  ear-coverts  white,  a  few  red  feathers  on  either  side 
of  the  nape      .     .     .     395.  RED-COCKADED  WOODPECKER  d1. 
6.  Underparts  white,  or  whitish,  without  black  streaks  or  spots. 
61.   Crown  gray,  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  belly. 

409.  RED-BELLIED  WOODPECKER  9. 
c1.  Crown  black. 

c2.  Outer  tail-feathers  barred  with  black. 

394.  DOWNY  WOODPECKER  and  races  d". 
c3.  Outer  tail-feathers  white.  393.  HAIRY  WOODPECKER  and  races  <?. 

392.  Campephilus  principalis  (Linn.).    IVORY-BILLED  WOODPECKER. 
Ad.  d". — Upperparts   shining  black,  a  large  scarlet    crest;    a  white    stripe 
begins  below  the  eye  and,  passing  down  the  side  of  the  neck,  meets  its 
fellow  in  the  middle  of  the  back;  ends  of  the  inner  primaries  and  the  end 
half  or  two-thirds  of  the  secondaries  white;  outer  tail-feathers  very  short, 
the  central  ones  elongated  and  much  stiffened;  bristles  over  the  nostrils 
white;   bill  ivory-white;  underparts  shining  black.     Ad.    9. — Similar,   but 
with  the  crest  black.    L.,  20'00;  W.,  lO'OO;  T.,  (V50;  B.,  2'75. 

Range. — ^Formerly  S.  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  from  Tex.,  to  N.  C.,  n. 
in  Miss.  Valley  to  Okla.,  Mo.,  s.  Ills.,  and  s.  Ind.;  now  restricted  to  the  lower 
Miss.  Valley  and  Gulf  States,  and  of  local  distribution. 

Nest,  usually  in  a  cypress  over  40  feet  up;  entrance  oval.  Eggs,  white, 
3-5,  "1'37  x  *99"  (Bendire).  Date,  Tarpon  Springs,  Fla.,  Mch.  17,  one- 
third  grown;  Lafayette  Co.,  Fla.,  Apl.  19. 

The  home  of  this  magnificent  Woodpecker  is  in  the  almost  limit- 
less cypress  forests  of  our  southern  coasts  and  river  valleys.  Even  there 
it  is  common  in  but  few  localities.  In  Florida  it  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
western  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  doubtless  occurs  in  greatest  numbers 
in  the  region  between  the  Suwanee  River  and  the  Gulf. 

The  Ivory-bill  is  a  wild,  shy  bird.  It  does  not  remain  long  in  one 
place,  and  during  the  day  ranges  over  an  extended  territory.  Its  call 
is  a  high,  rather  nasal,  yap,  yap-yap,  sounding  in  the  distance  like  the 
note  of  a  penny  trumpet. 

1891.  HASBROUCK,  E.  M.,  Auk,  VIII,  174-186  (dist.).— 1900.  BEYER, 
G.  G.,  Auk,  XVII,  97-99  (nesting). 

393.  Dryobates  villosus  villosus  (Linn.).  HAIRY  WOODPECKER.    (Fig. 
54tf.)     Ad.    d1. — Upperparts  black;  scarlet  band  on  the  nape;  middle  of 
the  back  white;  wing-feathers  and  their  coverts  spotted  with  white;  middle 
tail-feathers  black,  the  outer  ones  white;  a  white  stripe  above  and  another 
below  the  eye;  underparts  white.    Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  without  scarlet  on 
the  back  of  the  neck.   L.,  9'40;  W.,  478;  T.,  3'30;  B.,  1'22. 

23 


324  WOODPECKERS 

Range. — Transition  and  Upper  Austral  zones  of  ne.  U.  S.,  from  Nebr., 
e.  Colo.,  and  Okla.,  e.  to  middle  and  n.  parts  of  E.  States. 

Washington,  rare  P.  R.  Ossining,  rare  P.  R.  Cambridge,  uncommon 
W.  V.,  one  summer  record.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly 
common  P.  R. 

Nest,  generally  in  a  dead  tree.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  '95  x  "75.  Date,  Naz- 
areth, Pa.,  Apl.  25;  Cambridge,  Apl.  22;  Wheatland,  Ind.,  Apl.  30. 

This  species  resembles  the  Downy  Woodpecker  in  habits,  but  is  less 
frequently  observed  out  of  the  woods.  Its  notes  are  noticeably  louder 
than  the  Downy's,  and  when  one  is  familiar  with  both  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty in  distinguishing  the  two  by  their  voices. 

In  speaking  of  the  difference  which  exists  between  the  rolling  tattoo 
of  some  Woodpeckers,  Mr.  Brewster  says:  "Thus,  D.  pubescens  has  a 
long,  unbroken  roll;  D.  villosus  a  shorter  and  louder  one  with  a  greater 
interval  between  each  stroke;  while  S.  varius,  commencing  with  a  short 
roll,  ends  very  emphatically  with  five  or  six  distinct  disconnected  taps. 
In  this  latter  species  I  am  convinced  it  is  literally  a  call  of  recognition, 
as  I  have  repeatedly  seen  the  bird,  after  producing  it,  listen  a  moment 
when  it  would  be  answered  from  a  distance,  and  its  mate  wouM  shortly 
appear  and  join  it"  (Ann.  Lye.  Nat.  Hist.,  XI,  1875,  p.  144). 

393a.  D.  v.  leucomelas  (Bodd.).  NORTHERN  HAIRY  WOODPECKER. 
Similar  to  D.  v.  villosus  but  larger  and  whiter.  L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  5'20. 

Range. — Canadian  zone  from  middle  Yukon,  cen.  Mackenzie,  cen. 
Keewatin,  and  n.  Que.,  s.  to  about  the  n.  boundary  of  the  U.  S. 

393b.  D.  v.  auduboni  (Swains.).  SOUTHERN  HAIRY  WOODPECKER. 
Similar  to  D.  v.  villosus,  but  smaller,  and  with  somewhat  less  white  in  the 
plumage.  L.,  8'10;  W,  4'50;  T.,  2'80;  B.,  1'15. 

Range. — Austroriparian  fauna  from  se.  Mo.,  s.  Ills.,  and  s.  Va.  to  se. 
Tex. 

This  is  simply  a  small  southern  race  of  the  preceding  species.  It 
resembles  the  northern  forms  in  habits,  but  is  much  more  common, 
being  nearly  as  numerous  as  the  Downy  Woodpecker. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  24;  Weaverville,  N.  C.,  May  3. 

393g.  D.  y.  terraenovse  Batch.  NEWFOUNDLAND  WOODPECKER.  Sim- 
ilar to  D.  v.  villosus,  "but  slightly  larger,  the  black  areas  of  the  upperparts 
increased,  the  white  areas  reduced  both  in  number  and  size,  especially  in 
the  remiges  and  wing-coverts.  W.,  4'90"  (Batchelder). 

Range. — Newfoundland. 

394.  Dryobates  pubescens  pubescens  (Linn.).  SOUTHERN  DOWNY 
WOODPECKER.  Similar  to  D.  p.  medianus  but  smaller,  browner  below  and 
with  the  white  markings  more  restricted.  L.,  6*00;  W.,  3*50. 

Range. — Austroriparian  fauna  from  N.  C.  to  e.  Tex. 

Nesting  date,  St.  Simons,  Ga.,  Apl.  12. 

394c.  D.  p.  medianus  (Swains.).  DOWNY  WOODPECKER.  (Fig.  16a.). 
Ad.  tf. — Upperparts  black,  a  scarlet  band  on  the  nape;  middle  of  the  back 
white;  wing-feathers  and  their  coverts  spotted  with  white;  middle  tail- 
feathers  black,  the  outer  ones  white,  barred  with  black;  a  white  stripe  above 
and  another  below  the  eye;  underparts  white.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with- 
out scarlet  on  the  nape.  L.,  6'83;  W.,  370;  T.,  2'53;  B.,  '68. 


WOODPECKERS  325 

Remarks. — The  Downy  and  Hairy  Woodpeckers  differ  in  coloration  only 
in  the  markings  of  the  outer  tail-feathers,  which  are  white,  barred  with  black 
in  the  former,  and  white  without  bars  in  the  latter;  the  difference  in  size  be- 
tween the  two,  however,  is  always  diagnostic. 

Range. — Canadian  and  Transition  zones  of  n.  and  cen.  parts  of  e.  N.  A. 
from  se.  Alberta,  Man.,  and  s.  Ungava  s.  to  e.  Nebr.,  Kans.,  and  Potomac 
Valley,  and  in  mts.  to  N.  C. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  com- 
mon P.  R.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  P.  R.  SE.  Minn., 
common  P.  R. 

Nest,  generally  in  a  dead  tree.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  '75  x  '60.  Date,  Naz- 
areth, Pa.,  May  9;  Cambridge,  May  22;  Mt.  Carmel,  Ills.,  May  7. 

Woodland,  orchards,  and  the  shade  trees  of  lawns  are  alike  fre- 
quented by  this,  the  smallest  and  most  familiar  of  our  Woodpeckers. 
Sometimes  he  tells  of  his  presence  by  an  industrious  tap,  tap — tapping 
as  he  patiently  digs  out  the  grubs  and  larvae  which  form  his  bill-of- 
fare.  Again  he  hails  us  with  a  businesslike  peek,  peek — a  note  closely 
resembling  the  sound  produced  by  a  marble-quarrier's  chisel,  and  which 
sometimes  is  prolonged  into  a  rattling  call.  Like  other  Woodpeckers, 
in  the  spring  he  beats  a  rolling  tattoo  on  a  resonant  limb,  sounding  a 
reveille  which  is  a  credit  to  so  small  a  drummer. 

The  Downy  is  a  sociable  Woodpecker,  and  when  the  gay  summer 
visitors  have  returned  to  their  southern  homes  and  the  wind  whistles 
drearily  through  the  leafless  trees,  he  joins  the  Chickadees  and  Nut- 
hatches, and  during  the  winter  they  are  inseparable  companions.  Per- 
haps they  share  with  him  the  snug  quarters  in  some  old  trunk  which 
he  has  hollowed  out  for  a  winter  home. 

395.  Dryobates  borealis  (Vieill.).  RED-COCKADED  WOODPECKER. 
Ad.  cf . — Crown  black,  a  small  tuft  of  scarlet  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  back 
of  the  head;  back  barred  with  black  and  white;  wings  spotted  with  black 
and  white;  middle  tail-feathers  black,  outer  ones  with  broken  black  bars;  ear 
region  white,  separated  from  the  white  throat  by  a  black  stripe  running  from 
the  bill  to  the  shoulder;  sides  and  under  tail-coverts  spotted  and  streaked 
with  black;  rest  of  the  underparts  white.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  without 
scarlet  on  the  head.  L.,  8'40;  W.,  4'65;  T.,  3'10;  B.,  '80. 

Range. — Austroriparian  fauna  n.  to  sw.  Va.,  Tenn.,  and  s.  Mo.,  and 
casually  to  N.  J. 

Nest,  usually  well  up  in  a  living  pine.  Eggs,  2-5,  white,  *91  x  '68.  Date, 
San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  29. 

This  species  is  a  common  inhabitant  of  the  "piny  woods.'7  It  pre- 
fers the  higher  branches  of  the  trees,  and  frequently  hangs  head  down- 
ward while  feeding  at  the  extremity  of  a  branch.  Its  call-note  suggests 
the  yank,  yank,  of  the  White-bellied  Nuthatch,  but  is  louder,  hoarser, 
and  not  so  distinctly  enunciated. 

400.  Picpides  arcticus  ( Swains. ).  ARCTIC  THREE  -  TOED  WOOD- 
PECKER. (Fig.  546.)  Ad.  <?. — Toes  three,  two  in  front;  middle  of  the 
crown  with  a  bright  orange-yellow  patch;  rest  of  the  upperparts  shining 
black;  wing-feathers  spotted  with  white;  middle  tail-feathers  black,  outer 
ones  white,  except  at  the  base;  a  white  line  from  the  nostril  passes  below  the 
eye;  sides  barred  with  black  and  white;  rest  of  the  underparts  white.  Ad. 


326  WOODPECKERS 

9. — Similar,  but  without  orange-yellow  on  the  crown.  L.,  9'50:  W.,  5*10: 
T.,  3*40;  B.  from  N.,  '98. 

Range. — Canadian  zone  s.  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Calif,  and  mts.  of 
Nev.,  Idaho,  Wyo.,  S.  D.  (Black  Hills),  Minn.,  Mich.,  n.  N.  Y.,  Vt.,  N.  H., 
and  Maine,  casual  in  winter  to  Nebr.,  Ills.,  Ohio,  Mass.,  and  Conn. 

Cambridge,  one  record.    N.  Ohio,  rare  W.  V.    SE.  Minn.,  rare. 

Nest,  in  a  tree  usually  not  over  15  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  1'05  x  *78. 
Date,  Seventh  Lake,  Fulton  Chain,  N.  Y.,  May  27. 

"It  is  a  restless,  active  bird,  spending  its  time  generally  on  the 
topmost  branches  of  the  tallest  trees,  without,  however,  confining  itself 
to  pines.  Although  it  can  not  be  called  shy,  its  habitual  restlessness 
renders  it  difficult  of  approach.  Its  movements  resemble  those  of  the 
Red-cockaded  Woodpecker,  but  it  is  still  more  petulant  than  that 
bird.  ...  Its  cries  also  somewhat  resemble  those  of  the  species  above 
mentioned,  but  are  louder  and  more  shrill,  like  those  of  some  small 
quadruped  suffering  great  pain.  .  .  . 

"Its  flight  is  rapid,  gliding,  and  deeply  undulating.  .  .  .  Now  and 
then  it  will  fly  from  a  detached  tree  of  a  field  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance before  it  alights,  emitting  at  every  glide  a  loud,  shrill  note" 
(Audubon). 

401.  Picoides  americanus  americanus  Brehm.    THREE-TOED  WOOD- 
PECKER.  Ad.  cf. — Toes  three,  two  in  front;  head  spotted  with  white  and  with 
an  orange-yellow  patch  on  the  crown;  back  barred  with  black  and  white; 
wing-feathers  spotted  with  black  and  white;  middle  tail-feathers  black; 
outer  ones  black  and  white;  region  below  the  eye  mixed  black  and  white; 
sides  more  or  less  barred  with  black  and  white;  rest  of  the  underparts 
white.    Ad.  9 . — Similar,  but  crown  spotted  with  black  and  white,  and  with- 
out yellow.    L.,  875;  W.,  4'55;  T.,  3'10;  B.  from  N.,  '95. 

Range. — Boreal  forests  from  ceil.  Ungava  to  n.  Minn.,  s.  Ont.,  n.  N.  Y., 
Maine,  and  N.  H.,  casual  in  winter  to  Mass. 

Nest,  in  a  tree  usually  not  over  12  feet  up.  Eggs,  white,  '92  x  *70  (Mer- 
riam,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club.,  Ill,  1878,  200).  Date,  Herkimer  Co.,  N.  Y., 
June  4. 

"It  is  said  to  greatly  resemble  P.  [=£>.]  villosus  in  habits,  except  that 
it  seeks  its  food  principally  upon  decaying  trees  of  the  pine  tribe,  in 
which  it  frequently  makes  holes  large  enough  to  bury  itself.  It  is  not 
migratory"  (B.,  B.,  and  R.). 

402.  Sphyrapicus    varius    varius     (Linn.}.     YELLOW-BELLIED    SAP- 
SUCKER.    Ad.  cf. — Crown  deep  scarlet,  back  irregularly  barred  with  black 
and  yellowish  white;  wing-feathers  spotted  with  white,  their  coverts  mostly 
white;  tail  black,  the  middle  feathers  with  broken  black  bars,  the  outer  ones 
with  white  margins;  a  white  line  from  the  bill  passes  below  the  eye;  throat 
cardinal;  breast  black;  sides  streaked  with  black;  belly  pale  yellow.   Ad.  9. — 
Similar,  but  throat  white;  crown  sometimes  black;  outer  tail-feathers  with 
broken  white  bars.    Im. — Similar  to  ads.,  but  with  the  crown  dull  blackish, 
the  breast  brownish  gray  barred  with  black,  the  throat  whitish.    L.,  8'56; 
W.,  4'87;  T.,  3'20;  B.,  '92. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  upper  parts  of  Alleghanian 
faunas,  from  sw.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  cen.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton 
Is.  s.  to  cen.  Alberta,  n.  Mo.,  n.  Ind.,  n.  Ohio,  N.  C.  (mts.),  and  Mass. (mts. 
of  n.  Berkshire  Co.);  winters  from  Pa.  and  Ohio  Valley  (casually  further  n.) 
to  the  Gulf  coast,  Bahamas,  Cuba,  and  Costa  Rica;  casual  in  Wyo. 

Washington,   common  T.   V.,   Mch.-May;  Sept.  and  Oct.,   occasional 


WOODPECKERS  327 

in  winter.    Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  5-May  13;  Sept.   18-Oct.  23; 
casual  in  winter,    Cambridge,  not  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  and  Sept.   15 
Nov.  1;  occasional  W.  V.    N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  1-May  20;  Sept. 
15-Oct.  20.    Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  31-May  12;  Sept.   14-Oct. 
13.   SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  25-Oct.  19. 

Nest,  about  40  feet  up.  Eggs,  5-7,  '87  x  '67.  Date,  Trenton  Falls,  N.  Y., 
May  26;  Goodrich,  Mich.,  May  20;  se.  Minn.,  May  13. 

As  migrants,  Sapsuckers  are  rather  inconspicuous.  They  frequent 
living  trees,  where  they  are  concealed  by  the  foliage  and  their  weak 
call-note  is  not  likely  to  attract  attention. 

On  reaching  their  summer  homes  in  the  spring  their  character 
changes,  and  Merriam  speaks  of  them  as  "noisy,  rollicking  fellows; 
they  are  always  chasing  one  another  among  the  trees,  screaming  mean- 
while at  the  tops  of  their  voices"  (Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  IV,  1879,  p.  2). 
Brewster  describes  the  note  of  the  adults  at  this  season  as  "a  clear, 
ringing  cleur,  repeated  five  or  six  times  in  succession;'7  while  young  and 
old  utter  "a  low,  snarling  cry  that  bears  no  very  distant  resemblance  to 
the  mew  of  the  Catbird"  (Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  1876,  p.  69). 

The  Sapsucker  feeds  largely  on  the  juices  of  trees,  which  it  obtains 
by  perforating  the  bark.  (Bolles,  Auk,VIll,  1891,  p.  256;  IX,  1892,  p.  110.) 

405.  Phloeotomus  pileatus  pileatus  (Linn.).  PILEATED  WOOD- 
PECKER. Ad.  d". — Upperparts  blackish  fuscous ;  whole  top  of  the  head  scarlet, 
the  feathers  lengthened  to  form  a  crest;  a  narrow  white  stripe  bordering 
this  crest  separates  it  from  the  fuscous  ear-coverts ;  a  stripe  beginning  at  the 
nostril  and  passing  down  the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  shoulders  is  tinged  with 


FIG.  93     Tip  of  tongue  of  Pileated  Woodpecker,  showing  barbed, 
horny  tip.    (Much  enlarged.) 

yellow  before  the  eye  and  is  white  back  of  the  eye;  it  is  separated  from  the 
white  throat  by  a  scarlet  stripe  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible;  basal 
half  of  the  wing-feathers  white;  underparts  fuscous,  the  feathers  sometimes 
lightly  margined  with  white;  bill  horn-color.  Ad.  9, — Similar,  but  without 
red  on  the  forepart  of  the  crown  or  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible.  L., 
17-00;  W.,  8'90;  T.,  6'20;  B.,  1'85. 

Range. — Austroriparian  forests  from  N.  C.,  s.  and  w.  to  middle  Tex.,  and 
«v.  Okla.;  casual  in  the  Bahamas. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  14. 

This  species  is  common  only  in  the  wilder  parts  of  its  range.  In 
the  hummocks  and  cypress  swamps  of  Florida  it  occurs  in  numbers. 
There,  contrary  to  the  experience  of  Audubon,  I  found  it  by  no  means 
a  wild  bird.  Indeed,  Flickers  were  more  difficult  to  approach.  On 
the  Suwanee  River,  in  March,  and  in  Maine,  in  June,  I  have  called  these 
birds  to  me  by  simply  clapping  my  slightly  closed  palms,  making  a 
sound  in  imitation  of  their  tapping  on  a  resonant  limb. 

The  flight  of  this  species  is  rather  slow,  but  usually  direct,  not 
undulating,  as  in  most  Woodpeckers.  When  under  way,  the  white 


328  WOODPECKERS 

markings  of  the  wings  show  conspicuously.  Their  usual  call-note  is  a 
sonorous  cow-cow-cow,  repeated  rather  slowly  many  times,  suggesting 
a  somewhat  similar  call  of  the  Flicker's.  Like  the  Flicker,  they  have 
also  a  wichew  note  uttered  when  two  birds  come  together. 

405a.  P.  p.  abieticola  (Bangs').  NORTHERN  PILEATED  WOODPECKER. 
Larger,  bill  longer,  white  markings  more  extensive.  W.,  9'10;  T.,  6'30;  B.f 
2'00  (cf.  Bangs,  Auk,  XV,  1898,  176). 

Range. — Canadian  and  Transition  zone  forests  of  N.  A.  from  ne.  B.  C., 
s.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Que.,  and  N.  F.  to  the  s.  Sierra  Nevada  oi 
Calif.,  n.  N.  M.,  and  the  s.  Alleghanies. 

Washington,  rare  P.  R.    N.  Ohio,  rare  P.  R.    SE.  Minn.,  rare  P.  R. 

Nest,  12  to  80  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  white,  1'30  x  '94.  Date,  Maine, 
May  11. 

1901.    MORRELL,  C.  H.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.,  Ill,  32-35  (in  Maine). 

406.  Melanerpes  erythrocephalus  (Linn.).  RED-HEADED  WOOD- 
PECKER. Ads. — Head,  neck,  throat,  and  upper  breast  deep  red;  upper  back, 
primaries,  bases  of  the  secondaries,  and  wing-coverts  bluish  black;  end  half 
of  the  secondaries,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  white;  tail  black,  the  feath- 
ers more  or  less  tipped  or  margined  with  white ;  lower  breast  and  belly  white, 
the  middle  of  the  latter  generally  tinged  with  reddish.  Im. — Red  head  and 
neck  of  the  adult  replaced  by  mixed  grayish  brown  and  fuscous;  upper  back 
bluish  black,  barred  with  ashy;  primaries  and  wing-coverts  black;  end  half 
of  the  secondaries  irregularly  barred  with  black;  tail  black,  generally  tipped 
with  white;  lower  breast  and  belly  white,  more  or  less  streaked  or  spotted 
with  fuscous.  L.,  9*75;  W.,  5'52;  T.,  3'30;  B.,  1'17. 

Range. — Transition  and  Austral  zones  from  se.  B.  C.,  s.  Alberta,  Man., 
and  Ont.  s.  to  the  Gulf  coast,  and  from  cen.  Mont.,  cen.  Colo.,  and  cen. 
Tex.,  e.  to  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  Delaware;  rare  and  local  in  New  Eng- 
land; casual  in  Ariz.,  N.  M.,  Utah,  N.  S.,  and  N.  B.;  irregularly  migratory 
in  the  n.  parts  of  its  range. 

Washington,  rather  common  S.  R.,  rare  W.  V.  Ossining,  rare  P.  R., 
common  in  fall,  Aug.  27-Oct.  12.  Cambridge,  irregular  at  all  seasons; 
sometimes  common  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  25; 
occasionally  winters.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  Feb.  19-Nov.  6;  a  few 
winter.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  4-Sept.  17;  rare  in  winter. 

Nest,  generally  in  a  dead  tree.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  TOO  x  '75.  Date,  San 
Mateo,  Fla.,  May  5;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  June  8;  Jay  Co.,  Ind.,  May  21,  inc. 
adv.;  se.  Minn.,  May  22. 

Give  a  bird  an  abundance  of  its  favorite  food,  and  its  movements 
no  longer  seem  to  be  governed  by  the  calendar.  R^d-hcaded  Wood- 
peckers were  supposed  to  migrate  southward  in  the  fall  and  pass  the 
winter  south  of  Maryland,  until  Dr.  Merriam,  in  his  interesting  account . 
of  the  habits  of  this  species  (Bull.  Null.  Orn.  Club,  III,  1878,  pp.  123-128), 
told  us  that  in  Lewis  County,  northern  New  York,  their  abundance  in 
winter  was  in  no  way  affected  by  the  severity  of  the  weather,  but  was 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  success  of  the  crop  of  beechnuts  which 
constitute  their  food. 

Indeed,  few  birds  seem  better  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  their 
surroundings.  They  change  their  fare  and  habits  with  the  season, 
and  to  the  accomplishments  of  Woodpeckers  add  those  of  Flycatchers 
and  fruit-eaters.  We  should  expect,  therefore,  to  find  them  very  gen- 
erally distributed,  but  in  the  northern  States  they  show  an  evident 


WOODPECKERS  329 

choice  for  certain  localities,  and  may  be  wanting  over  wide  stretches 
of  intervening  territory. 

They  are  noisy,  active  birds,  and  their  loud,  rolling,  tree-toadlike 
call,  ker-r-ruck,  ker-r-ruck,  and  bright  colors  combine  to  render  them 
conspicuous.  When  on  the  wing  the  white  secondaries  of  both  adult 
and  immature  birds  make  a  striking  field  mark. 

409.  Centurus  carolinus  (Linn.).  RED-BELLIED  WOODPECKER.  Ad. 
cf. — Whole  top  of  head  and  back  of  the  neck  bright  scarlet;  back  regularly 
barred  with  black  and  white;  primaries  black  at  the  end,  white,  irregularly 
barred  with  black,  at  the  base;  secondaries  black,  regularly  spotted  and 
barred  with  white;  upper  tail-coverts  white,  with  streaks  or  arrowheads  of 
black;  outer  tail-feathers  and  inner  vanes  of  the  middle  ones  irregularly 
marked  with  broken  black  and  white  bars;  cheeks  and  underparts  dull  ashy 
white,  the  region  about  the  base  of  the  bill,  the  middle  of  the  belly,  and  some- 
times the  breast,  more  or  less  tinged  with  red.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with  the 
crown  grayish  ashy,  the  scarlet  confined  to  the  nape  and  nostrils.  Im. — Simi- 
lar, but  with  the  belly  sometimes  tinged  with  buffy  instead  of  red.  -  L.,  9'50; 
W.,  5*00;  T.,  3-40;  B.,  I'lO. 

Range. — Upper  and  Lower  Austral  zones  of  e.  U.  S.  from  se.  S.  D.,  se. 
Minn.,  sw.  Ont.,  w.  N.  Y.,  sw.  Pa.,  and  Del.,  s.  to  cen.  Tex.,  and  the  Gulf 
coast;  casual  n.  to  Colo.,  and  Mass. 

Washington,  locally  common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  A.  V.,  one  record. 
N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  P.  R. 

Nest,  in  dead  or  living  trees,  from  20  feet  up.  Eggs,  4—6,  white,  1'05  x 
•75.  Date,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  last  of  April;  Black  Hawk  Co.,  Iowa,  May  5; 
se.  Minn.,  May  28. 

This  is  a  common  bird  in  our  Southern  States.  It  inhabits  alike 
coniferous  and  deciduous  growths,  but  prefers  the  latter.  It  ascends 
a  tree  in  a  curious,  jerky  fashion,  accompanying  each  upward  move 
by  a  hoarse  chuh-chuh.  It  also  utters  a  k-r-r-r-ring  roll  and,  when 
matings  a  whicker  call  like  that  of  the  Flicker. 

412.  Golaptes  auratus  auratus  (Linn.).  FLICKER.  Smaller,  darker, 
black  dorsal  bars  wider  than  in  the  following  form.  W.,  5*70;  T.,  3'60;  B., 
1-35  (cf.  Bangs,  Auk,  XV.  1898,  177). 

Range. — Austroriparian  fauna  from  N.  C.,  and  s.  Ills,  to  s.  Fla.,  and 
cen.  Tex. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  10. 

412a.  C.  a.   luteus   Bangs.     NORTHERN  FLICKER.     Ad.  <?.  —  Top  of 

the  head  ashy  gray,  a  bright  scarlet  band  across  the  back  of  the  neck; 
back,  wing-coverts,  and  exposed  part  of  secondaries  brownish  gray,  barred 
with  black;  rump  white;  primaries  black  externally,  the  inner  surface  of 
the  wing  and  the  shafts  of  the  feathers  yellow;  upper  tail-coverts  barred  or 
streaked  with  black  and  white;  tail  black  above,  yellow  tipped  with  black 
below,  the  outer  edges  of  the  feathers  slightly  margined  or  barred  with  white ; 
sides  of  the  head,  throat,  and  upper  breast  vinaceous;  a  broad  black  stripe 
on  each  side  of  the  throat  from  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  a  broad  black 
crescent  across  the  breast;  rest  of  the  underparts  white,  more  or  less  tinged 
with  vinaceous,  and  thickly  spotted  with  black.  Ad.  9 . — Similar,  but  with- 
out the  black  streaks  on  the  side  of  the  throat.  L.,  12'00;  W.,  6'00;  T.,  4*00; 
B.,  1-40. 

Remarks. — Exceptional  specimens  have  a  Tew  red  feathers  in  the  throat 
stripes.  A  male  from  Louisiana  has  this  mark  entirely  red  and  the  head  gray- 
ish brown,  while  another  specimen  from  Toronto  has  half  the  tail  orange-red. 


330  WOODPECKERS 

These  unusual  markings  are  supposed  to  be  due  to  hybridization  of  our 
Flicker  with  the  western  or  Red-shafted  Flicker,  which  resembles  the  eastern 
species  in  pattern  of  coloration,  but  has  the  crown  brownish  gray  or  grayish 
brown,  the  throat  stripes  scarlet,  the  throat  and  breast  gray,  the  under 
surface  of  wings  and  tail  dull  red,  and  lacks  the  red  nuchal  band.  (See  an 
important  paper  on  the  relationships  of  these  birds  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Allen,  in  the 
Bull  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.  IV.,  1892,  21-44). 

Range. — N.  and  e.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  tree  limits  in  nw.  Alaska,  to 
s.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mts.,  to  n.  edge  of  Austroriparian 
fauna;  occasional  on  Pacific  slope  from  Calif,  northward;  accidental  in 
Greenland;  migratory  through  most  of  Canada  but  more  or  less  regularly 
resident  within  the  U.  S.,  except  the  extreme  n.  parts;  s.  in  winter  to  the 
Gulf  coast  and  s.  Tex. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  rare  W.  V.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Mch. 
25-Oct.  30;  a  few  winter.  Cambridge,  very  common  S.  R.,  common  W.  V. 
N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.  Mch.  10-Nov.  15;  a  few  winter.  Glen  Ellyn, 
common  S.  R.,  Mch.  7-Dec.  24;  a  few  winter.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
Mch.  21-Oct.  16. 

Nest,  in  trees,  at  varying  heights  from  the  ground,  frequently  in  orch- 
ards. Eggs,  5-9,  1*10  x  '86.  Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  13;  D.  C., 
May  4;  Cambridge,  May  10;  se.  Minn.,  Apl.  28. 

The  habits,  notes,  and  colors  of  this  well-known  bird  are  reflected 
in  the  popular  names  which  have  been  applied  to  it  throughout  its 
wide  range.  No  less  than  124  of  these  aliases  have  been  recorded,  and 
many  have  doubtless  escaped  the  compiler. 

The  Flicker  is  a  bird  of  character.  Although  a  Woodpecker,  he 
is  too  original  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  others  of  his  tribe.  They 
do  not  frequent  the  ground,  but  that  is  no  reason  why  he  should  not 
humor  his  own  terrestrial  propensities  and  a  fondness  for  ants,  and  we 
may  therefore  frequently  flush  him  from  the  earth,  when,  with  a  low 
chuckle,  he  goes  bounding  off  through  the  air,  his  white  rump  showing 
conspicuously  as  he  flies. 

The  Flicker,  like  other  Woodpeckers,  beats  a  rolling  tattoo  in  the 
spring,  but  his  vocal  song  proper  is  a  rapidly-repeated,  mellow  cuh- 
cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh,  etc.,  as  springlike  a  sound  as  the  peeping  of  frogs. 
His  usual  note  is  a  vigorous,  nasal  kee-yer.  It  recalls  frosty  fall  morn- 
ings when  the  High-holes  are  gathering  to  feed  on  the  woodbine  and 
pepperidge  berries.  Approaching  their  feeding-grounds,  one  may  hear 
the  "Flicker"  note.  It  can  be  closely  imitated  by  the  swishing  of  a 
willow  wand:  weechew,  weechew,  weechew.  I  never  remember  hearing 
a  bird  utter  this  note  when  alone.  It  is  accompanied  by  the  oddest 
gestures,  as  with  tails  stiffly  spread  the  birds  bob  and  bow  to  each 
other. 

1892.  ALLEN,  J.  A.,  Bull.  A.  M.  N.  H.,  21-44  (hybridism).— 1900. 
BURNS,  F.  L.,  Wilson  Bull.,  1-82  (monograph). — 1910.  SHERMAN,  A.  R.f 
Wilson  Bull.,  135-171  (home-life). 


NIGHTHAWKS  AND  WHIP-POOR-WILLS      331 


XVI.  ORDER  MACROCHII^ES.    GOATSUCKERS,  SWIFTS, 
HUMMINGBIRDS,    ETC. 

44.  FAMILY   CAPRIMULGID.E.     NIGHTHAWKS,   WHIP-POOR-WILLS,    ETC. 

(Fig.  55.) 

Goatsuckers  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  but  are  more 
numerously  represented  in  the  tropics.  Some  one  hundred  species  are 
known,  of  which  about  one-half  are  American,  though  only  six  reach 
North  America.  Most  of  the  American  species  are  forest-inhabiting, 
passing  the  day  upon  the  leaves  or  perched  lengthwise  upon  the  branches 
of  trees,  where  their  dull,  blended  colors  harmonize  with  their  surround- 
ings. The  Nighthawks,  however,  are  equally  at  home  in  treeless  coun- 
tries. Nighthawks  feed  high  in  the  air,  like  Swifts,  while  other  species 
frequent  the  borders  of  forests  or  clearings,  where  they  feed  nearer  the 
ground.  All  the  species  capture  their  food  of  insects  on  the  wing,  their 
enormous  mouths  and  the  long,  stiffened  bristles,  which  in  some  species 
beset  its  base,  especially  adapting  them  to  this  mode  of  feeding.  Many 
of  the  species  are  possessed  of  remarkable  vocal  powers,  and  their 
cries  are  among  the  most  striking  of  bird-notes.  They  make  no  nest 
but  lay  their  two  mottled  or  marbled  eggs  on  the  ground.  The  young 
are  hatched  covered  with  down. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  A  white  spot  in  the  wing. 

420.  NIGHTHAWK.     420c.  FLORIDA  NIGHTHAWK., 

B.  No  white  spot  in  the  wing;  primaries  spotted  with  rufous. 

a.  Wing  under  7'50 417.  WHIP-POOR-WILL,. 

6.  Wing  over  7*50 416.  CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW. 

416.  Antrostomus  carolinensis  (Gmel.}.  CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW.  Ad. 
d". — Upperparts  streaked  with  black  and  finely  mottled  with  ochraceous- 
buff  and  black;  primaries  black,  with  broken  rufous  bars;  tail  mottled  with 
black  and  ochraceous-buff,  the  end  half  of  all  but  the  two  middle  feathers 
white,  more  or  less  washed  with  buffy  on  the  inner  vane;  underparts  mot- 
tled with  black,  ochraceous,  and  cream-buff;  an  imperfect  whitish  band 
across  the  upper  breast;  base  of  the  bill  beset  with  long,  stiffened  bristles, 
the  basal  half  of  these  bristles  grown  with  hairlike  branches.  Ad.  9 . — Similar, 
but  with  no  white  patches  in  the  tail,  the  upper  breast  with  an  ochraceous- 
buff  instead  of  white  band.  L.,  12'00;  W.,  8'50;  T.,  6'00;  B.,  '40. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  Mo.,  Ind.,  s.  Ohio,  and 
s.  Va.  s.  to  cen.  Tex.,  and  Gulf  States;  casual  in  Kans.  and  Md.,  accidental 
in  Mass,  and  Ont. ;  winters  from  s.  Fla.  to  Greater  Antilles  and  Colombia. 

Washington,  one  record.    Cambridge,  A.  V.,  one  record,  Dec. 

Eggs,  2,  laid  on  the  ground  or  leaves,  in  woods  or  thickets,  dull  white, 
with  delicate,  obscure  pale  lilac  markings,  and  a  few  distinct  brownish  gray 
spots,  1'40  x  -98.  Date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  14. 

Generally  speaking,  this  species  resembles  the  Whip-poor-will  in 
habits.  Its  notes  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  that  species,  but  are 
louder,  less  rapidly  uttered,  and  each  call  has  an  additional  syllable. 
Its  gape  is  enormous,  the  wide-open  mouth  of  an  adult  measuring 


332      NIGHTHAWKS  AND  WHIP-POOR-WILLS 

about  two  inches  from  corner  to  corner.  For  this  reason  it  can  swal- 
low large  objects  with  ease,  and  both  Hummingbirds  and  Sparrows 
have  been  found  in  the  Chuck-wilFs-widow's  stomach.  Possibly  they 
were  mistaken  for  large  moths,  but  Gerald  Thayer  records  a 
Chuck-will's-widow  which,  following  a  steamer  off  the  Carolina 
coast,  was  seen  to  pursue  and  catch  Warblers  on  the  wing.  (Auk. 
1899,  pp.  273-276.) 

417.  Antrostomus  vociferus  vociferus  (Wils.).  WHIP-POOR-WILL. 
Ad.  <?. — Upperparts  streaked  with  black,  the  head  finely  mottled  with  black 
and  white,  the  back  mottled  with  ochraceous-buff  and  black;  primaries 
black,  with  broken  rufous  bars;  tail  irregularly  barred  with  black  and  mot- 


FIG.  94.    Whip-poor-  will. 


tied  with  whitish  or  cream-buff;  end  half  of  three  outer  feathers  while; 
black  on  the  outer  vane  of  the  outer  feather  extending  farther  down  than 
on  the  others;  throat  and  breast  blackish,  finely  mottled  with  cream-buff 
or  ochraceous-buff;  a  narrow  white  band  across  the  upper  breast;  belly 
cream-buff,  irregularly  barred  with  blackish;  base  of  the  bill  beset  with 
long,  stiffened  bristles,  which  are  without  hairlike  branches.  Ad.  9.  —  Sim- 
ilar, but  outer  three  tail-feathers  narrowly  tipped  with  ochraceous-buff; 
band  on  the  throat  cream-buff  instead  of  white.  L.,  9'75;  W.,  6'08;  T., 
4-65;  B.,  '37. 

Range.  —  E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  Man.,  s.  Que.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.,  s. 
to  n.  parts  of  La.,  Miss.,  and  Ga.,  and  from  e.  N.  D.,  Nebr.,  and  Kans. 
eastward;  winters  from  the  lowlands  of  S.  C.  and  the  s.  parts  of  the  Gulf 
States  to  British  Honduras  and  Salvador. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  13-Oct.  13.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  19-Oct.  17.  Cambridge,  formerly  S.  R.,  now  chiefly  T.  V.,  Apl.  30- 
Sept.  20.  N.  Ohio,  locally  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn, 
rare,  spring  records  only,  Apl.  19-May  21.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
17-Sept.  28. 

Eggs,  2,  laid  on  the  ground  or  leaves,  in  woods  or  thickets;  dull  white, 
with  delicate,  obscure  lilac  markings  and  a  few  distinct  brownish  gray  spots, 


NIGHTHAWKS  AND  WHIP-POOR-WILLS      333 

ri8  x  '84.    Date,  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  May  2;  Cambridge,  May  26;  Lake  City, 
Minn.,  May  20;  se.  Minn.,  May  26. 

In  walking  through  rather  densely  grown  woods  I  have  sometimes 
been  surprised  by  having  a  Whip-poor-will  fly  up  from  beneath  my 
feet  and  disappear  in  the  surrounding  growth.  I  say  surprised,  because 
the  bird's  flight  is  as  noiseless  as  a  moth's,  and  this  unusual  ghostly 
silence  is  almost  as  startling  as  the  whir  of  a  Grouse. 

The  Whip-poor-will's  day  begins  when  the  sun  goes  down.  Then 
he  passes  out  into  bushy  fields  near  his  home,  and,  flying  low,  catches 
his  supper  on  the  wing.  Between  courses  he  rests  on  some  low  perch, 
and  gives  utterance  to  the  notes  familiar  to  many  who  have  never 
seen  their  author.  Whip' -poor-will' ,  whip' -poor-will'  he  calls,  rapidly 
and  with  unexpected  snap  and  vigor.  If  one  is  quite  near  the  singer, 
a  preliminary  chuck  may  be  heard  before  each  call.  These  notes  are 
given  for  about  two  hours  after  sunset  and  for  a  short  time  before 
sunrise. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the  marked  difference  in  their 
habits  and  notes,  the  Nighthawk  and  Whip-poor-will  are  frequently 
considered  to  be  the  same  species.  It  is  not  the  only  case,  however,' 
where  the  notes  of  some  species  difficult  of  observation  have  been  attrib- 
uted to  a  species  whose  habits  render  it  conspicuous. 

420.  Chordeiles  virginianus  virginianus  (GmeL).  NIGHTHAWK. 
(Fig.  55.)  Ad.  of1. — Upperparts  black,  irregularly  marked  with  whitish, 
cream-buff,  or  ochraceous-buff ;  primaries  fuscous,  crossed  in  the  middle 
by  a  conspicuous  white  bar  which  rarely  reaches  the  outer  vane  of  the  first 
primary;  tail  fuscous  or  black,  with  broken  bars  of  cream-buff  and  a  white 
band  near  the  end  on  all  but  the  middle  feathers ;  throat  with  a  broad  white 
band ;  chin  and  upper  breast  black,  the  feathers  tipped  with  ochraceous-buff, 
cream-buff,  or  white;  the  rest  of  the  underparts  barred  with  black  and  white, 
sometimes  tinged  with  buff.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with  no  white  on  the  tail, 
throat-patch  ochraceous-buff,  underparts  more  or  less  washed  with  ochra- 
ceous-buff. L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  7'85;  T.,  4'60;  B.,  '25. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  Yukon,  cen.  Mackenzie,  cen. 
Keewatin,  n.  Que.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  n.  parts  of  Gulf  States  and  w.  to  edge 
of  Plains  from  Minn,  to  ne.  Tex.;  winters  s.  to- Argentina. 

Washington,  not  common  S.  R. ;  abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  19-Oct.  8.  Ossin- 
ing,  common  S.  R.,  May  9-Oct.  11.  Cambridge,  rare  S.  R.,  common  T.  V., 
May  15-Sept.  25.  N.  Ohio,  locally  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  20.  Glen 
Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  common  T.  V.,  May  1-Oct.  14.  SE.  Minn, 
common  S.  R.,  May  4-Sept.  30. 

E\jgs,  2,  laid  on  the  bare  ground  or  a  flat  rock  in  open  fields,  rarely  on 
the  roof  of  a  house,  dull  white,  evenly  marked  with  small,  irregularly  shaped 
blotches  or  fine  specklings  of  grayish  brown  or  brownish  gray,  1*20  x  '86. 
Date,  Beaufort,  S.  C.,  May  7;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  24;  New  London,  Ct., 
June  1;  Cambridge,  June  5;  se.  Minn.,  June  7. 

In  wooded  regions  the  Nighthawk  passes  the  day  perched  length- 
wise on  a  limb,  but  on  the  plains  he  roosts  upon  the  ground,  where  his 
colors  harmonize  with  his  surroundings.  Soon  after  sunset  he  mounts 
high  in  the  air  to  course  for  insects.  Batlike  he  flies  erratically  about, 
and  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals  utters  a  loud  nasal  peent,  this  call 
being  followed  by  two  or  three  unusually  quick,  flitting  wing-beats. 


334  SWIFTS 

Long  after  the  light  has  fac'ed  from  the  western  horizon  we  may  hear 
this  voice  from  the  starlit  heavens,  for  the  Nighthawk  is  one  of  our  few 
truly  nocturnal  birds.  Occasionally  the  peents  are  given  more  rapidly, 
and  after  calling  several  times  in  close  succession  the  bird  on  half-closed 
wings  dives  earthward  with  such  speed  that  one  fears  for  his  safety;  but 
just  before  the  ground  is  reached  he  checks  his  rapid  descent  by  an 
abrupt  turn,  and  on  leisurely  wing  again  mounts  upward  to  repeat  this 
game  of  sky-coasting  At  the  moment  the  turn  is  made  one  may  hear  a 
rushing,  booming  sound,  which,  as  writers  have  remarked,  can  be  imi- 
tated in  tone  by  blowing  across  the  bung-hole  of  an  empty  barrel.  It 
is  made  by  the  passage  of  the  air  through  the  bird's  primaries. 

In  late  summer  Nighthawks  gather  in  large  flocks  and  begin  their 
southward  migrations.  When  flying  the  white  mark  on  their  primaries 
is  a  conspicuous  character,  and  has  the  appearance  of  being  a  hole  in 
the  bird's  wing. 

1905.    HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Home-Life  of  Wild  Birds,  129-135. 

420b.  C.  v.  chapman!  Coues.  FLORIDA  NIGHTHAWK.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  smaller,  and  with  the  white  and  cream-buff  markings  of  the 
upperparts  more  numerous.  L.,  8'60;  W.,  7' 10;  T.,  4'10. 

Range. — Breeds  in  the  Gulf  coast  belt  from  eastern  Tex.  to  Fla. ;  winter 
range  unknown. 

Nesting  date,  Volusia  Co.,  Fla.,  May  8. 

420c.  C.  v.  sennetti  Coues.  SENNETT'S  NIGHTHAWK.  Palest  of  our 
Nighthawks;  whitish  prevailing  in  wing  coverts  and  scapulars;  less  rufous 
than  in  C.  v.  henryi;  less  heavily  barred  below  than  C.  v.  virginianus.  W., 
7-10. 

Range. — Breeds  on  treeless  plains  from  Sask.  and  Man.  s.  to  cen.  Nebr. ; 
occasional  in  Iowa,  Wise.,  and  Ills.;  winter  range  unknown,  probably  in 
S.  A. 

45.  FAMILY  MICROPODID^E.  SWIFTS.   (Fig.  56.) 

The  ninety-odd  known  species  of  Swifts  are  distributed  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  world  but  are  most  abundant  in  the  tropics. 
About  one-third  this  number  are  American  but  only  four  advance  north 
of  Mexico.  Some  Swifts  nest  in  colonies  and  most  species  are  associated 
in  companies,  at  other  times  of  the  year.  Hollow  trees  and  caves  are  the 
natural  nesting-  and  roosting-places  of  many  species,  while  others  fasten 
their  nests  to  the  under  surface  of  palm  leaves,  and  the  East  Indian 
Tree  Swifts  attach  their  nest  to  a  limb.  Most  Swifts  appear  to  employ 
the  glutinous  secretion  of  the  salivary  glands  in  nest-construction  and 
the  edible  nests  of  the  Swifts  of  the  genus  Collocalia  are  composed 
entirely  of  this  substance. 

Swifts  lay  white  eggs  and  the  young  are  naked  when  hatched.  They 
feed  entirely  while  flying,  and  with  their  unusually  long  wings  and  small, 
compactly  feathered  bodies  possess  unrivaled  powers  of  flight.  Swifts 
are  popularly  confused  with  Swallows,  but  the  resemblance  is  only 
superficial  and  exists  chiefly  in  the  similarity  of  flight  and  feeding 


HUMMINGBIRDS  335 

habits,  while  the  structural  differences  between  the  two  are  numerous 
and  important. 

423.  Chsetura  pelagica  (Linn.}.  CHIMNEY  SWIFT;  CHIMNEY  "SWAL- 
LOW." (Fig.  56.)  Ads. — Entire  plumage  fuscous,  more  grayish  on  the 
throat;  a  sooty  black  spot  before  the  eye;  shafts  of  the  tail-feathers  extend- 
ing beyond  the  vanes.  LM  5'43;  W.,  4'94;  T.,  1'90;  B.  from  N.,  '15. 

Range. — Breeds  in  e.  N.  A.  from  se.  Sask.,  Man.,  cen.  Que.,  and  N.  F. 
s.  to  the  Gulf  coast,  and  w.  to  the  Plains  from  e.  Mont.,  to  e.  Tex.;  winters 
s.  of  the  U.  S.,  at  least  to  Vera  Cruz  and  Cozumel  Is.  and  probably  in  Cen. 
Am.;  casual  in  s.  Alberta;  accidental  in  N.  M.,  and  Greenland. 

Washington,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  6-Oct.  27.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  19-Oct.  23.  Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Sept.  20.  N.  Ohio, 
abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Oct.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  16-Sept. 
29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  18. 

Nest,  a  bracketlike  basket  of  dead  twigs  glued  together  with  saliva; 
attached  to  the  wall  of  a  chimney,  generally  about  ten  feet  from  the  top,  by 
the  gummy  secretion  of  the  bird's  salivary  glands.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  '80x*50. 
Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  June  3;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  June  8;  Cambridge,  June 
10;  Petersburg,  Mich.,  June  7. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  give  any  aids  to  the  identification  of  a  bird  as 
well  known  as  the  Chimney  Swift,  or,  as  it  is  more  frequently  called, 
" Chimney  Swallow."  It  is  not,  however,  a  Swallow,  but  a  Swift,  and 
its  structural  relations  are  with  the  Hummingbirds  and  not  with  the 
Passerine  Swallows. 

Few  sights  in  the  bird- world  are  more  familiar  than  the  bow-and- 
arrow-like  forms  of  these  rapidly  flying  birds  silhouetted  against  the  sky. 
They  are  most  active  early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the  afternoon, 
when  one  may  hear  their  rolling  twitter  as  they  course  about  overhead. 
Sometimes  they  sail  with  wings  held  aloft  over  their  backs,  and  some- 
times, it  is  said,  they  use  their  wings  alternately.  It  is  a  common  thing 
to  see  a  trio  of  birds  flying  together,  but  it  has  never  been  ascertained 
that  the  Chimney  Swift  is  polygamous. 

In  some  localities  Chimney  Swifts  congregate  in  large  flocks,  mak- 
ing their  headquarters  in  a  disused  chimney  which  morning  and  even- 
ing they  leave  and  return  to  in  a  body.  In  perching  they  cling  to  the 
side  of  the  chimney,  using  the  spine-pointed  tail,  as  Woodpeckers  do, 
for  a  support.  The  habit  of  frequenting  chimneys  is,  of  course,  a  recent 
one,  and  the  substitution  of  this  modern,  artificial  home  for  hollow 
trees,  illustrates  the  readiness  with  which  a  bird  may  take  advantage 
of  a  favoring  change  in  its  environment. 

46.  FAMILY  TROCHILID^;.  HUMMINGBIRDS.   (Fig.  57.) 

Hummingbirds  are  found  only  in  the  New  World.  About  five  hun- 
dred species  are  known.  They  range  from  Alaska  to  Patagonia,  but  are 
most  numerous  in  the  Andean  regions  of  Colombia  and  Ecuador.  Eigh- 
teen species  have  been  found  in  the  United  States;  only  eight  of  these 
advance  beyond  our  Mexican  border  States,  and  but  one  species  occurs 
east  of  the  Mississippi. 


336  HUMMINGBIRDS 

Several  species  inhabit  the  depths  of  dark  tropical  forests,  but,  as  a 
rule,  they  are  found  with  the  flowers  which  bloom  in  the  clearings,  or 
far  overhead  in  the  sunlight.  They  are  not  gregarious,  but  an  abundance 
of  food  sometimes  brings  large  numbers  of  them  together,  when  the 
air  becomes  animated  with  their  rapidly  moving  forms.  The  smaller 
species  fly  so  swiftly  that  their  wings  are  lost  in  hazy  circles,  and  it  is 
difficult  for  the  human  eye  to  follow  their  course.  The  flight  of  the 
larger  species  is  less  insectlike,  and  each  wing-beat  can  be  detected. 
As  a  rule  their  voice  is  a  weak  squeak  or  excited  chippering,  but  some  of 
the  tropical  species  have  songs  of  decided  character  which  they  sing 
with  much  energy. 

Hummingbirds  feed  largely  on  insects,  which  they  generally  capture 
in  flowers,  but  many  species  catch  insects  on  the  wing  or  pick  them 
from  beneath  leaves.  They  also  feed  on  the  juices  of  flowers.  The  nest  is 
usually  composed  of  plant  down,  bound  about  with  spiders'  webs  and 
covered  with  lichens  skilfully  attached  to  a  limb  or  leaf,  and  is  as 
exquisitely  dainty  in  appearance  as  its  maker.  All  the  species  whose 
nesting  habits  are  known  lay  two  white  eggs.  The  period  of  incubation 
with  our  Ruby-throat  is  fourteen  days.  The  young  are  naked  when 
hatched,  but  a  mere  breath  of  down  precedes  the  growth  of  the 
Juvenal  plumage. 

Strangely  enough,  these  beautiful  little  creatures  are  possessed  of 
a  most  unfortunate  disposition,  which  frequently  leads  them  to  attack 
any  bird  they  fancy  is  trespassing  on  their  domain.  They  know  no 
fear,  and  with  equal  courage  rush  at  one  of  their  kind  or  a  passing 
Hawk. 

1892.  RIDQWAY,  R.,  Rep.  U.  S.  N.  M.,  forlSOO,  253-383.  (Monographic.) 

428.  Archilochus  colubris  (Linn.}.  RUBY-THROATED  HUMMINGBIRD. 
(Fig.  57.)  Ad.  d". — Upper-parts  bright,  shining  green;  wings  and  tail  fuscous, 
with  purplish  reflections;  throat  beautiful  metallic  ruby-red,  bordered  on 
the  breast  by  whitish;  rest  of  the  underparts  dusky,  washed  with  greenish 
on  the  sides;  tail  forked.  Ad.  9. — No  ruby  throat-patch;  bronzy  green 
above,  whitish  below;  tail  nearly  even,  outer  three  feathers  tipped  with 
white.  Im.  d". — Similar  to  9,  but  throat  with  dusky  streaks,  and,  in  older 
birds,  with  ruby  colored  feathers.  L.,  374;  W.,  1'54;  T.,  1'15;  B.,  '67. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  se.  Sask.,  cen.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton 
Is.  s.  to  Gulf  coast  and  Fla.,  w.  to  N.  D.,  Nebr.,  Kans.,  and  cen.  Tex.;  winters 
from  middle  and  s.  Fla.,  and  La.  through  s.  Mex.  and  Cen.  Am.  to  Panama; 
casual  in  Cuba  in  migration. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  23-Oct.  18.  Ossining,  common  S.  RM 
Apl.  30-Oct.  3.  Cambridge,  very  common  T.  V.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  May  10- 
Sept.  20.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  S.  R., 
May  1-Sept.  22.  SE.  Minn,,  common  S.  R.,  May  19-Oct.  8. 

Nest,  of  plant  down,  covered  externally  with  lichens  and  firmly  wound 
with  almost  invisible  plant  fibers;  generally  15-25  feet  up,  saddled  on  a  limb. 
Eggs,  2,  white,  '50  x  '35.  Date,  Lafayette  Co.,  Miss.,  May  6;  Iredell  Co., 
N.  C.,  May  11;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  20;  Cambridge,  May  24. 

The  Ruby-throat  needs  no  song.  Its  beauty  gives  it  distinction, 
and  its  wings  make  music.  Its  only  note,  so  far  as  I  know,  is  a  squeak, 
expressive  of  distrust  or  excitement.  It  has  no  rival  in  eastern  North 


FLYCATCHERS  337 

America,  and  is  to  be  confounded  with  nothing  but  sphinx  (hum- 
mingbird) moths.  One  hears  of  "Hummingbirds"  seen  in  the  evening 
about  flower-beds.  The  mistake  is  not  unnatural,  and  a  correction  is 
sometimes  received  with  incredulity.  The  birds  spend  but  a  compara- 
tively small  part  of  the  time  upon  the  wing.  Whoever  watches  a  female 
busy  about  her  nest  will  see  her  constantly  perching  here  and  there 
in  certain  branches  of  the  tree,  preening  her  plumage  and  looking 
about  her.  The  male,  at  the  same  season,  forgetful,  to  all  appearance, 
of  his  conjugal  and  parental  duties,  may  be  found  at  home  day  after 
day  on  a  dead  twig  in  some  tall  tree,  where  he  sits  so  constantly  as  to 
make  the  observer  wonder  what  he  can  be  about,  and  when,  if  ever,  he 
takes  his  food.  Further  investigation,  however,  will  show'that  he  makes 
frequent  and  regular  rounds  of  favorite  feeding-places.  A  tall  blue- 
berry bush,  for  example,  will  be  visited  at  short  intervals  as  long  as  the 
observer  has  patience  to  stand  beside  it.  The  Hummingbird  is  curiously 
fearless.  Sometimes  one  will  probe  a  flower  held  in  the  hand,  and  when 
they  fly  into  houses,  as  they  pretty  often  do,  they  manifest  but  the 
smallest  degree  of  suspicion,  and  will  feed  almost  at  once  upon  sugar 
held  between  the  lips.  The  old  bird  feeds  the  young  by  regurgitation — 
a  frightful-looking  act— the  food  consisting  largely  of  minute  insects. 
The  young  remain  in  the  nest  for  some  three  weeks,  and  on  leaving 
it  are  at  once  at  home  on  the  wing.  BRADFORD  TORREY. 


XVII.    ORDER  PASSERES.    PERCHING  BIRDS.   (Fig.  58.) 

"Doubtless  every  order  of  birds  has  had  its  day  when,  if  it  were  not 
a  dominant  type,  it  was  at  least  sufficiently  near  it  to  be  considered 
modern;  and  as  we  review  what  is  known  to  us  of  that  great  series  of 
feathered  forms,  from  the  Archseopteryx  to  the  Thrushes,  we  can  rea- 
lize how  varied  has  been  the  characteristic  avifauna  of  each  succeeding 
epoch  from  the  Jurassic  period  to  the  present. 

"Now  has  come  the  day  of  the  order  Passeres,  the  Perching  Birds; 
here  belong  our  Flycatchers,  Orioles,  Jays,  Sparrows,  and  Finches, 
Vireos,  Swallows,  Wrens,  Thrushes,  and  many  others.  A  recent  author- 
ity classifies  birds  in  thirty-four  orders,  but  fully  one-half  of  the 
13,000  known  species  are  included  in  the  single  order  Passeres" 
("Bird-Life"). 

All  our  Passerine  birds  are  born  in  an  almost  naked  condition,  having 
only  a  mere  trace  of  down  on  the  feather-tracts  of  the  upperparts  of 
the  body.  At  its  full  development  this  natal  down  presents  a  soft, 
fluffy  appearance  over  the  cowering  nestlings.  It  is  pushed  outward 
by  the  feathers  of  the  Juvenal  plumage,  to  the  tips  of  which  portions  of 
it  may  be  seen  adhering  when  the  young  bird  leaves  the  nest.  With 
some  passerine  birds  (e.  g.,  Song  Sparrow)  this  is  at  the  end  of  only 
seven  days  (Owen,  Auk,  1899,  p.  222).  Compare  this  surprisingly  rapid 
development  with  that  of  a  Noddy  Tern,  for  instance,  which  does  not 


338  FLYCATCHERS 

venture  to  leave  its  home  until  it  is  two  months  old,  and  is  dependent 
on  its  parents  for  a  month  more  (Thompson,  Bird-Lore,  1903,  p.  81). 

In  most  cases  the  nestling  or  Juvenal  plumage  is  soon  followed  by 
the  first  winter  plumage,  but  some  few  birds  (e.  g.  Seaside  and  Sharp- 
tailed  Sparrows)  wear  it  for  two  months  or  more.  As  a  rule,  at  the  post- 
juvenal  molt,  the  feathers  of  the  body  and  small  wing-feathers  are 
molted,  while  the  primaries  and  secondaries  with  their  coverts  and  the 
tail  are  retained,  and  it  is  often  only  by  the  color  and  appearance  of 
these  feathers  that  the  bird  of  the  year  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
adult  in  winter,  and  during  the  former's  first  breeding  season. 

The  spring  molt  is  rarely  complete;  more  frequently  it  is  restricted  to 
the  body  feathers,  more  frequently  still  it  affects  only  the  region  about 
the  head  and  throat,  while  some  species  undergo  no  feather  renewal 
at  that  season.  The  post-breeding  molt  of  the  bird  a  year  old,  as  well 
as  of  those  older,  is  complete. 

1900.  DWIGHT,  J.,  JR.,  Sequence  of  Plumages  and  Moults  of  the  Passerine 
Birds  of  New  York,  Ann.  N.  Y.  Acad.  Sci.,  XIII,  173-360. 

47.  FAMILY  TYRANNID^E.  FLYCATCHERS.  (Fig.  59.) 

From  the  systematist's  standpoint,  Flycatchers  are  songless  perch- 
ing birds.  It  does  not  follow  that  they  are  voiceless,  or  even  truly  song- 
less,  but  that,  having  the  voice-organ,  or  syrinx,  less  highly  developed 
than  other  Passeres,  they  are  possessed  of  comparatively  limited  vocal 
powers.  This  family  is  peculiar  to  America.  The  Old- World  Flycatchers 
belong  to  the  family  Muscicapidce  and  are  true  0 seines.  Of  the  Tyran- 
nidce  some  four  hundred  species  are  known.  They  are  most  abundant 
in  the  tropics,  where  their  services  as  insect-catchers  are  in  greatest 
demand.  Thirty  species  reach  the  United  States. 

Flycatchers  are  found  wherever  there  are  trees.  As  a  rule  they  are 
of  sedentary  and  solitary  disposition.  Their  manner  of  feeding  is  char- 
acteristic. From  a  favorable  perch,  hawklike,  they  await  passing  insects, 
and  with  an  aim  that  rarely  misses,  launch  forth  into  the  air;  there  is  a 
sharp,  suggestive  click  of  the  broad  bill,  and  completing  their  aerial 
circle,  they  return  to  their  perch  and  are  again  en  garde. 

Both  the  nature  of  their  food  and  tropical  origin  induce  in  Fly- 
catchers highly  migratory  habits,  the  Phoebe  being  the  only  eastern 
species  to  winter  in  the  United  States  north  of  southern  Florida. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  Wing  over  3'00. 

1.  Outer  tail-feather  white  or  whitish  on  outer  web  or  both  webs. 

A.  Tail,  9.00,  deeply  forked,  sides  of  breast  scarlet,  flanks  salmon. 

443.     SdSSOR-TAILED  FLYCATCHER. 

B.  Tail  black,  not  forked,  outer  web  of  outer  feather,  white,  belly  yellow, 

back  gray 447.    ARKANSAS  KINGBIRD. 

2.  Outer  tail-feather  not  white  on  outer  web. 

A.  Tail  black  or  blackish,   sometimes  tipped  with  white,   adults  with 
a  concealed  orange-red  crown  patch. 


FLYCATCHERS  339 

a.  Under  wing-coverts  yellowish,  no  white  tip  on  the  tail. 

445.  GRAY  KINGBIRD. 

b.  Under  wing-coverts  blackish,  tail  tipped  with  white    444.  KINGBIRD. 
B.  Tail  not  tipped  with  white,  no  crown  patch. 

a.  Inner  vane  of  tail-feathers  pale  rufous;  throat  and  breast  grayish; 

belly  sulphur-yellow 452.  CRESTED  FLYCATCHER. 

6.  Tail  fuscous. 

61.  Entire  bill  black;  wing  rarely  more  than  "50  longer  than  tail; 
tarsus  decidedly  longer  than  bill ;  under  tail-coverts  always  pale, 

yellowish  white 456.  PHCEBE. 

c1.  Under  mandible  generally  in  whole  or  part  pale  brownish;  wing 

always  more  than  *50  longer  than  tail;  tarsus  about  equal  to 

bill;  some  of  under  tail-coverts  frequently  with  darker  centers. 

c2.  Wing  over  3'50;  sides  and  breast,  except  a  narrow  whitish  line 

through  its  center,  of  the  same  color  as  the  back. 

459.  OLIVE-SIDED  FLYCATCHER. 
c3.  Wing  under  3*50;  breast  and  sides  washed  with  olive-gray. 

461,  WOOD  PEWEE. 
II.  Wing  under  3'00. 

A.  Upperparts  between  olive-brown  and  dark  olive-green,  but  with  an 

evident  brownish  tinge,  or  lower  mandible  brownish. 
a.  Wing  over  2*60;  lower  mandible  flesh-color  or  whitish;  underparts 
with  only  a  very  slight  tinge  of  yellow. 

466.  TRAILL'S  FLYCATCHER.    466a.  ALDER  FLYCATCHER. 

6.  Wing  under  2 '60;  lower  mandible  rarely  clear  flesh-color,  generally 

strongly  tinged  with  brownish     .     .     .     467.  LEAST  FLYCATCHER. 

B.  Upperparts   olive-green   without   a   brownish   tinge;   lower   mandible 

straw-color. 

a.  First  primary  about  equal  to  fifth;  underparts  white,  slightly  washed 

with  yellowish  on  the  breast  and  belly;  throat  white. 

465.  ACADIAN  FLYCATCHER. 

b.  First  primary  shorter  than  fifth;  underparts   sulphur-yellow;   the 

throat  and  breast  more  or  less  washed  with  olive-green. 

463.  YELLOW-BELLIED  FLYCATCHER. 

444.  Tyrannus  tyrannus  (Linn.).  KINGBIRD.  Ads. —  Upperparts 
grayish  slate-color,  darker  on  the  head  and  upper  tail-coverts;  head  with  a 
concealed  orange-red  crest;  tail  black,  tipped  with  white;  underparts  white, 
washed  with  grayish  on  the  breast.  Im. — Similar,  but  without  the  crown 
patch,  and  with  the  plumage  more  or  less  tinged  with  ochraceous-buff.  The 
male  has  two  outer  primaries  deeply  emarginate  at  the  tip,  the  female 
usually  only  one,  the  immature  bird,  none.  L.,  8*51;  W.,  4*64;  T.,  3*55;  B. 
from  N.,  '55. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin, 
n.  Ont.,  cen.  Que.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  cen.  Ore.,  n.  N.  M.,  cen.  Tex.,  and  cen. 
Fla. ;  winters  from  s.  Mexico  to  Bolivia;  casual  in  Cuba  in  migration;  acci- 
dental in  Greenland. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  18-Sept.  23.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  29-Sept.  10.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  May  5-Sept.  1.  N.  Ohio, 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  16- 
Sept.  6.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  26-Aug.  31. 

Nest,  compact  and  symmetrical,  of  weed-stalks,  grasses,  and  moss,  lined 
with  plant-down,  fine  grasses,  and  rootlets,  generally  at  the  extremity  of  a 
branch  15-25  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  white,  spotted  with  umber,  1*00  x  '73. 
Date,  White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va.,  May  17;  Cambridge,  May  30;  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  May  14,  inc.  adv.;  se.  Minn.,  May  14. 

The  Kingbird  is  most  frequently  seen  on  a  fence  or  dead  twig  on 
a  tree,  where  leaves  do  not  come  in  the  way  of  his  sight.    He  stands 
very  upright,  like  a  Hawk  or  an  Owl,  and,  though  as  quiet  as  if  he 
24 


340  FLYCATCHERS 

had  nothing  to  do,  he  is  keenly  awake  to  every  movement  about  him, 
and  every  few  minutes  he  dashes  into  the  air,  seizes  a  passing  insect, 
and  returns  to  the  spot  from  which  he  started.  While  his  mate  is 
sitting,  he  usually  establishes  himself  near  the  nesting  tree,  and  spends 
hour  after  hour  in  this  apparently  monotonous  way,  varying  it  only  to 
relieve  her  by  watching  the  nest,  and  thus  give  her  an  opportunity  to 
seek  food  for  herself.  I  never  saw  a  Kingbird  either  assist  in  brooding 
or  carry  food  to  his  mate,  but  his  manners  to  her  are  most  affection- 
ate, and  he  is  untiring  in  his  labors  in  the  feeding  of  the  young. 

This  bird  is  accused  of  being  quarrelsome  and  aggressive  to  other 
birds,  and  his  scientific  name  means  Tyrant  Flycatcher,  but  in  my 
study  of  his  ways  I  have  found  him  less  aggressive  than  are  most  birds 
in  the  neighborhood  of  their  nest.  With  the  exception  of  the  Crow, 
against  whom  he  seems  to  have  a  special  grudge,  I  have  never  seen  a 
Kingbird  take  notice  of  any  bird  unless  he  alighted  near  his  nest,  and 
the  meekest  creature  that  wears  feathers  will  try  to  drive  away  stran- 
gers who  approach  that  sacred  spot. 

The  calls  and  cries  of  the  Kingbird  are  generally  loud  and  attract- 
ive, if  not  particularly  musical,  but  while  his  mate  is  sitting — and  pos- 
sibly at  other  times — he  indulges  in  a  soft  and  very  pleasing  song, 
which  I  have  heard  only  in  the  very  early  morning. 

OLIVE  THORNE  MILLER. 

1905.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Home-Life  of  Wild  Birds,  49-55. 

445.  Tyrannus  dominicensis  dominicensis  (GmeL).  GRAY  KING- 
BIRD. Ads. — Above  ashy  gray;  an  orange-red  crown  patch;  wings  and  tail 
fuscous;  under  wing-coverts  pale  sulphur-yellow;  underparts  white,  tinged 
with  grayish  on  the  breast.  L.,  9'00;  W.,  4'60;  T.,  3'50;  B.  from  N.,  '80. 

Range. — Breeds  from  Ga.,  se.  S.  C.,  Fla.,  and  Yucatan  through  the 
Bahamas  and  West  Indies  to  n.  S.  A.;  winters  from  Jamaica  and  Haiti 
southward;  accidental  in  Mass. 

Nest,  of  grass  and  weeds,  lined  with  fine  grass  and  rootlets,  in  trees. 
Eggs,  4,  deep  salmon,  irregularly  spotted  and  blotched  with  umber  and 
lilac,  I'OO  x  "75  (Maynard).  Date,  Little  Sarasota,  Fla.,  May  15. 

The  Gray  Kingbird  is  a  common  summer  resident  of  parts  of  our 
South  Atlantic  States,  arriving  early  in  May.  It  resembles  the  King- 
bird in  appearance,  but  lacks  the  white  band  at  the  end  of  the  tail, 
and  has  quite  different  notes.  Its  usual  call  is  a  vigorous  pitirri,  pitlrri, 
which,  in  Cuba,  gives  it  its  common  name. 

The  ARKANSAS  KINGBIRD  (44? •  Tyrannus  verticalis),  a  western  species, 
breeds  mainly  in  Sonoran  zones,  from  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Alberta,  and  s.  Sask.,  s. 
to  n.  Lower  Calif,  and  Chihuahua,  e.  to  w.  Minn.,  w.  Iowa,  cen.  Kans.,  and 
w.  Tex.;  winters  from  w.  Tex.  to  Guatemala;  casual  in  Man.;  accidental 
in  Mo.,  Wise.,  Maine,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  and  Md. 

Washington,  one  record,  Sept.  30. 

The  FORK-TAILED  FLYCATCHER  (44®-  Muscivora  tyrannus],  a  South 
American  species  rarely  found  north  of  southern  Mexico  and  the  southern 
Lesser  Antilles,  has  been  recorded  from  Mississippi,  Kentucky,  New  Jersey, 
Maine  and  Bermuda. 


FLYCATCHERS  341 

The  SCISSOR-TAILED  FLYCATCHER  (443.  Muscivora  forficata)  is  found  in 
the  summer  as  far  north  as  southern  Kansas  and  western  Louisiana.  It  has 
occurred  accidentally  near  Hudson  Bay,  in  Manitoba,  Ontario,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and  Florida.  It  may  be  known  by 
its  long,  deeply  forked  tail  and  scarlet  sides. 

452.  Myiarchus  crinitus  (Linn.}.  CRESTED  FLYCATCHER.  Ads. — 
Upperparts  grayish  brown,  washed  with  olive-green;  outer  vane  of  primaries 
margined  with  pale  rufous ;  inner  vane  of  all  but  the  middle  tail-feathers  pale 
rufous;  throat  and  breast  pearl- 
gray;  belly  sulphur-yellow.  L., 
9-01;  W.,  4-14;  T.,  3'75;  B.  from 
N.  '62. 

Range. — E.  N.  and  n.  S.  Am. 
Breeds  from  upper  edge  of 
Transition  zone  in  s.  Man.,  cen. 
Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  B.,  s.  to  s. 
Tex.,  and  s.  Fla.;  winters  from 
e.  and  s.  Mex.  to  Colombia; 
casual  in  Wyo.  and  Cuba. 

Washington,    very    common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  29.   Ossining, 
common  S.  R.,  May  7-Sept.  12. 
Cambridge,  rare  S.  R.,  May  15-      FIG.  95.   Crested  Flycatcher.    (Natural  size.) 
Sept.  11.    N.  Ohio,  common   S. 

R.,  Apl.  25-Sept.  15.    Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  18.   SE. 
Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  twigs,  and  rootlets,  with  generally  a  piece  of  a  cast  snake 
skin,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  generally  less  than  20  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-6,  creamy 
white,  streaked  longitudinally  with  chocolate,  *90  x  '68.  Date,  San  Mateo 
Fla.,  May  10;  Weaverville,  N.  C.,  May  20;  Madison,  Conn.,  June  2. 

During  the  spring  migration  each  day  brings  its  own  surprise  and 
pleasure.  The  bare,  silent  woods  where  I  walked  alone  before  are 
now  astir  with  flitting  wings  and  ringing  with  glad  music.  Each  morn- 
ing I  hurry  out,  full  of  eager  anticipation,  to  be  thrilled  by  the  greeting 
of  some  old  friend  come  home  again. 

There  are  red-letter  days,  however,  even  in  this  calendar.  Hark!  from 
the  woods  a  loud  whistle  pierces  far  through  the  clearing.  The  Great- 
crest  has  come! 

I  break  away  from  the  confusing  chorus  of  small  voices  and  hurry  off 
to  the  woods  for  the  first  sight  of  the  distinguished  bird.  Full  of  life 
and  vigor,  he  flies  about  in  the  green  tree  tops,  chattering  to  himself 
or  calling  loudly  as  he  goes. 

Not  many  days  pass,  however,  before  he  is  so  taken  up  with  domes- 
tic matters  that  his  voice  is  rarely  heard  outside  the  woods.  Is  he 
engaged  in  his  famous  pursuit — hunting  snake  skins  to  line  his  nest? 
Absorbed  in  my  daily  round  of  nest  calls,  I  cherish  the  memory  of 
each  passing  glimpse  of  him.  Now  I  see  him  launch  from  a  basswood 
top,  with  wings  and  tail  spread,  to  sail  down  through  the  air,  his  tail 
glowing  red  against  the  light.  Again,  when  looking  for  a  rare  Warbler, 
his  calls  arrest  me.  In  the  dead  top  of  the  highest  tree  in  sight  I  find 
him  with  his  mate.  With  crests  raised,  the  handsome  birds  chase  each 
other  about  the  bare  branches.  Tired  of  that,  they  explore  the  old 


342  FLYCATCHERS 

Woodpecker's  holes  in  the  trunk,  and  one  of  them  walks  out  of  sight 
down  a  hollow  limb.  A  Blackbird  lights  in  the  tree,  and  the  Great- 
crest  above  becomes  so  agitated  that  I  am  convinced  his  mate  has  gone 
to  her  nest,  when  lo!  both  Flycatchers  are  off  and  away  to  another  of  the 
great  trees  that  overtop  the  forest.  FLORENCE  MERRIAM  BAILEY. 

456.  Sayornis  phoebe  (Lath.).  PHCEBE.  (Fig.  59.)  Ads. — Upperparts 
grayish  brown  with  an  olive-green  cast;  crown  distinctly  darker,  fuscous; 
wings  and  tail  fuscous,  wing-bars  not  conspicuous;  outer  vane  of  outer  tail- 
feather  white  or  yellowish  white,  except  at  the  tip;  underparts  white,  more 
or  less  washed  with  yellowish,  and  tinged  with  brownish  gray  on  the  breast 
and  sides;  bill  black.  Im.  and  Ads.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  upperparts  more 
olive,  underparts  more  yellow,  and  wing-bars  more  distinct.  L.,  6*99;  W., 
3'38;  T.,  2'95;  B.  from  N.,  "41. 

Remarks. — The  Phoebe's  principal  distinguishing  characters  are  its  fus- 
cous crown-cap,  white  outer  vane  of  the  outer  tail-feather,  and  blackish 
lower  mandible. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  sw.  Mackenzie,  Alberta,  s.  Keewatin, 
Ont.,  Que.,  N.  B.,  N.  S.,  s.  to  ne.  N.  M.,  cen.  Tex.,  n.  Miss.,  and  highlands 
of  Ga. ;  winters  in  U.  S.  s.  of  lat.  37°  s.  to  s.  Mex. ;  in  migration  casual  w.  to 
Colo,  and  Wyo.,  accidental  in  Calif,  and  Cuba. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Feb.  25-Oct. ;  occasionally  winters.  Ossin- 
ing,  common  S.  R.,  Men.  14-Oct.  29.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  and  not 
uncommon  S.  R.,  Mch.  25-Oct.  10.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  14-Oct. 
15.  Glen  Ellyn,  S.  R.,  Mch.  13-Oct.  6.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R,,  Mch. 
22-Oct.  11. 

Nest,  bulky,  largely  moss  and  mud  lined  with  grasses  and  long  hairs,  on 
a  beam  or  rafter,  under  a  bridge  or  bank.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  rarely  with  a 
few  cinnamon-brown  spots,  *78  x  '59.  Date,  Delaware  Co.,  Pa.,  Apl.  18; 
Cambridge,  Apl.  28;  Galesburg,  Ills.,  Apl.  22;  se.  Minn.,  Apl.  19. 

There  is  something  familiar,  trustful,  and  homelike  in  the  Phoebe's 
ways  which  has  won  him  an  undisputed  place  in  our  affections.  With 
an  assurance  born  of  many  welcomes  he  returns  each  year  to  his  perch 
on  the  bridge-rail,  barnyard  gate,  or  piazza,  and  contentedly  sings  his 
humble,  monotonous  pewit  phcebe,  pewit  phoebe — a  hopelessly  tune- 
less performance,  but  who  that  has  heard  it  in  early  spring,  when  the 
'pussy  willow'  seems  almost  to  purr  with  soft  blossoms,  will  not  affirm 
that  Phoebe  touches  chords  dumb  to  more  ambitious  songsters! 

Sometimes  Phcebe  is  inspired  to  greater  effort,  and,  springing  into 
the  air  on  fluttering  wings,  he  utters  more  phcebes  in  a  few  seconds 
than  he  would  sing  ordinarily  in  an  hour. 

Phcebe  is  a  devoted  parent,  and  is  rarely  found  far  from  home. 
His  nest  seems  to  be  the  favorite  abode  of  an  innumerable  swarm  of 
parasites  which  sometimes  cause  the  death  of  his  offspring,  and  when 
rearing  a  second  family  he  changes  his  quarters. 

Aside  from  a  few  Great-crests,  no  other  Flycatcher  winters  in  num- 
bers in  our  Southern  States,  and  Phcebe's  notes  heard  in  January  in 
the  heart  of  a  Florida  'hummock'  seem  strangely  out  of  place. 

SAY'S  PHCEBE  (457.  Sayornis  saya),  a  western  species,  is  of  accidental 
occurrence  east  of  the  Mississippi.  It  has  been  found  in  northern  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and,  on  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts  (Miller,  Auk,  VII,  1890, 
228). 


FLYCATCHERS  343 

459.  Nuttallornis  borealis  (Swains.).  OLIVE-SIDED  FLYCATCHER.  Ads. 
— Upperparts  between  fuscous  and  dark  olive ;  wings  and  tail  fuscous ;  throat, 
middle  of  the  belly,  and  generally  a  narrow  line  on  the  center  of  the  breast 
white  or  yellowish  white;  rest  of  the  underparts  of  nearly  the  same  color  as 
the  back;  under  tail-coverts  marked  with  dusky;  a  tuft  of  fluffy,  yellowish 
white  feathers  on  either  flank;  upper  mandible  black,  lower  mandible  yel- 
lowish or  pale  grayish  brown,  the  tip  darker.  Im.  and  Ads.  in  winter. — Simi- 
lar, but  with  rather  more  olive  above,  more  yellow  below,  and  with  the  wing- 
coverts  edged  with  ochraceous-buff.  L.,  7'39;  W.,  4'05;  T.,  2'70;  B.  from  N., 
•54. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones  from 
cen.  Alaska,  s.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  s. 
in  coniferous  forests  of  w.  U.  S.  to  s.  Calif.,  Ariz.,  and  w.  Tex.,  and  also  n. 
Mich.,  N.  Y.,  and  Mass.,  s.  in  mts.  to  N.  C.;  migrates  through  Mex.  and  Cen. 
Am. ;  winters  in  n.  S.  A.  to  Peru. 

Washington,  casual  T.  V.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  20; 
Aug.  15-Sept.  16.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.,  May  20- June  6;  formerly  not 
uncommon  S.  R. ;  one  Sept.  record.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  May  13- 
June  11;  Aug.  11-Sept.  15.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  10-Sept.  9. 

Nest,  of  twigs  and  moss,  in  coniferous  trees,  about  25  feet  up,  near  the 
extremity  of  a  limb.  Eggs,  3-5,  vinaceous-white,  spotted,  chiefly  about  the 
larger  end,  with  distinct  and  obscure  rufous  markings,  '85  x  '62.  Date, 
Wareham,  Mass.,  June  8;  Kentville,  N.  S.,  June  15. 

Both  the  Olive-side's  habits  and  notes  make  it  conspicuous.  It 
perches  on  the  topmost  limb  of  some  high  tree,  where,  even  at  a  distance, 
its  stocky  body  and  large  head  are  evident,  and  calls  its  loud,  strongly 
accented  "come  right  here,  come  right  here,"  in  a  voice  that  commands 
attention. 

461.  Myiochanes  virens  (Linn.}.  WOOD  PEWEE.  Ads. — Upperparts 
very  dark,  between  olive  and  fuscous,  with  sometimes  a  tinge  of  dark  olive- 
green,  wings  and  tail  fuscous;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  whitish,  forming 
two  more  or  less  distinct  wing-bars;  underparts  white  or  yellowish  white, 
washed  with  olive-gray  on  sides  of  throat  and  breast,  and,  to  a  less  extent, 
on  center  of  breast;  upper  mandible  black;  lower  mandible  yellowish  or 
brownish,  the  tip  frequently  darker.  Im. — Similar,  but  yellower  below, 
wing-coverts  edged  with  cream-buff.  L.,  6'53;  W.,  3'34;  T.,  2'62;  B.  from  N., 
•42. 

Remarks. — The  Wood  Pewee  and  the  Olive-sided  Flycatcher  differ  from 
our  other  Flycatchers  in  having  the  wings  decidedly  longer  than  the  tail, 
and  in  their  short  tarsi.  From  the  species  of  the  genus  Empidonax  they  may 
be  known  by  these  characters  and  their  darker,  more  fuscous  coloration. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  from  Man.,  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  Prince 
Edward  Island  to  s.  Tex.,  and  cen.  Fla.,  w.  to  e.  Nebr.;  winters  from  Nicara- 
gua to  Peru;  casual  in  Colo;  in  migration  in  Cuba. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29-Oct.  12.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
May  10-Oct.  2.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  not  uncommon  S.  R.,  May  18- 
Sept.  15.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  May  2-Sept.  27.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly 
common  S.  R.,  May  9-Sept.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  10-Sept. 
23. 

Nest,  compact  and  symmetrical,  of  fine  grasses,  rootlets,  moss,  etc., 
thickly  covered  with  lichens,  saddled  on  a  limb,  20-40  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4, 
white,  with  a  wreath  of  distinct  and  obscure  umber  markings  about  the 
larger  end,  *68  x  '54.  Date,  Gainesville,  Fla., .  May  9;  Fairfax  Co.,  Va., 
May  25;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  June  8;  Cambridge,  June  10;  Mt.  Carmel,  Ills., 
May  20. 

Thoroughly  to  appreciate  how  well  the  Pewee's  disposition  is 
suited  to  his  haunts  and  notes,  we  have  only  to  imagine  him  taking 


344  FLYCATCHERS 

the  Phoebe's  place  and  singing  the  Phoebe's  song.   He  was  not  intended 

to  adorn  a  bridge  or  barn,  but  in  the  darkened  woods,  high  up  in  the 

trees,  he  finds  a  congenial  home. 

His  pensive,  gentle  ways  are  voiced  by  his  sad,  sweet  call: 
The  notes  are  as  musical  and  restful,  as  much  a  part 
°f  Nature's  hymn,  as  the  soft  humming  of  a  brook. 
All  day  long  the  Pewee  sings;  even  when  the  heat 
of  summer  silences  more  vigorous  birds,  and  the 
~Pee-a-wee  midday  sun  sends  light-shafts  to  the  ferns,  the 
clear,  sympathetic  notes  of  the  retiring  songster 

come  from  the  green  canopy  overhead,  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 

peace  and  stillness  of  the  hour. 

THE  WESTERN  WOOD  PEWEE  (Myiochanes  richardsoni  richardsoni)  has 
been  recorded  from  Wisconsin  (Cory,  Birds  Ills,  and  Wise.,  536). 

463.  Empidonax  flaviventris  Baird.  YELLOW-BELLIED  FLYCATCHER. 
Ads. — Upperparts  rather  dark  olive-green;  wings  and  tail  fuscous;  greater 
and  lesser  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white  or  yellowish  white;  underparts 
sulphur-yellow,  the  belly  pure,  the  throat,  breast,  and  sides  more  or  less 
washed  with  olive-green;  upper  mandible  black,  lower  mandible  whitish  or 
flesh-color;  second  to  fourth  primaries  of  equal  length,  the  first  shorter  than 
the  fifth.  Im. — Yellow  of  the  underparts  brighter,  wing-bars  more  yel- 
low, and  sometimes  tinged  with  pale  ochraceous-buff.  L.,  5'63;  W.,  2*65; 
T.,  2'16;  B.  from  INT.,  "33. 

Remarks. — This  is  the  most  yellow  of  our  small  Flycatchers.  In  any 
plumage  the  entire  underparts,  including  the  throat,  are  sulphur-yellow  or 
dusky  yellowish.  In  the  other  eastern  species  of  this  genus  the  throat  is 
white. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  n.  Alberta,  n.  Man.,  n.  Que., 
and  N.  F.,  s.  to  N.  D.,  n.  Minn.,  n.  Mich.,  n.  N.  Y.,  Pa.  (mts.),  and  N.  H.; 
w.  in  migration  to  the  e.  border  of  the  Plains,  e.  Tex.,  and  e.  Mex.;  winters 
from  s.  Mex.  to  Panama,  occasional  in  migration  in  w.  Fla.;  accidental  in 
Greenland. 

Washington,  rather  common  T.  V.,  May;  July  28-Oct.  6.  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  May  17- June  4;  Aug.  8-Sept.  20.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  some- 
times rather  common,  May  25- June  3;  Aug.  28-Sept.  8.  N.  Ohio,  rare  T.  V., 
May  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  rather  rare  T.  V.,  May  20- June  5;  Sept.  3.  SE.  Minn., 
common,  T.  V.,  May  19. 

Nest,  of  moss,  lined  with  grasses,  on  the  ground,  beneath  the  roots  of  a 
tree  or  imbedded  in  moss.  Eggs,  4,  creamy  white,  with  numerous  pale  cin- 
namon-brown markings,  chiefly  about  the  larger  end,  '68  x  '54.  Date, 
Wilmurt,  N.  Y.,  June  10;  Grand  Manan,  N.  B.,  June  16,  inc.  adv. 

To  see  this  little  Flycatcher  at  his  best,  one  must  seek  the  northern 
evergreen  forest,  where,  far  from  human  habitation,  its  mournful 
notes  blend  with  the  murmur  of  some  icy  brook  tumbling  over  mossy 
stones  or  gushing  beneath  the  still  mossier  decayed  logs  that  threaten 
to  bar  its  way.  Where  all  is  green  and  dark  and  cool,  in  some  glen 
overarched  by  crowding  spruces  and  firs,  birches  and  maples,  there  it  is 
we  find  him,  and  in  the  beds  of  damp  moss  he  skilfully  conceals  his 
nest.  He  sits  erect  on  some  low  twig,  and,  like  other  Flycatchers,  the 
snap  of  his  bill  tells  of  a  sally  after  his  winged  prey.  He  glides  quietly 
away  when  approached,  and  his  occasional  note  of  complaint  may  be 
heard  as  long  as  one  remains  in  his  vicinity.  During  the  migration 


PLATE  XIX 


FLYCATCHERS 

1.  Wood  Pewee.  3.  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher. 

2.  Acadian  Flycatcher.  4.  Alder  Flycatcher. 

5.  Least  Flycatcher. 


FLYCATCHERS  345 

this  species  is  silent,  and  its  several  distinctive  notes  are  not  available 
for  its  identification,  and  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  our  other 
small  Flycatchers.  Great  similarity  in  plumage  exists  between 
them  all,  and  without  the  bird  in  hand,  identifications  are  at  best 
questionable. 

The  song  is  more  suggestive  of  a  sneeze  on  the  bird's  part  than  of 
any  other  sound  with  which  it  may  be  compared.  It  is  an  abrupt 
pse-ekf,  almost  in  one  explosive  syllable,  harsh  like  the  deeper  tones 
of  a  House  Wren,  and  less  musical  than  the  similar  but  longer  song?  of 
the  Alder  or  the  Acadian  Flycatcher.  It  is  hardly  surprising  that  the 
birds  sing  very  little  when  we  see  with  what  a  convulsive  jerk  of  the 
head  the  notes  are  produced.  Its  plaintive  call  is  far  more  melodious 
— a  soft,  mournful  whistle  consisting  of  two  notes,  the  second  higher 
pitched  and  prolonged,  with  rising  inflection,  resembling  in  a  measure 
chu-e-e'-v.  J.  D WIGHT,  JR. 

465.  Empidonax  virescens  (VieilL).  ACADIAN  FLYCATCHER.  Ads. 
— Upperparts  between  olive-green  and  dark  olive-green;  v/ings  and  tail 
fuscous;  greater  and  lesser  wing-coverts  yellowish  white,  forming  two  con- 
spicuous wing-bars;  underparts  white,  washed  with  pale  yellowish  and 
slightly  tinged  with  greenish  on  the  breast;  the  throat,  and  frequently  the 
middle  of  the  belly,  pure  white;  upper  mandible  black,  lower  mandible 
whitish  or  flesh-color;  second  to  fourth  primaries  of  about  equal  length,  the 
first  and  fifth  shorter  and  also  of  equal  length.  Im. — Upperparts  greener; 
underparts  more  tinged  with  yellow;  wing-bars  and  outer  edges  of  the 
tips  of  the  secondaries  ochraceous-buff.  L.,  575;  W.,  2'85;  T.,  2'35;  B. 
from  N.,  "36. 

Remarks. — This  species  has  the  upperparts  fully  as  olive-green  as  the 
Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher,  but  the  underparts  are  never  entirely  yellow,  and 
the  throat  is  always  white. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  and  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  from  upper  limit  of  Carolinian 
fauna  in  ne.  Nebr.,  cen.  Iowa,  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  N.  Y.,  Conn,  (casually),  and 
Mass,  (one  instance)  s.  to  s.  Tex.,  the  Gulf  States,  and  n.  Fla.;  migrate? 
through  Yucatan  and  Cen.  Am.  and  winters  in  Colombia  and  Ecuador; 
casual  in  Bahamas  and  Cuba  in  migration. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  15.  Ossining,  common  S  R., 
May  10-Aug.  27.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  May  4-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn, 
not  common  S.  R.,  May  6— Aug.  27,  and  probably  later. 

Nest,  shallow,  of  plant  stems,  grasses,  and  blossoms,  generally  on  a  fork 
of  a  beech  about  8  feet  up.  Eggs,  2-3,  creamy  white,  with  a  few  cinnamon- 
brown  spots  about  the  larger  end,  *74  x  '56.  Date,  Gainesville,  Fla., 
May  12;  Chatham  Co.,  Ga.,  May  13;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  31;  Ossin- 
ing, N.  Y.,  June  5. 

Look  for  the  Acadian  Flycatcher  in  woodlands  watered  by  small 
streams.  It  selects  a  low  rather  than  a  high  perch,  and  is  rarely  seen 
more  than  twenty  feet  from  the  ground.  The  frequently  uttered  calls 
of  this  bird  are  characteristic  and  will  enable  you  to  identify  it  with 
more  ease  in  the  field  than  in  the  study.  The  most  common  is  a  sin- 
gle spee  or  peet,  repeated  at  short  intervals  and  accompanied  by  a 
rapid  twitching  of  the  tail.  A  more  peculiar  note  is  a  louder  pee-e-yuk. 
The  bird  seems  to  articulate  this  note  with  difficulty,  with  bill  pointed 
upward  and  wings  trembling  like  a  fledgling  begging  for  food. 


346  FLYCATCHERS 

Sometimes  you  may  hear  only  the  first  call,  sometimes  only  the 
second,  while  on  other  occasions  the  two  may  be  uttered  alternately. 
A  rarer  note  may  be  heard  when  the  bird  makes  a  short,  fluttering  flight. 
It  resembles  the  soft  murmuring  of  whistling  wings. 

466.  Empidonax  trailli  trailli  (And.).  TRAILL'S  FLYCATCHER.  Simi- 
lar to  E.  t.  alnorum  but  still  browner;  the  upperparts  with  little  if  any 
greenish  tinge;  the  bill  averaging  narrower.  Specimens  from  the  eastern 
border  of  the  range  of  this  race  are  often  difficult  to  distinguish  from  alnorum. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  and  Idaho  to  s.  Calif.,  Ariz., 
N.  M.,  and  Tamaulipas,  e.  to  Mo.,  Ills.,  and  Ohio,  winters  in  Cen.  Am.,  s. 
to  Colombia. 

N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  May  7-Sept.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  quite  common 
S.  R.,  May  14-Sept.  19.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  6-Aug.  10. 

Nesting  date,  Monroe  Co.,  Mich.,  June  20. 

466a.  E.  t.  alnorum  Brewst.  ALDER  FLYCATCHER.  Upperparts  between 
olive-green  and  olive  or  olive-brown;  wings  and  tail  fuscous ;  greater  and  lesser 
wing-coverts  tipped  with  brownish  ashy;  underparts  whitish,  washed  with 
dusky  grayish  on  the  breast  and  sides  and  pale  yellowish  on  the  belly; 
throat  pure  white;  upper  mandible  black,  lower  mandible  whitish  or  flesh- 
color.  Im. — Similar,  but  wing-bars  ochraceous-buff  and  underparts  slightly 
yellower.  L.,  6'09;  W.,  2'87;  T.,  2'33;  B.  from  N.,  '35. 

Remarks. — This  is  the  brownest  of  our  small  Flycatchers.  The  upper- 
parts  have  an  evident  tinge  of  brown  or  olive-brown,  a  color  entirely  want- 
ing in  the  Acadian  and  Yellow-bellied  Flycatchers.  In  this  respect  it  resem- 
bles the  much  smaller  Least  Flycatcher,  from  which,  indeed,  some  speci- 
mens can  be  distinguished  only  by  size. 

Range. — Breeds  mainly  in  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones  from  cen. 
Alaska,  nw.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  e.  cen.  B.  C., 
e.  Mont.,  s.  Minn.,  s.  Ont.,  N.  Y.,  n.  N.  J.,  and  mts.,  of  W.  Va.;  winters 
in  Cen.  Am.  s.  to  Panama;  casual  in  migration  in  s.  Atlantic  States. 

Washington,  irregularly  common  T.  V.,  May  8-May  28;  Aug.  16- 
Sept.  17.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  May  19-May  31;  Aug.  29.  Cambridge,  rare 
T.  V.,  May  28- June  6;  Aug.;  occasional  in  summer. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses,  plant  down,  and  plant  fibers,  lined  with  fine 
grasses,  in  the  crotch  of  a  small  bush  or  sapling  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-4, 
creamy  white,  with  cinnamon-brown  markings  about  the  larger  end,  '73  x 
'54.  Date,  Cambridge,  June  15;  Columbus,  O.,  June  12. 

While  the  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher  is  distinctively  a  bird  of  the 
deep  woods,  this  more  abundant  Flycatcher  in  its  summer  home  resorts 
to  the  alder  patches  of  the  open  country  and  is  seldom  found  far  from 
their  protecting  shade.  It  flits  restlessly  about,  keeping  well  out  of 
sight  below  the  waving  tops  of  the  bushes,  and  its  presence  is  betrayed 
only  by  a  single  pep  of  alarm  that  in  no  way  resembles  the  mournful 
wail  of  the  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher.  It,  too,  is  silent  when  migrating, 
and  on  its  breeding- grounds  sings  but  little,  so  that  if  it  did  not  take 
pains  to  call  out  to  every  one  who  passes  it  would  not  be  noticed  among 
the  rustling  alders.  The  song  most  resembles  that  of  the  Acadian  Fly- 
catcher, an  ee-zee-e~tip,  with  stress  on  the  rasping  zee,  the  latter  part  more 
musical.  The  performer  jerks  out  the  notes  rapidly,  doubling  himself  up 
and  fairly  vibrating  with  the  explosive  effort.  J.  D WIGHT,  JR. 

1901.  FARLEY,  J.  A.,  Auk,  XVIII,  347-355  (in  Mass.).— 1902.  ALLEN, 
F.  H.,  Ibid.  XIX,  84  (song).  — 1910.  STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn. 
Soc.,  XII,  3-5  (nesting  in  Maine). 


LARKS  347 

467.  Empidoiiax  minimus  W.  M.  and  S.  F.  Baird.  LEAST  FLY- 
CATCHER. Ads. — Upperparts  between  olive-green  and  olive  or  olive-brown; 
wings  and  tail  fuscous;  greater  and  lesser  wing-coverts  tinged  with  ashy 
white;  underparts  whitish,  washed  with  dusky  grayish  on  the  breast  and 
sides  and  generally  with  a  slight  tinge  of  yellowish  on  the  belly;  lower  man- 
dible generally  horn-color.  Im. — Underparts  slightly  more  yellow;  wing- 
bars  more  buffy.  L.,  5'41;  W.,  2'51;  T.,  2'21;  B.  from  N.,  '31. 

Remarks. — This  is  the  smallest  of  our  Flycatchers.  Its  size,  the  compara- 
tive absence  of  yellow  on  the  underparts,  and  the  generally  horn-colored  01 
brown  lower  mandible  are  its  chief  distinguishing  characters. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones  from  w.  cen.  Mack- 
enzie, s.  Keewatiri,  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.,  s.  to  cen.  Mont.,  e.  Wyo., 
cen.  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Ind.,  Pa.,  N.  J.,  and  in  the  Alleghanies  to  N.  C.;  in  migra- 
tion w.  to  e.  Colo.,  and  cen.  Tex.;  winters  from  lie.  Mex.  and  Yucatan  to 
Peru;  casual  in  Grand  Cayman  Is.,  West  Indies. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  20-May  20;  Aug.  13-Sept.  15.  Ossin- 
ing,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25- Aug.  26.  Cambridge,  very  common 
S.R.,  May  1-Aug.  25.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  15-May  25;  Aug.  25- 
Oct.  1;  rare  in  summer.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  chiefly  T.  V.,  May 
4-Sept.  24.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  30-Sept.  13. 

Nest,  of  plant  down,  plant  fibers,  rootlets,  fine  strips  of  bark,  and  long 
hairs,  generally  in  a  crotch  5-15  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  white,  unmarked, 
•63  x  *51.  Date,  New  York  City,  May  30;  Cambridge,  May  20;  se.  Minn., 
May  24. 

When  music  was  distributed,  I  believe  most  of  our  Flycatchers  had 
back  seats.  It  was  an  unfortunate  circumstance,  for  their  sedentary 
habits  and  apparently  thoughtful,  serious,  even  poetic  dispositions 
make  one  believe  that  with  proper  training  they  might  have  taken  high 
rank  as  musicians. 

Instead  of  the  simple  melody  we  might  expect  to  hear  from  the 
modest  Least  Flycatcher,  he  salutes  us  with  a  singularly  inappropriate, 
business-like  chebec,  chebec,  varying  the  performance  by  murderous 
sallies  after  passing  insects.  In  crescendo  passages  he  literally  rises  to 
the  occasion,  and  on  trembling  wings  sings  an  absurd  chebec  tooral- 
ooral,  chebec,  tooral-ooral,  with  an  earnestness  deserving  better  results. 

The  Chebec,  however,  possesses  originality;  we  can  not  confuse  his 
voice  with  that  of  any  other  bird,  and  young  ornithologists  should  give 
him  a  vote  of  thanks  for  his  clear  enunciation. 

He  prefers  fruit  and  shade  trees  to  those  of  forest  growth,  and  is 
therefore  an  inhabitant  of  our  lawns  and  orchards. 

The  VERMILION  FLYCATCHER  (471.1  Pyrocephalus  rubinus  mexicanus) 
of  our  Mexican  boundary  and  southward,  has  been  taken  once  in  Florida 
(Tallahassee,  March  25,  1901;  Williams,  Auk,  1901,  273). 

48.  FAMILY  ALAUDID^E.    LARKS.    (Fig.  60.) 

Some  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  species  and  subspecies  of  Larks 
are  known,  the  proportion  of  the  latter  to  the  former  being  exceptionally 
large,  the  Horned  Lark,  the  only  American  species,  being  represented 
in  North  America  by  no  less  than  fourteen  subspecies. 

They  are  eminently  terrestrial  birds,  always  nest  on  the  ground, 
rarely  alight  in  trees,  usually  run  instead  of  hop,  'dust'  instead  of 


348  LARKS 

bathe,  and  sing  while  on  the  wing.  They  are  generally  colored  in 
harmony  with  their  haunts,  and,  except  during  the  nesting  season,  are 
usually  found  in  flocks. 

473.  Alauda  arvensis  Linn.    SKYLARK.    Hind  toe-nail  as  long  as  or 
longer  than  toe.    Ads. — Above  brownish  ochraceous  streaked  with  black; 
tail  blackish,  central  feather  margined  with  ochraceous  buff;  outer  feathers 
more  or  less  white;  below  whitish  more  or  less  washed  with  ochraceous  buff, 
especially  on  breast,  which  is  distinctly  streaked  with  black.    L.,  7'50;  W., 
4'10;  T.,  2'60;  B.,  '45.    Bears  a  superficial  resemblance  to  a  Vesper  Sparrow, 
but,  aside  from  structural  differences,  is  larger  and  more  buffy. 

Range. — Europe  and  N.  Africa;  accidental  in  Greenland  and  Bermuda 
and  introduced  into  the  U.  S. 

The  Skylark  has  been  introduced  several  times  in  this  country.  In 
1887  a  small  colony  had  become  established  near  Flatbush,  Long  Island, 
where  a  nest  with  young  was  found.  (See  Dutcher,  Auk,  V,  1888,  p.  180.) 
After  a  supposed  extinction  a  singing  bird  and  nest  were  observed  in 
July,  1895.  (See  Proctor,  Auk,  XII,  1895,  p.  390.)  According  to  Braislin 
(Abst.  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  17,  1907,  p.  76)  the  bird  is  still  present  at  Flat- 
bush  where  it  may  be  heard  singing  from  March  to  October. 

474.  Otocoris  alpestris   alpestris*  (Linn.}.     HORNED   LARK.      (Fig. 
60.)    Ad.  (?. — Forehead,  line  over  the  eye,  ear  region,  and  throat  sulphur- 
yellow;  fore  part  of  crown,  a  tuft  of  elongated  feathers  on  either  side  of 
head,  a  mark  from  bill  below  eye  and  then  downward  to  side  of  throat,  and 
a  patch  on  breast  black;  back  of  head  and  neck  and  rump  vinaceous,  more 
or  less  washed  with  grayish  brown;  back  grayish  brown,  edged  with  brownish 
ash  and  tinged  with  vinaceous;  wing-coverts  deep  vinaceous;  tail  black, 
outer  vanes  of  outer  feathers  margined  with  white,  middle  feathers  broadly 
margined  with  brownish  and  vinaceous;  lower  breast  and  belly  white,  the 
former  more  or  less  soiled  with  dusky  spots;  sides  vinaceous.     Ad.   9. — 
Similar,  but  the  markings,  especially  those  of  the  head,  less  sharply  defined, 
neck  less  vinaceous,  etc.    Im.  and  Ad.  in    winter. — Similar,  but  with  the 
black  markings  veiled  by  yellowish  or  whitish  tips  to  the  feathers.    L.,  7*75; 
"W/,  4-27;  T.,  2'84;  B.  from  N.,  "40"  (Dwight). 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Arctic  zone  of  Canada  from  Boothia 
Peninsula  s.  to  head  of  James  Bay,  Lab.,  and  N.  F. ;  winters  s.  to  the  Ohio 
Valley  and  Ga.;  casual  in  La.  and  Bermuda;  accidental  in  Greenland. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.-Apl.  Ossining,  casual  W.  V.  Cam- 
bridge, not  uncommon  T.  V.,  Oct.  25-Nov.  25;  Mch.  25-Apl.  5;  occasional 
W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  common  W.  V.,  Nov.  1-Apl.  1.  SE.  Minn.,  W.  V. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-4,  pale,  bluish  or  greenish  white, 
minutely  and  evenly  speckled  with  pale  grayish  brown,  '84  x  '60.  Date, 
Hebron,  Lab.,  May  30. 

These  hardy  birds  visit  us  in  flocks  in  the  winter.  They  frequent 
the  vicinity  of  the  seacoast  or  large,  flat,  open  tracts  in  the  interior,  and 
are  rarely  found  in  well-wooded  regions.  They  are  terrestrial,  and  may 
be  seen  running  over  the  snow  or  barren  ground  in  scattered  companies. 
They  take  wing  with  a  sharp,  whistled  note,  and  seek  fresh  fields,  or, 
hesitating,  finally  swing  about  and  return  to  near  the  spot  from  which 
they  were  flushed.  They  are  sometimes  found  associated  with  Snow- 

*See  important  papers  on  the  relationships  and  distribution  of  the  American 
representatives  of  this  genus,  by  Dr.  J.  Dwight,  Jr.,  in  The  Auk,  VII,  1890,  pp.  138- 
158,  and  by  H.  C.  Oberholser,  Proc.  U.  S,  N.  M.,  XXIV,  1902,  pp.  801-883. 


LARKS  349 

Buntings,  and  flocks  may  contain  numbers  of  our  resident  Shore  Lark, 
0.  a.  praticola. 

474b.  O.  a.  praticola  Hensh.  PRAIRIE  HORNED  LARK.  Similar  to 
the  preceding,  but  smaller  and  somewhat  paler,  with  the  forehead  and  line 
over  the  eye  white  instead  of  yellow,  the  throat  but  slightly  tinged  with 
yellow,  and  sometimes  entirely  white. 
L.,  7-25;  "W.,  4'08;  T.,  2'86;  B.  from 
N.,  -37"  (Dwight). 

Range.  —  NE.  U.  S.  and  Canada. 
Breeds  chiefly  in  Transition  zone  from 
s.  Man.  and  s.  Que.  to  e.  Kans.,  s.  Mo., 
Ohio,  W.  Va.,  and  Conn.;  winters  s.  to 
Tex.,  Tenn.,  and  Ga.,  and  casually  to 
Ariz,  and  Colo. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Aug. 
1 1-Apl.  Cambridge,  one  record.  N.  Ohio, 
common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  common 
P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  S.  R.,  Mch.-Nov.,  a 
few  in  mild  winters. 

Nesting  date,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Mch.  9; 
se.  Minn.,  Mch.  10.  FIG.  96.  Prairie  Horned  Lark. 

(Natural  size.) 

This  is  one  of  the  birds  that  has 

changed  its  range  since  the  settlement  of  America.  It  is  properly  a 
species  of  the  prairies  and  open  barrens,  but  since  the  once-continuous 
forest  of  the  older  States  and  provinces  has  been  broken  up,  it  has 
made  its  appearance  in  the  East,  wherever  the  country  is  suited  to  its 
requirements. 

It  is  strictly  a  ground  bird,  never  perching  on  trees,  though  it  com- 
monly alights  on  the  top  of  a  fence-post  or  other  low,  level  surface. 
When  encountered  on  a  pathway  it  often  runs  before  the  pedestrian 
after  the  manner  of  the  Vesper  Sparrow,  from  which  bird,  however, 
it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  black  feathers  in  its  tail,  by  its  brown 
back,  and  by  the  black  marks  on  its  face;  also  by  the  fact  that  it  runs, 
but  does  not  hop,  and  when  it  flies  it  usually  utters  a  whistle,  whereas 
the  Vesper  Sparrow  invariably  flies  off  in  silence. 

Its  chief  song  is  poured  forth  in  the  air  as  it  soars  aloft,  like  a  Sky- 
lark; but  it  often  utters  this  same  song  while  perched  on  some  clod  or 
stone,  especially  just  before  dawn  and  after  sunset,  as  well  as  in  the 
springtime,  while  the  snow  is  yet  on  the  ground. 

ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

474k.  O.  a.  hoyti  Bishop.  HOYT'S  HORNED  LARK.  "Similar  to  0.  a, 
alpestris  but  with  the  upperparts  generally  paler  and  more  gray,  the  posterior 
auriculars  gray  rather  than  brown,  and  the  yellow  of  the  head  and  neck 
replaced  by  white,  excepting  the  forehead,  which  is  dirty  greenish  white, 
and  the  throat,  which  is  distinctly  yellow,  most  pronounced  toward  the 
center.  .  .  .  The  adult  female  in  spring  plumage  differs  in  a  similar  man- 
ner from  the  female  of  alpestris,  but  in  the  female  of  hoyti  the  yellow  on  the 
throat  is  much  paler  than  in  the  male."  W.,  4'35.  (Bishop.) 

Range. — Cen.  N.  Am.  Breeds  n.  of  limit  of  trees  from  mouth  of  the 
Mackenzie  to  w.  shore  of  Hudson  Bay;  winters  s.  to  Nev.,  Utah,  Kans.,  and 
Mich.;  casual  in  Ohio  and  N.  Y. 


350  CROWS  AND  JAYS 


49.  FAMILY  CORVID^B.    CROWS,  JAYS,  ETC.    (Fig.  61.) 

The  Corvidce  are  represented  in  all  parts  of  the  world  except  New 
Zealand.  They  number  about  two  hundred  species,  of  which  twenty-one 
are  found  in  North  America.  Our  Crows  and  Jays  inhabit  wooded 
regions,  and  are  resident  throughout  the  year,  except  at  the  northern 
limits  of  their  range.  They  are  omnivorous  feeders,  taking  fruits,  seeds, 
insects,  eggs,  nestlings,  and  refuse. 

Crows  and  Jays  exhibit  marked  traits  of  character  and  are  possessed 
of  unusual  intelligence.  Some  systematists  place  them  at  the  top  of  the 
avian  tree,  and,  if  their  mental  development  be  taken  into  consideration, 
they  have  undoubted  claims  to  this  high  rank. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  Plumage  black. 

a.  Wing  about  15*00;  bill  over  2*50 486a.  RAVEN. 

b.  Wing  about  13*00;  bill  about  2*00.  488.  CROW.   488a.  FLORIDA  CROW. 

c.  Wing  about  ll'OO;  bill  about  1'50 490.  FISH  CROW. 

B.  Plumage  bluish  or  grayish. 

a.  Back  blue;  tail  tipped  with  white;  a  black  breast-patch. 

477.  BLUE  JAY.     477a.  FLORIDA  BLUE  JAY. 

b.  Back  bluish  gray;  tail  not  tipped  with  white;  throat  and  breast  indis- 

tinctly streaked  with  whitish 479.  FLORIDA  JAY. 

c.  Back  gray;  back  of  head  and  nape  blackish;  forehead  whitish. 

484.  CANADA  JAY.     484c.  LABRADOR  JAY. 

477.  Cyanocitta  cristata  cristata  (Linn.}.  BLUE  JAY.  (Fig.  61a.) 
Ads. — Upperparts  grayish  blue;  underparts  dusky  whitish,  whiter  on  the 
throat  and  belly;  forehead,  and  a  band  passing  across  the  back  of  the  head 
down  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  across  the  breast,  black;  head  crested;  ex- 
posed surface  of  wings  blue,  the  greater  wing-coverts  and  secondaries  barred 
with  black,  and  all  but  the  middle  pair  broadly  tipped  with  white,  this  white 
tip  rarely  less  than  TOO  in  width  on  the  outer  feather.  L.,  11*74;  W.,  5*14; 
T.,  5*19;  B.,  1-04. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.,  breeding  from  cen.  Alberta,  s.  Keewatin,  Que., 
N.  B.,  N.  S.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  the  Gulf  States,  except  Fla.,  and  w.  to  w.  Nebr., 
e.  Colo.,  and  cen.  Tex.;  casual  in  N.  M.,  migratory  in  the  n.  part  of  its  range. 

Washington,  rather  rare  P.  R.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  28-May  15;  Sept. 
15-Oct.  15.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  common  P.  R., 
abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  and  May;  Sept.  and  Oct.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R. 
Glen  Ellyn,  common  P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  P.  R. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  compactly  interwoven,  lined  with  rootlets  generally  in  a 
tree  crotch  10-20  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-6,  pale  olive-green  or  brownish  ashy, 
rather  thickly  marked  with  distinct  or  obscure  spots  of  varying  shades  of 
cinnamon-brown,  1*10  x  '85.  Date,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Apl.  25;  Cambridge, 
Apl.  28;  se.  Minn.,  May  2. 

The  Blue  Jay,  I  fear,  is  a  reprobate,  but,  nothwithstanding  his  fond- 
ness for  eggs  and  nestlings,  and  his  evident  joy  in  worrying  other  birds, 
there  is  a  dashing,  reckless  air  about  him  which  makes  us  pardon  his 
faults  and  like  him  in  spite  of  ourselves.  Like  many  men,  he  needs  the 
inspiration  of  congenial  company  to  bring  out  the  social  side  of  his  dis- 
position. Household  duties  may  perhaps  absorb  him,  but  certain  it  is 
that  when  at  home  he  is  very  different  from  the  noisy  fellow  who,  with 
equally  noisy  comrades,  roams  the  woods  in  the  fall.  How  his  jay,  jay 


CROWS  AND  JAYS  351 

rings  out  on  the  frosty  morning  air!  It  is  a  signal  to  his  companions, 
breakfasting  in  a  near-by  oak  or  chestnut,  "Here,  here,  here's  some  fun!" 
and  the  poor,  blinking  Owl  he  has  discovered  looks  helplessly  at  the 
blue-coated  mob,  whose  uproar  alone  is  terrifying.  Suddenly  there  is 
absolute  silence;  every  Jay  has  disappeared.  One  of  them  has  seen 
you,  and  not  until  your  silence  reassures  the  band  will  they  return  to 
the  sport  of  teasing  their  victim. 

The  Blue  Jay  is  both  a  mimic  and  a  ventriloquist.  Besides  an  inex- 
haustible stock  of  whistles  and  calls  of  his  own/ he  imitates  the  notes  of 
other  species,  notably  those  of  the  Red-shouldered,  Red-tail,  and  Spar- 
row Hawks. 

1908.   CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  5-14  (nesting). 

477a.  C.  c.  florincola  Coues.  FLORIDA  BLUE  JAY.  Similar  to  the 
preceding  species,  but  smaller,  the  upperparts  somewhat  grayer,  the  white 
tips  to  the  feathers  narrower,  those  on  the  outer  pair  of  tail-feathers  generally 
less  than  I'OO  in  length.  L.,  10'75;  W.,  5'15;  T.,  4'80;  B.,  '96. 

Range. — Florida. 

Nesting  date,  Archer,  Fla.,  Apl.  4. 

Blue  Jays  in  Florida  are  common  inhabitants  of  towns  with  live- 
oaks,  and  hop  about  the  fences  and  gardens  with  all  the  domesticity 
of  the  Robins  on  our  lawns.  It  has  always  seemed  to  me  that  the  Florida 
birds  were  possessed  of  greater  vocabularies  than  their  northern 
brethren. 

The  MAGPIE  (475.  Pica  pica  hudsonia)  inhabits  western  North  America; 
stragglers  have  been  recorded  from  as  far  east  as  Montreal  and  Illinois. 

479.  Aphelocoma  cyanea  (Vieill.}.  FLORIDA  JAY.  Ads. — Top 
and  sides  of  the  head  and  neck,  wings  and  tail,  grayish  blue;  back  pale 
brownish  gray;  underparts  dirty  white,  obscurely  streaked  on  the  throat  and 
breast;  sides  of  the  breast  and  faint  breast-band  grayish  blue.  L.,  11*50; 
W.,  4'45;  T.,  5'40;  B.,  '98. 

Range. — Fla.,   local,    chiefly  along   coasts,   between  lat.    27°  and  30°. 

Nest,  of  sticks  and  roots  lined  with  weeds  and  rootlets,  in  trees  and  bushes. 
Eggs,  4,  olive-green  spotted  and  blotched  with  black,  1*17  x  '75  (Maynard). 
Date,  Lantana,  Fla.,  Apl.  6. 

"The  Florida  Jays  are  noisy  birds  at  all  times,  and  the  first  intima- 
tion which  one  receives  of  their  presence  is  a  harsh  scream  which  is  given 
as  a  note  of  alarm.  As  they  usually  move  in  flocks,  this  cry  is  taken  up 
by  others,  and  soon  the  scrub  for  many  rods  around  will  be  resounding 
with  these  peculiar  sounds.  When  undisturbed  they  feed  on  the  ground 
or  in  bushes,  but,  upon  the  approach  of  an  intruder,  they  will  mount 
the  highest  point  available,  where  they  remain  until  driven  away.  They 
are  not  usually  shy,  and  will  allow  one  to  approach  them  quite  closely, 
but  when  one  or  two  are  shot  the  survivors  usually  disappear.  .  .  . 
They  will  glide  through  the  bushes  with  remarkable  rapidity,  never 
once  showing  themselves,  or,  if  they  have  an  open  space  to  cross,  dart 
over  it,  not  in  flocks,  but  singly,  and,  plunging  into  the  next  thicket, 
they  will  at  once  be  lost  to  view"  (Maynard). 


352  CROWS  AND  JAYS 

484.  Perisoreus  canadensis  canadensis  (Linn.}.  CANADA  JAY. 
Ads. — Forepart  of  the  head  white,  back  of  the  head  and  nape  sooty  black, 
back  gray;  wings  and  tail  gray,  most  of  the  feathers  narrowly  tipped  with 
white;  throat  and  sides  of  the  neck  white,  rest  of  the  underparts  ashy  gray 
L.,  12-00;  W.,  5'85;  T.,  5'80;  B.,  '82. 

Range. — Boreal  zones  of  e.  N.  A.  Breeds  from  limit  of  conifers  in  nw. 
Mackenzie  and  cen.  Keewatin  and  from  n.  Que.,  s.  to  w.  cen.  Alberta,  n. 
Minn.,  Mich.,  the  Adirondacks  of  N.  Y.,  n.  Maine,  N.  H.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.; 
casual  in  Nebr.,  Pa.,  and  Mass. 

Cambridge,  A.  V.,  one  record,  Oct. 

Nest,  of  coarse  twigs  and  strips  of  bark,  in  coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  4-5, 
white,  distinctly  and  obscurely  spotted  with  light  olive-brown,  I' 12  x  '81. 
Date,  Stewiacke,  N.  S.,  Apl.  17,  inc.  adv.;  Mahoning,  Mich.,  Mch.  18. 

While  studying  the  habits  of  birds  in  the  great  coniferous  forest  of 
the  north,  I  soon  found  that  I  was  very  safe  in  attributing  any  new 
strange  shrieks  or  wails,  whose  origin  I  was  otherwise  unable  to  trace, 
to  the  Canada  Jay.  Many  of  the  notes  resemble  those  of  the  Blue  Jay, 
but  it  has  a  number  that  are  distinctly  its  own.  Some  of  these  are 
musical,  but  most  of  them  are  harsh  and  discordant. 

In  its  habits  it  is  much  like  its  blue  cousin,  but  it  is  less  shy,  and 
becomes  almost  tame  if  allowed  to  come  unmolested  about  the  camp 
for  a  few  days  in  succession.  In  form  it  is  like  a  magnified  Chickadee, 
clad  in  singularly  furlike,  thick,  puffy  gray  feathers;  on  its  forehead 
is  a  white  spot,  the  size  of  a  dime,  and  its  wings  and  tail  are  of  a  much 
darker  gray  than  the  other  parts.  This  description,  remembered  in 
conjunction  with  the  habits,  will  at  once  identify  the  species. 

It  nests  early  in  March — that  is,  while  deep  snow  still  covers  the 
ground  and  hard  frost  reigns  supreme;  and  no  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  this  strange  habit  has  yet  been  brought  forward.  No  doubt 
one  or  other  of  the  parents  always  remains  with  the  eggs,  but  still  it 
is  difficult  to  see  how  they  can  keep  them  from  freezing  when  the  sur- 
rounding air  is  chilled  to  30°  below  zero. 

It  is  a  non-migratory  species,  and  it  is  said  that  in  autumn  it  pro- 
vides against  the  annual  famine  of  winter  by  laying  up  a  store  of  nuts 
and  other  food.  ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

1899.   WARREN,  O.  B.,  Auk,  XVI,  12-19  (nesting). 

484c.  P.  c.  nigricapillus  Ridgw.  LABRADOR  JAY.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  darker,  the  black  of  the  head  and  neck  extending  forward 
and  surrounding  the  eye. 

Range. — Northern  and  eastern  Ungava,  Lab.,  and  N.  F. 

Nesting  date,  Lab.,  Apl.  16. 

486.  Coryus  eorax  sinuatus  (Wagl.).  RAVEN.  Similar  to  C.  c.  prin- 
cipalis  but  with  a  "smaller  or  slenderer  bill,  the  tarsus  more  slender,  with 
less  of  upper  portion  concealed  by  feathering  of  lower  part  of  thighs." 
W.,  16*87;  T.,  9'86;  B.,  2'80;  depth  of  B.,  at  N.,  '94  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Ore.,  Mont.,  S.  D  ,  s.  to  Honduras  and  e.  probably  to  Mo., 
Ills.,  and  Ind. 

486a.  Corvus  corax  principalis  Ridgw.  NORTHERN  RAVEN.  Ads. — 
Entire  plumage  black  with  steel-blue  reflections;  feathers  on  the  throat 


CROWS   AND  JAYS  353 

narrow,  lengthened,  and  pointed.  "L.,  about  i22*00-26'50;  W.,  16'99; 
T.,  9'86;  B.,  3'03;  depth  of  B.  at  N.,1'04"  (Ridgw.). 

Remarks. — The  Raven  differs  from  the  Crow  in  its  much  greater  size  and 
in  having  long,  pointed,  instead  of  the  usual  short,  rounded  feathers  on  the 
throat. 

Range. — NW.  Alaska,  Melville  Is.,  n.  Ellesmere  Land,  and  n.  Greenland 
s.  to  Wash.,  cen.  Minn.,  Mich.,  and  locally  to  coast  region  of  N.  J.  and 
Va.,  and  in  the  higher  Alleghanies  to  Ga.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  W.  V. 

Nest,  compact  and  symmetrical,  of  sticks  lined  with  grasses,  wool,  etc., 
added  to  from  year  to  year,  in  trees  or  on  cliffs.  "Eggs,  2-7,  pale  bluish  green, 
pale  olive,  or  olive  spotted  or  dashed  (or  both)  with  olive-brown  (sometimes 
nearly  uniform  olive  from  density  of  markings),  2'02  x  1*38"  (Ridgw.). 
Date,  Grand  Manan,  Apl.  9. 

"The  usual  note  of  the  Raven  is  a  hoarse,  rolling  cr-r-r-crwcfc,  but 
he  has  other  cries.  .  .  . 

"Despite  their  difference  in  size  and  habits,  I  must  confess  that  I 
often  had  difficulty  in  distinguishing  Ravens  from  Crows.  Every  one 
must  have  noticed  how  the  apparent  size  of  a  Crow  will  vary  under 
different  conditions  of  the  atmosphere;  it  is  the  same  with  the  Raven. 
At  times  he  looks  as  big  as  an  Eagle;  at  others  scarcely  larger  than  a 
Fish  Crow.  But  when  actually  in  company  with  Crows  he  can  not  be 
possibly  mistaken,  for  he  then  appears,  as  he  is,  nearly  double  the  size 
of  any  of  them.  His  flight  did  not  seem  to  me  as  characteristic  as  it 
has  been  described.  True,  he  sails  more  than  does  the  Crow,  and  there 
is  something  peculiar  in  his  wing-strokes,  but  the  difference  is  not  always 
appreciable  unless  there  is  an  opportunity  for  direct  comparison" 
(Brewster,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XXII,  1883,  p.  378). 

1910.   HARLAN,  R.  C.,  Cassinia  11-18  (nesting  in  Pa.). 

488.  Corvus  brachyrhynchos  brachyrhynchos  Brehm.  CROW. 
(Fig.  61fe.)  Ads. — Entire  plumage  black,  with  steel-blue  or  deep  purplish 
reflections;  the  underparts  duller  than  the  upperparts;  feathers  on  the  neck 
normal,  short,  and  rounded.  L.,  19'30;  W.,  12'18;  T.,  7'52;  B.,  2'00. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  sw.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  cen. 
Que.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  s.  Tex.,  and  the  Gulf  coast  (except  Fla.);  winters  from 
near  the  n.  boundary  of  the  U.  S.  southward. 

Washington,  abundant  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge, 
common  P.  R.,  abundant  T.  V.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  com- 
mon P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.-Nov.,  uncommon  W.  V. 

Nest,  bulky,  of  sticks  lined  with  strips  of  grapevine  bark,  grasses,  moss, 
etc.,  in  trees,  averaging  about  30  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-6,  generally  bluish  green, 
thickly  marked  with  shades  of  brown,  but  sometimes  light  blue  or  even 
white  with  almost  no  markings,  1*65  x  1*19.  Date,  Wash.,  D.  C.,  Mch.  27; 
Delaware  Co.,  Pa.,  Apl.  11;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  Apl.  14;  Cambridge,  Apl.  15; 
se.  Minn.,  Apl.  12. 

Throughout  his  wide  range  the  size,  color,  voice,  habits,  and  abun- 
dance of  the  Crow  combine  to  make  him  the  most  conspicuous  and 
consequently  the  best  known  of  our  birds.  But  in  spite  of  his  great 
circle  of  acquaintances  he  has  few  friends.  An  unfortunate  fondness 
for  corn  has  placed  him  under  the  ban  of  the  agriculturist;  there  is  a 
price  on  his  head;  every  man's  hand  is  against  him.  Apparently  he 
does  not  mind  this  in  the  least;  in  fact,  he  seems  to  rejoice  in  being 
an  outlaw.  As  for  fear,  I  doubt  if  he  knows  what  it  means;  he  has  far 


354  CROWS  AND  JAYS 

too  much  confidence  in  his  undoubted  ability  to  escape  his  human 
persecutors.  He  laughs  at  their  attempts  to  entrap  him;  his  insolent 
assurance  is  admirable.  For  several  centuries  man  has  been  his  sworn 
enemy,  nevertheless  he  appears  to  have  held  his  own,  accepting  and 
adjusting  himself  to  every  new  condition. 

Afraid  of  no  one,  he  migrates  boldly  by  day,  and  in  March  and 
October  we  may  see  him  with  his  comrades  high  in  the  air,  returning 
to  or  leaving  their  summer  homes.  In  winter  the  Crows  are  exceedingly 
abundant  along  our  seacoasts,  where  they  congregate  to  feed  on  mollusks, 
fish,  and  other  sea  food.  At  this  season  they  roost  in  colonies.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  some  roosts  contain  upward  of  three  hundred 
thousand  birds.  Early  in  the  morning,  with  regularly  executed  maneu- 
vers, they  start  on  the  day's  foraging,  flying  low,  on  the  lookout  for 
food.  Late  in  the  afternoon  they  return  at  a  much  greater  height — 
"as  the  Crow  flies" — and,  alighting  at  some  point  near  the  roost,  wait 
the  coming  of  the  last  stragglers.  Then,  at  a  given  signal,  they  all  rise 
and  retire  for  the  night.  No  one  one  who  has  listened  to  Crows  will 
doubt  that  they  have  a  language.  But  who  can  translate  it? 

1886.  RHOADS,  S.  N.,  Am.  Nat.,  691-700;  777-786  (roosts).— 1895. 
BARROWS  and  SCHWARZ,  Bull.  6,  Biol.  Surv.  1-98  (food). — 1895.  BURNS, 
F.  L.,  Wilson  Bull.  No.  5,  1-41  (monograph).— 1897.  BUTLER,  A.  W., 
Proc.  Ind.  Acad.  Sci.,  175-178  (roosts). 

488a.  C.  b.  pascuus  Coucs.  FLORIDA  CROW.  Similar  to  the  preced- 
ing, but  wings  and  tail  somewhat  shorter,  and  bill  and  feet  slightly  larger, 
L.,  20-00;  W.,  H'50-12-30  T.,  7'00-7'70;  B.,  2'00-2'20;  depth  of  B.  at 
base,  -7S--85;  Tar.,  2'40-2'50  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Peninsula  of  Florida. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  3. 

490.  Corvus  ossifragus  Wih.  FISH  CROW.  Ads. — Entire  plumage 
black,  with  steel-blue  or  deep  purplish  reflections,  generally  morn  gnvnish 
on  the  underparts.  L.,  IG'OO;  W.,  ll'OO;  T.,  6'40;  B.,  1'50. 

Remarks. — The  Fish  Crow  may  be  distinguished  from  the  common  Crow 
(1)  by  its  much  smaller  size.  (2)  By  the  uniform  and  somewhat  richer  color 
of  the  back.  In  brachyrhynchos  the  feathers  of  the  back  have  dull  tips;  when 
the  freshly-plumaged  bird  is  held  between  the  observer  and  the  light  these 
tips  give  the  back  a  ringed  or  slightly  scaled  appearance.  In  ossifragus  these 
tips  are  wanting,  and  the  back  is  uniformly  colored.  (3)  By  the  brighter 
color  of  the  underparts.  In  brachyrhynchos  the  underparts  are  generally 
much  duller  than  the  upperparts;  in  ossifragus  they  are  nearly  as  bright. 

Range. — Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas  of  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coasts  from  lower  Hudson  River  valley  and  Conn,  to  La.  and  Fla.;  casual 
in  Mass. ;  migratory  only  at  extreme  n.  limit  of  range. 

Washington,  rather  common  P.  R.    Cambridge,  A.  V.,  one  record,  Mch. 

Nest,  of  sticks,  lined  with  strips  of  grapevine  bark,  moss,  grasses,  etc., 
generally  in  pines  or  cedars,  20-50  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-6,  similar  in  color  to 
those  of  the  preceding  species,  1*52  x  1'06.  Date,  Lake  Kissimmee,  Fla., 
Apl.  30;  D.  C.,  May  5;  Seven  Mile  Beach,  N.  J.,  May  15. 

The  Fish  Crow  can  be  distinguished  from  the  common  Crow  in 
life  only  by  its  call.  Its  voice  is  cracked  and  reedy,  and  its  notes  resem- 
ble those  of  a  young  common  Crow.  Instead  of  the  loud,  clear,  open 
caw  of  adults  of  that  species,  it  utters  a  hoarser  car,  as  if  it  talked  through 


STARLINGS 


355 


its  nose!  The  difference  is  perhaps  not  appreciable  upon  paper,  but  one 
who  is  familiar  with  their  calls  need  never  confuse  these  two  birds  in  the 
field.  The  Fish  Crow,  while  not  confined  to  the  coast  or  even  the  vicinity 
of  water,  is  not  found  far  inland. 

The  EUROPEAN  ROOK  (490.1.  Corvus  frugilegus)  and  the  EUROPEAN 
HOODED  CROW  (490.2.  Corvus  comix)  are  both  of  accidental  occurrence  in 
Greenland. 

CLARKE'S  NUTCRACKER  (491.  Nucifraga  columbiana)  of  western  North 
America  is  of  accidental  occurrence  in  Iowa  and  Wisconsin. 


50.  FAMILY  STURNID^E.   STARLINGS.    (Fig.  62.) 

The  sixty  species  of  true  Starlings  (cf.  Sharpe)  are  distributed 
throughout  the  Old  World  except  in  Australia  and  New  Guinea.  The 
only  American  representative  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1890. 

493.  Sturnus  vulgaris  Linn.  STARLING.  (Fig.  62.)  Ads.  in  summer. 
— Metallic  purplish  or  greenish;  feathers  of  the  upperparts  all  tipped  with 
cream-buff  spots,  feathers  of  the  underparts  marked  only  on  the  sides;  lower 
belly  and  under  tail-coverts,  wings,  and  tail  dark  brownish  gray,  edged  with 
cream-buff;  bill  yellow.  Ads.  and  Im.  in  winter. — Similar,  but  the  upper- 
parts  heavily  spotted  with  brownish  cream-buff ;  the  entire  underparts  heav- 
ily spotted  with  white;  bill  blackish  brown.  L.,  8'50;  W.,  5'10;  T.,  2'50. 

Range. — W.  and  cen. 
Europe;  winters  s.  to 
Africa;  accidental  in 
Greenland  ;  introduced 
in  1890  in  N.  Y.  City, 
and  thence  has  spread 
as  far  as  Springfield, 
Mass.,  Stonington, 
Conn.,  Orient,  L.  I., 
Ossining,  N.  Y.,  and 
Phila.,  Pa. 

Nest,  of  grasses, 
twigs,  etc.,  in  a  crevice  in 
a  building  or  hollow  tree. 
Eggs,  4-6,  pale  bluish, 
1'20  x  '86.  Date,  Engle- 
wood,  N.  J.,  May  15, 
young  on  wing. 


The  Starling  was 
introduced  into  this 
country  by  Eugene 
Schieffelin,  who  also 
imported  one  of  the 
early  shipments  of  House  or  'English'  Sparrows.  Sixty  Starlings  were 
released  in  Central  Park,  New  York  City,  in  1890,  and  forty  more  in 
1891,  and  from  these  one  hundred  birds  (other  introductions  having 
apparently  failed)  the  thousands  of  Starlings  now  occupying  the  coun- 
try for  one  hundred  miles  or  more  from  New  York  City  have  descended. 
In  this  area  they  are  permanently  resident,  but  there  are  pronounced 
25 


FIG.  97.    Starling;  summer  plumage.    (Reduced.) 


356 


STARLINGS 


local  fluctuations  in  their  numbers  due  to  the  influences  of  the  pairing 
and  flocking  season  and  of  the  food  supply.  Continuous  residence,  as 
with  the  English  Sparrow,  not  only  implies  the  possession  of  powers 
of  endurance  and  adaptability,  but  gives  an  advantage  over  species 
with  which  there  may  be  conflict  over  the  possession  of  a  nesting-site. 

Such  conflict  occurs  with  the 
English  Sparrow,  but  the  latter 
nests  in  so  great  a  variety  of 
places  that  it  readily  abandons 
one  for  another.  With  the  Blue- 
bird this  is  not  so,  and  it  is  this 
species,,  more  than  any  other, 
which  is  threatened  by  the 
Starling. 

At  the  present  rate  of  in- 
crease it  is  clear  that  within  two 
decades  the  Starling  will  occupy 
the  greater  part  of  the  eastern 
States,  and  unless  its  spread 
westward  be  prevented  by  the 
plains,  it  may  eventually  be  as 
widely  distributed  as  the  English 
Sparrow.  It  has  not  as  yet  been 
FIG.  98.  Starling^wjnter  plumage.  decided  whether,  from  an  eco- 
nomic standpoint,  the  Starling  is 

a  desirable  addition  to  our  avifauna;  but  in  spite  of  his  undoubted  claims 
to  our  interest,  he  is  a  distinctly  foreign  element  in  our  bird-life,  and 
seems  out  of  place  among  those  species  with  which  we  share  the  bond 
of  a  birthplace  in  common. 

About  New  York  City  the  Starling  is  among  the  first  birds  to  nest, 
and  the  harsh,  grating  food-call  of  the  young  may  be  heard  by  May  15. 
Here  apparently  but  one  brood  is  raised  and  young  and  old  begin  to 
flock  the  latter  part  of  May,  forming  the  nucleus  of  gatherings  which 
in  late  summer  and  fall  contain  several  thousand  birds.  Their  aerial 
evolutions  admirably  demonstrate  the  unity  of  spirit  which  appears 
to  control  the  movements  of  birds  in  flocks,  and  are  performed  with  a 
precision  which  suggests  long  training  and  instant  obedience. 

The  call  of  the  male  is  a  high,  clear,  rather  long-drawn,  ascending 
whistle,  which  may  be  easily  imitated.  This  appears  in  its  song,  which 
is  a  choking,  gasping,  guttural  soliloquy,  with  imitations  of  the  notes 
of  other  birds  interspersed.  The  flocking  chorus  is  an  indescribable 
chattering.  On  a  number  of  occasions  I  have  heard  Starlings  utter 
notes  resembling  those  of  the  Wood  Pewee  (see  page  344)  but  whether 
they  were  natural  or  acquired  must  be  determined  by  some  observer 
in  the  Old  World. 

Starlings  are  walkers,  not  hoppers,  and  aside  from  color,  may  be 
known  by  their  long,  pointed  wings,  and  short,  square  tail. 


BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC.  357 

51.  FAMILY  ICTERID^E.    BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC.    (Fig.  63.) 

This  distinctively  American  family  is  most  abundantly  represented  in 
the  tropics,  where  the  majority  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  odd  known 
species  are  found,  only  nineteen  advancing  north  of  Mexico.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Orioles,  they  are  gregarious  after  the  nesting  season, 
while  some  of  the  species  nest  in  colonies  and  are  found  in  flocks  through- 
out the  year.  They  differ  markedly  in  habits,  and  are  found  living  in 
ground  of  every  nature,  from  dry  plains  and  wet  marshes  to  the  densest 
forest  growth.  Some  species  possess  marked  vocal  ability,  while  the 
voices  of  others  are  harsh  and  unmusical.  They  feed  on  fruit,  seeds, 
grain  and  insects. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  With  yellow  or  orange  in  the  underparts. 
II.  Underparts  black  with  or  without  metallic  reflections. 

III.  Underparts  grayish,  slate-color,  chestnut  or  buffy. 

IV.  Underparts  black  and  white,  or  black,  tipped  or  margined  with  rusty. 

I.  With  yellow  or  orange  in  the  underparts. 

1.  Throat  or  breast-crescent  black. 

a.  Back   black 507.  BALTIMORE    ORIOLE. 

b.  Back   greenish 506.  ORCHARD   ORIOLE    (<?  im.). 

c.  A  black  or  blackish  crescent  on  the  breast ;  outer  tail-feathers  white. 

501.  MEADOWLARK.     50 la.  WESTERN  MEADOWLARK. 

2.  Throat  not  black,  no  breast-crescent. 

A.  Entire  underparts  yellow,  yellowish,  or  orange. 

a.  Rump  and  tail  orange   .     .     507.  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE  (9  and  im.). 

b.  Underparts  yellowish  green   .   506.  ORCHARD  ORIOLE  (9  and  im.). 

c.  Upperparts    brownish,    streaked    and    spotted    with    black;    tail- 

feathers  pointed.     .     .     494.  BOBOLINK  (9  ad.  d",  fall  and  im.). 

B.  Throat  and  breast  yellow  or  yellowish;  belly  black  or  dark  grayish 

brown 497.  YELLOW-HEADED  BLACKBIRD. 

II.  Underparts  black,  with  or  without  metallic  reflections. 

A.  Outer  tail-feathers  '75  or  more  shorter  than  middle  ones;  bill  1*00  or 

more  in  length. 

a.  Tail  over  6'00 513.  BOAT-TAILED  GRACKLE  d". 

b.  Tail  under  6' 00. 

ft1.  Back  bronzy  purple  or  shining,  brassy  bluish  green,  the  feath- 
ers with  iridescent  bars 511.  PURPLE  GRACKLE  cf. 

62.  Back  bronze,  without  iridescent  bars. 

5116.  BRONZED  GRACKLE  <?. 

63.  Back  bottle-green,  the  feathers  more  purple  at  their  base,  and 

with  a  narrow  iridescent  bar  near  the  middle. 

51  la.  FLORIDA  GRACKLE  cf. 

64.  Back  bluish  black,  with  or  without  iridescent  bars. 

511.  PURPLE  GRACKLE  (9).     511oL  FLORIDA  GRACKLE  9. 

B.  Outer  tail-feathers  little  if  any  shorter  than  middle  ones;  bill  less 

than  TOO  in  length.  ^ 
a.  Entire  plumage  bluish  black,  the  feathers  sometimes  tipped  with 

buffy  or  rufous 509.  RUSTY  BLACKBIRD  d\ 

6.  A  red  and  buff  shoulder-patch  .     .     .  RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRDS  d". 

c.  Head  and  neck  all  around  seal-brown     .     .     .     495.  COWBIRD  d1. 

d.  Nape  buffy,  rump  whitish 494.  BOBOLINK  <?*  . 


358  BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC. 

III,  Underparts  grayish,  slate-color,  chestnut,  or  buffy. 

A.  Underparts  grayish  or  slate-color. 

a.  Underparts  grayish;  bill  finchlike;  wing  under  4'00. 

495.  COWBIRD  9. 

6.  Underparts   slate-color,    sometimes   tipped    with    brownish,    bill 
thrushlike;  wing  over  4*00     .     .     .     509.  RUSTY  BLACKBIRD  9. 

B.  Underparts  buffy  or  chestnut. 

a.  Underparts  buffy,  generally  with  a  few  black  streaks. 

494.  BOBOLINK  9. 
6.  Underparts  buffy,  without  black  streaks;  tail  about  5'00. 

513.  BOAT-TAILED  CRACKLE  9. 
c.  Underparts  chestnut ;  throat  black.  .  506.  ORCHARD  ORIOLE  (&  ad.) . 

IV.  Underparts  black  and  white,  or  black  tipped  or  margined  with 

rusty. 

a.  Underparts  streaked  black  and  white,  or  black  tipped  with  white; 
shoulder  generally  red  or  reddish. 

RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRDS  (9  and  im.). 
6.  Upperparts  and  underparts  tipped  with  rusty. 

509.  RUSTY  BLACKBIRD  (im.). 
c.  Nape  buffy,  rump  whitish 494.  BOBOLINK  cf . 

•  494.  Dolichonyx  oryzivorus  (Linn.).  BOBOLINK.  Ad.  <?,  breeding 
plumage. — Top  and  sides  of  the  head  and  underparts  black,  the  feathers 
more  or  less  tipped  with  a  narrow  whitish  or  cream-buff  fringe,  which  wears 
off  as  the  season  advances;  back  of  the  neck  with  a  large  yellowish  cream- 
buff  patch;  middle  of  back  generally  streaked  with  cream-buff;  scapulars, 
lower  back,  and  upper  tail-coverts  soiled  grayish  white;  wings  and  tail 
black;  tail-feathers  with  pointed  tips;  bill  blue-black.  Ad. 9. — Upperparts 
olive-buff,  streaked  with  black;  crown  blackish,  with  a  central  stripe  of 
olive-buff;  nape  finely  spotted  and  back  broadly  streaked  with  black;  wings 
and  tail  brownish  fuscous :  tail-feathers  with  pointed  tips;  underparts  yellow- 
ish or  buffy  white.  Ads.  in  fall  and  Im. — Similar  to  female,  but  buffier  and 
more  olivaceous  throughout.  L.,  7  25;  W.,  3'76;  T.,  273;  B.,  '55. 

Remarks. — The  young  and  adults  in  fall  plumage  are  known  as  Reed- 
birds.  Adults  acquire  this  plumage  by  a  complete  molt  after  the  breeding 
season.  The  breeding  plumage. is  regained  by  a  complete  molt  in  the  spring, 
and  not,  as  has  been  supposed,  by  a  change  in  the  color  of  the  feathers  with- 
out molting.  Freshly  plumaged  males  have  the  black  veiled  by  yellow  tips 
to  the  feathers;  these  gradually  wear  off,  and  by  June  have  almost  entirely 
disappeared  (cf.  Chapman,  Auk,  X,  1893,  309). 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.  Breeds  mainly  in  Transition  zone  from  se.  B.  C., 
cen.  Alberta,  cen.  Sask.,  cen.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  cen.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton 
Is.  s.  to  ne.  Nev.,  Utah,  n.  Mo.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  cen.  Ohio,  W.  Va.,  Pa.,  and  N.  J.; 
winters  in  S.  A.  to  s.  Brazil,  Bolivia  and  Paraguay;  in  migration  to  the  West 
Indies  and  e.  coast  of  Cen.  Am. ;  casual  in  Calif. ;  accidental  in  Bermuda  and 
the  Galapagos.  (See  Fig.  7.) 

Washington,  T.  V.,  common  in  spring,  abundant  in  fall;  Apl.  26-May 
30;  July  23-Nov.  14.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Oct.  5. 
Cambridge,  very  common  S.  R.,  May  8-Sept.  10.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.v 
Apl.  16-Oct.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Oct.  9.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
S.  R.,  Mch.  5-Aug.  27. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-7,  grayish  white,  frequently 
tinged  with  the  color  of  the  numerous  irregular  spots  and  blotches  of  olive- 
brown  or  umber,  '85  x  '62.  Date,  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  29;  Cambridge, 
June  1;  Erie  Co.,  N.  Y.,  May  15;  Austin,  Ills.,  May  20. 

In  June  our  fields  and  meadows  echo  with  the  Bobolink's  "mad 
music"  as,  on  quivering  wing,  he  sings  in  ecstasy  to  his  mate  on  her 


BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC.  359 

nest  in  the  grasses  below.  What  a  wonderful  song  it  is!  An  irrepressible 
outburst;  a  flood  of  melody  from  a  heart  overflowing  with  the  joy  of 
early  slimmer. 

But  this  glad  season  is  soon  over.  Even  before  the  tide  of  the  year 
is  full,  the  Bobolink  begins  to  prepare  for  the  long  journey  to  his  win- 
ter resorts.  Doffing  his  jaunty  costume  of  black,  white,  and  buff,  he 
dons  the  less  conspicuous  dress  of  his  mate,  and  travels  in  disguise  under 
the  assumed  name  of  Reedbird  or  Ricebird.  His  voice  is  hushed,  save 
for  a  single  call-note — a  metallic  chink.  He  travels  both  by  day  and 
night,  and  from  the  sky  we  hear  his  watchword  as  he  signals  his  com- 
panions. 

The  wild-rice  marshes  of  our  coasts  and  rivers  are  the  rendezvous 
of  the  countless  flocks  of  Bobolinks,  which  later  will  invade  South 
America,  stopping  en  route  to  visit  the  rice  fields  of  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia.  They  pass  the  winter  south  of  the  Amazon,  and  in  March 
or  April  begin  their  northward  journey.  The  males,  in  flocks  of  two  or 
three  hundred,  precede  the  females  by  several  days.  They  reach  Florida 
about  April  25,  and  are  then  in  full  song.  Only  one  who  has  heard  the 
Bobolink  sing  can  form  an  idea  of  the  effect  produced  by  a  flock  of 
three  hundred  or  more  singing  in  chorus. 

495.  Molothrus  ater  ater  (Bodd.}.  COWBIRD.  Ad.  <?. — Head,  neck, 
and  breast  coffee-brown;  rest  of  the  plumage  glossy  black,  with  metallic 
bluish  and  greenish  reflections.  Ad.  9 . — Dark  brownish  gray,  lighter  below, 
especially  on  the  throat.  Juvenal  plumage. — Similar  to  the  female,  but 
whiter  below,  all  the  feathers  edged  with  buffy.  This  plumage  is  worn  but 
a  short  time,  and  is  then  changed  for  that  of  the  adult.  <?  L.,  7*92;  W.,  4*24; 
T.,  3.03;  B.,  '67. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  Ont., 
Que.,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  n.  Calif.,  Nev.,  n.  N.  M.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  N.  C.;  winters 
from  se.  Calif,  and  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  valleys  (casually  further  n.)  to 
the  Gulf  coast  and  cen.  Mex. 

Washington,  rather  rare  P.  R.,  common  T.  V.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Mch.  22-Nov.  11.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  25-Nov.  1;  occasional 
in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  10-Nov.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  common 
S.  R.,  Mch.  15-Sept.  10.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  11-Aug.  19. 

Nest,  none,  the  eggs  being  laid  in  the  nests  of  (some  90  recorded)  other 
species.  Eggs,  white,  evenly  and  distinctly  speckled  with  cinnamon-brown 
or  umber,  \S6  x  '65.  Date,  Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  May  10;  Cambridge, 
May  15. 

The  Cowbird  is  an  acknowledged  villain,  and  has  no  standing  in 
the  bird  world.  English  Sparrows,  either  because  they  are  not  aware 
of  the  customs  of  New  World  bird  life,  or  because  of  a  possible  and 
not  unlikely  affinity,  associate  with  him;  but  no  self-respecting  American 
bird  should  be  found  in  his  company. 

As  an  outcast  he  makes  the  best  of  things,  and  gathers  about  him 
a  band  of  kindred  spirits  who  know  no  law.  There  is  an  air  about  the 
group  which  at  once  tells  the  critical  observer  that  their  deeds  are  evil. 
No  joyous  song  swells  the  throat  of  the  male.  His  chief  contribution 
to  the  chorus  of  springtime  is  a  guttural  bubbling  produced  with  appar- 
ently nauseous  effort.  In  small  flocks  they  visit  both  pasture  and  wood- 


360  BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC. 

land,  and  are  given  to  following  cattle,  clustering  about  the  feet  of  the 
herd,  presumably  to  feed  on  the  insects  found  there.  They  build  no 
nest,  and  the  females,  lacking  every  moral  and  maternal  instinct, 

leave  their  companions  only  long 
enough  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  other  and  smaller  birds.  I 
can  imagine  no  sight  more  strongly 
suggestive  of  a  thoroughly  despicable 
nature  than  a  female  Cowbird  sneak- 
ing through  the  trees  or  bushes  in 
search  of  a  victim  upon  whom  to 
shift  the  duties  of  motherhood. 
FIG.  99.  Cowbird.  (Natural  size.)  k  The  ill-gotten  offspring  are  born 

wi£h    the    Cowbird    character    fully 

developed.  They  demand  by  far  the  greater  share  of  the  food,  and 
through  gluttony  or  mere  size  alone  starve  or  crowd  out  the  rightful 
occupants  of  the  nest.  They  accept  the  attention  of  their  foster-par- 
ents long  after  they  could  care  for  themselves;  and  when  nothing  more 
is  to  be  gained  desert  them  and  join  the  growing  flocks  of  their  kind 
in  the  grainfields. 

497.  Xanthocephalus  xanthocephalus  (Bonap.).  YELLOW-HEADED 
BLACKBIRD.  Ad.  cf. — Head,  neck,  throat,  and  breast  orange-yellow;  region 
before  the  eye  and  chin  black;  outer  wing-coverts  white,  rest  of  the  plumage 
black.  Ad.  9. — Forehead,  line  over  the  eye,  sides  of  the  head,  throat,  and 
upper  breast  pale,  dirty  yellow,  more  or  less  mixed  with  white;  lower  breast 
generally  more  or  less  marked  with  white;  rest  of  the  plumage  grayish 
brown.  L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  5'50;  T.,  4'05;  B.,  '85. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  sw.  Keewatin, 
and  n.  Minn.  s.  to  s?  Calif.,  Ariz.,  and  Mex.,  and  e.  to  s.  Wise.,  cen.  Iowa, 
n.  Ills.,  and  Ind.;  winters  from  sw.  Calif.,  s.  Ariz.,  and  sw.  La.  s.  to  Mex.; 
accidental  in  Greenland  and  in  various  e.  localities  from  Ont.  and  Que.  to 
S.  C.,  Fla.,  and  Cuba. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  one  instance,  Aug.  Cambridge,  A.  V.,  one  record, 
Oct.  GlenEllyn,  A.  V.,  May  21,  1898.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  21. 

Nest,  bulky,  of  coarse  reeds,  grasses,  etc.,  in  marshes.  Eggs,  4-5,  grayish 
white,  evenly  and  rather  obscurely  speckled  with  pale  cinnamon-brow r, 
I'OO  x  '72.  Date,  se.  Minn.,  May  18  (first  egg). 

When  nesting,  the  Yellow-head  is  one  of  the  characters  of  the  quill  - 
reed  or  tule  marshes.  Later,  he  joins  others  of  his  kind,  forming  vast 
flocks  which  frequent  corn  and  grain  fields  or  wherever  food  can  be 
found. 

"If  result  were  commensurate  with  effort,  the  Yellow-head  would  be 
a  world-famed  songster;  but  something  besides  unbounded  ambition 
and  limitless  muscular  exertion  is  required  to  produce  music.  In  vain 
the  Yellow-head  expands  his  lungs  and  throws  out  his  chest,  his  wide- 
spread tail  testifying  to  the  earnestness  of  his  endeavor;  sound  he  pro- 
duces in  volume,  but  surely  such  a  series  of  strained,  harsh  calls,  whist- 
ties  like  escaping  steam,  grunts,  groans  and  pig-like  squeals  never  before 
did  duty  as  a  song.  In  his  youth  he  does  far  better,  the  note  of  the  youn  j. 


BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC.  361 

bird  being  a  wooden  rolling  call  as  different  from  the  voice  of  the 
parent  as  is  that  of  the  young  Baltimore  Oriole."  (Chapman,  F.  M., 
'  Camps  and  Cruises.") 

1909.   ROBERTS,  T.  S.,  Auk,  XXVI,  371-389  (home-life). 

498.  Agelaius  phoeniceus  phoeniceus  (Linn.}.  RED-WINGED  BLACK- 
BIRD. Ad.  &. — Lesser  wing-coverts — 'shoulders' — bright  scarlet;  middle 
wing-coverts  varying  from  ochraceous-buff  to  buffy  white ;  rest  of  the  plu- 
mage black.  Ad.  <?  in  winter. — Similar,  but  upperparts  margined,  with  rusty. 
1m.  &  in  winter. — Upperparts  margined  with  rusty  and  buffy;  underparts 
tipped  with  whitish;  lesser  wing-coverts  dull  orange-red  mixed  with  black. 
Ad.  9. — Head  and  back  blackish,  streaked  with  rusty  and  buffy;  rump 
and  upper  tail-coverts  fuscous,  more  or  less  edged  with  ashy;  wings  fus- 
cous, edged  with  buffy,  the  lesser  coverts  sometimes  tinged  with  reddish; 
underparts  conspicuously  streaked  with  black  and  white;  the  throat  tinged 
with  orange  or  yellow.  <?  L.,  9'51;  W.,  4'72;  T.,  3'77;  B.,  '88.,  depth  at 
base  *50. 

Range. — N.  A.  e.  of  the  Great  Plains,  except  Gulf  coast  and  Fla.  Breeds 
from  Ont.,  N.  S.,  and  Que.,  southward;  winters  mainly  s.  of  Ohio  and  Del. 
valleys,  locally  n.  to  Mass. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.,  abundant  in  migration.  Ossining,  common 
S.  R.,  Feb.  25-Nov.  11.  Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  10-Aug.  30.; 
a  few  winter.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  1-Nov.  15.  Glen  Ellyn, 
common  S.  R.,  Mch.  5-Nov.  19.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  8-Nov.  14. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses,  weed  stalks,  etc.,  lined  with  finer  grasses  and  root- 
lets, attached  to  low  bushes  or  reeds.  Eggs,  3-5,  pale  blue,  singularly 
streaked,  spotted  or  scrawled  with  dark  purple  or  "black,  chiefly  at  the  larger 
end,  l;04  x  '72.  Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  16;  Cambridge,  May  16: 
se.  Minn.,  May  8. 

A  swiftly  moving,  compact  band  of  silent  birds,  passing  low  through 
the  brown  orchard,  suddenly  wheels,  and,  alighting  among  the  bare 
branches,  with  the  precision  of  a  trained  choir  breaks  into  a  wild,  tink- 
ling glee.  It  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  summer  this  rude  chorus 
might  fail  to  awaken  enthusiasm,  but  in  the  spring  it  is  as  welcome 
and  inspiring  a  promise  of  the  new  year  as  the  peeping  of  frogs  or 
blooming  of  the  first  wild  flower. 

Plain,  streaked  Mrs.  Redwing,  who  has  been  spending  the  winter  in 
flocks  composed  only  of  others  of  her  sex,  soon  appears,  but  mating  is  de- 
layed until  late  April  or  early  May.  Then  we  find  the  old  homes  li- 
the wet  meadows  and  marshes  occupied  by  apparently  the  same  birds 
which  have  dwelt  there  for  years. 

Mounting  the  topmost  branch  of  a  tree  not  far  from  the  nest,  the 
male  becomes  an  ever- vigilant  sentinel.  His  rich  "kong-qu&r-ree," 
which  by  association  is  so  strongly  suggestive  of  reedy  marshes,  is  a 
signal  that  "all's  well."  He  challenges  all  suspicious  characters  by  an 
inquiring  chut,  chuck,  and  with  a  long,  shrill  alarm-note,  chee-e-e-e-e, 
circles  out  on  fluttering  wings,  his  gorgeous  crimson  epaulets  showing 
conspicuously. 

The  nesting  season  is  a  short  one,  and  in  July  young  and  old  begin 
to  gather  in  flocks  in  the  marshes,  where  later  they  will  be  found,  in 
countless  numbers,  feeding  on  the  wild  rice. 

1905.  HURRICK,  F.  H.,  Home-Life  of  Wild  Birds,  45-48. 


362  BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC. 

498b.  A.  p.  bryanti  Ridgw.  BAHAMA  RED-WING.  Similar  to  A.  p.  flor- 
idanus  but  smaller,  the  bill  much  more  slender;  9  with  the  underparts 
streaked  with  brownish.  W.,  3'70;  T.,  3'50;  B.,  '90;  depth  of  bill  at  nos- 
tril, '35. 

Range. — SE.  coast  of  Fla.,  Florida  Keys  to  Key  West,  and  the  Bahamas. 

498c.  A.  p.  floridanus  Mayn.  FLORIDA  RED-WING.  Similar  to  A.  p. 
phceniceus  but  smaller,  bill  longer,  and  more  slender.  <?  W.,  4'20;  B.,  *90; 
depth  at  base,  "40. 

Range. — Fla.  (except  the  se.  coast  and  keys),  and  w.  along  the  coast  at 
least  to  Galveston,  Tex. 

Nesting  date,  Lake  Flirt,  Fla.,  Apl.  15. 

498d.  A.  p.  fortis  (Ridgw.).  THICK-BILLED  RED-WING.  Similar  to 
A.  p.  phceniceus  but  larger  (largest  of  the  genus),  bill  shorter  and  proportion- 
ately thicker,  9  somewhat  paler  and  browner,  d"  W.,  5*00;  B.,  *80;  depth 
at  base  '50. 

Range. — Cen..  N.  A.  Breeds  from  cen.  Mack,  and  s.  Keewatin  s.  to  ne. 
Colo,  and  n.  Texas ;  winters  principally  in  the  s.  part  of  its  breeding  range, 
wandering  irregularly  further  eastward.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V. 

501.  Sturnella  magna  magna  (Linn.}.  MEADOWLARK.  (Fig.  63fe.) 
Ads.  in  summer. — Prevailing  color  of  upperparts  black,  crown  with  a  buffy 
line  through  center,  back  bordered  and  tipped  with  rufous  and  buffy; 
outer  tail-feathers  mostly  white,  middle  ones  with  imperfect,  connected  bars, 
not  reaching  the  outer  edge  of  the  feather;  line  from  bill  over  eye  yellow; 
sides  of  the  throat  and  ear-coverts  whitish;  throat,  between  the  lower 
branch  of  the  under  mandible,  breast,  and  middle  of  the  upper  belly  bright 
yellow;  a  black  crescent  on  breast;  sides  and  lower  belly  whitish,  spotted 
or  streaked  with  black.  Ads.  and  Im.  in  winter. — Feathers  all  much  more 
widely  margined,  the  prevailing  color  of  the  upperparts  rufous-brown; 
black  breast  crescent  veiled  with  buffy;  yellow  of  underparts  duller. 
L.,  1075;  W.,  4'76;  T.,  3'16;  B.,  1'30. 

Remarks. — This  bird  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  western  species  by 
its  much  darker  upperparts,  by  the  imperfect,  confluent  tail-bars,  and, 
especially,  by  the  absence  of  yellow  on  the  sides  of  the  throat. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Transition  and  Upper  Austral  zones  from 
e.  Minn.,  s.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  n.  Tex.,  Mo.,  and  N.  C.,  and  w.  to 
w.  Iowa.,  e.  Kans.,  and  nw.  Tex.;  winters  regularly  from  s.  New  England 
and  Ohio  valley  s.  to  the  Gulf  States,  and  n.  locally  to  the  Great  Lakes  and 
s.  Maine. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.,  less  common  in  winter.  Ossining,  tolerably 
common  S.  R.,  Feb.  20  to  Nov.  27;  a  few  winter.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R., 
not  common  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  5-Nov.  15;  a  few  winter. 
Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  Jan.  24-Nov.  15;  irregular  W.  V.  SE.  Minn., 
common  S.  R.,  Mch.  25-Oct.  15,  rare  W.  V. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  usually  arched,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  spotted 
or  speckled  with  cinnamon  or  reddish  brown,  1*15  x  "80.  Date,  Beech  Haven, 
N.  J.,  May  7;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  9;  Cambridge,  May  28;  Tampico,  Ills., 
May  5;  se.  IV^inn.,  May  16. 

In  walking  through  grassy  fields,  meadows,  or  marshes,  we  some- 
times flush  rather  large,  brownish  birds,  which,  alternately  flapping 
and  sailing,  scale  away  with  a  flight  that  suggests  a  Quail's.  Their 
white  outer  tail-feathers  show  conspicuously,  and,  if,  instead  of  return- 
ing to  the  ground,  they  alight  on  a  fence  or  the  outer  branch  of  a  tree, 
as  they  utter  a  dzit  or  yert  and  metallic  twitter,  they  will  nervously 
flit  their  tails,  displaying  the  same  white  feathers.  When  in  an  exposed 


BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC.  363 

position  they  are  wary  and  difficult  to  approach,  but  when  walking 
about  on  the  ground  they  trust  to  the  long  grasses  for  protection,  and 
sometimes  do  not  take  wing  until  one  is  within  a  few  feet  of  them. 
In  Cuba  I  noticed  that  a  Meadowlark,  closely  related  to  ours,  was 
very  careful  to  conceal  its  brightly  colored  breast,  with  its  distinctly 
marked  crescent,  and,  although  even  perching  birds  were  not  shy,  they 
would  invariably  turn  their  backs  upon  me  as  I  drew  near. 

The  Meadowlark's  song  is  a  clear,  plaintive  whistle  of  unusual 
sweetness.  It  is  subject  to  much  variation,  both  individually  and 
geographically.  The  birds  near  my  home  at  Englewood,  N.  J.,  generally 

sing:    ^zzE^i—  ^zzrpEEE       fc  —  Eg  —  fj    But   tne  songs   of 


Florida  birds  are  so  different,  I  hardly  recognized  them  by  their  notes. 

In  the  fall,  Meadowlarks  at  the  north  gather  in  flocks  and  resort  to 
large  marshes. 

1908.   CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Camps  and  Cruises,  15  (nesting). 

501c.  S.  m.  argutula  Bangs.  SOUTHERN  MEADOWLARK.  Similar  to  S. 
m.  magna  but  smaller  and  darker.  W.,  4*40. 

Range.  —  Austroriparian  and  Floridian  faunas  from  s.  Ills.,  sw.  Ind., 
and  N.  C.,  s.  to  the  coast  of  se.  Tex.,  La.,  and  s.  Fla. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  22. 

501.1.  Sturnella  neglecta  And.  WESTERN  MEADOWLARK.  Ads.  — 
Prevailing  color  of  upperparts  grayish  brown,  crown  with  a  central  huffy 
stripe;  back  black,  feathers  widely  margined  with  grayish  brown;  rump 
and  upper  tail-coverts  with  narrow  black  bars;  outer  tail-feathers  mostly 
white;  middle  ones  brownish  gray,  barred  with  black,  the  bars  generally 
not  connected,  and  as  a  rule  reaching  the  margins  of  the  feathers;  line  from 
the  bill  over  the  eye  yellow;  ear-coverts  grayish  white;  throat  yellow,  this 
color  reaching  up  on  the  sides  of  the  throat  and  touching  ear-coverts  ;  breast 
and  upper  belly  yellow,  a  black  crescent  on  breast;  sides  and  lower  belly 
whitish,  spotted  or  streaked  with  black.  Ads.  and  Im.  in  winter.  —  Upper- 
parts  more  widely  margined  with  grayish  brown,  these  grayish  brown  tips 
with  small,  broken  black  bars;  yellow  of  underparts  duller,  the  black  cres- 
cent veiled  with  whitish.  W.,  4'60;  T.,  3'00;  B.,  1'25. 

Range.  —  W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  s.  B.  C.,  cen.  Alberta,  and  s.  Man.  s. 
to  s.  Calif.,  n.  Mex.,  and  cen.  Tex.;  winters  from  s.  B.  C.  and  Iowa,  s.  to  L. 
Calif.,  and  Guanajuato;  e.  casually  to  Wise.,  s.  Mich.,  and  n.  III.,  accidental 
in  s.  Mackenzie. 

SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  25-Oct.  15. 

The  Western  Meadowlark  resembles  the  eastern  bird  in  habits, 
but  its  markedly  different  song  and  the  fact  that  at  the  junction  of  their 
ranges  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  both  birds  may  be  found  nesting  with- 
out evidence  of  geographical  intergradation,  have  finally  won  for  the 
western  bird  the  rank  of  a  species.  Just  what  the  relations  of  the  two 
forms  may  be  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  and  what  part  Sturnella  magna 
hoopesi,  of  that  region,  plays  in  the  problem  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

The  call  note  of  neglecta  is  a  chuck,  chuck  followed  by  a  wooden 
rolling  6-r-r-r-r,  analogous  to  but  very  unlike  the  dzit  or  yert  and  metallic 
twitter  of  magna.  The  song  of  magna  is  a  clean-cut  fifing  without 
grace  notes;  that  of  neglecta  is  of  mellow  bubbling  flute-notes.  The 


364  BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC. 

flight-songs  of  the  two  birds  are  much  alike,  but,  in  my  experience, 
neglecta  sings  much  more  frequently  on  the  wing,  and,  in  the  height  of 
the  mating  season,  sings  as  often  in  the  air  as  from  a  perch. 

1890.  SETON,  E.  T.,  Proc.  U.  S.  N.  M.,  XIII,  573-379  (biog.).— 1896. 
BELDING,  L.,  Auk,  XIII,  29,  30  (songs). 

506.  Icterus  spurius  (Linn.}.  ORCHARD  ORIOLE.  Ad.  <?. — Head, 
neck,  throat,  and  upper  back  black;  breast,  belly,  lower  back,  and  lesser 
wing-coverts  chestnut;  wings  and  tail  fuscous,  more  or  less  edged  or  tipped 
with  whitish.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  grayish  olive-green,  brighter  on  the 
head  and  rump;  wings  fuscous,  middle  and  greater  coverts  tipped  with  whit- 
ish; tail  brisht  olive-green;  underparts  dull  yellow.  Im.  d%  first  winter 
plumage. — Similar  to  the  ad.  9,  but  with  the  back  browner.  Im.  d1,  first  nup- 
tial plumage.— Similar  to  the  ad.  9 ,  but  with  the  throat  black  and  occasion- 
ally patches  of  chestnut  on  the  underparts.  L.,  7'32;  W.,  3*18;  T.,  2'92;  B., 
'65. 

Remarks. — The  interesting  changes  of  plumage  which  the  Orchard  Oriole 
undergoes  are  well  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  plate  (plate  xxi).  The 
Juvenal  or  nestling  plumage  (not  shown)  resembles,  but  is  browner  above 
and  paler  below  than  the  first  winter  plumage  (Fig.  6),  which  is  acquired 
by  molt  of  the  body  feathers  and  wing-coverts  in  July.  The  male  in  first 
winter  plumage  is  indistinguishable  from  the  female  in  first  winter  plumage; 
and  differs  only  slightly  from  the  adult  female  in  summer  plumage  (Fig.  5) 
In  first  nuptial  plumage,  acquired  by  partial  molt  in  spring,  the  male  has 
the  throat  black,  but,  as  a  rule,  is  otherwise  like  the  female  (Fig.  4) .  The 
amount  of  black  in  the  throat  varies.  Sometimes  it  is  restricted  to  a  few 
feathers,  again  it  spreads  somewhat  down  the  breast,  and  such  highly  devel- 
oped birds  usually  have  traces  of  chestnut  in  the  underparts  (Fig.  3). 

The  postnuptial  (fall)  molt  apparently  does  not  occur  until  after  the 
bird  has  left  us  for  the  South,  when  it  passes  into  winter  plumage  (Fig.  2) 
which ,  as  Dwight  has  said,  resembles  that  of  the  adult.  There  is  no  spring 
molt  and  the  adult  chestnut  and  black  breeding  plumage  (Fig.  1)  is  acquired 
by  a  wearing  off  of  the  buffy  tips  which  fringe  the  winter  plumage. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  N.  D.,  nw.  Minn.,  Wise.,  Mich., 
s.  Ont.,  cen.  N.  Y.,  and  Mass.  s.  to  n.  Fla.  and  the  Gulf  coast  to  s.  Tex.,  and 
in  Mex.  to  Oaxaca  and  Jalisco,  and  w.  to  cen.  Nebr.  and  w.  Kans.;  winters 
from  s.  Mex.  to  n.  Colombia;  casual  n.  to  Vt.,  N.  H.,  Maine,  and  N.  B., 
and  w.  to  Colo. ;  occasional  in  s.  Fla.  and  Cuba  in  spring  migration. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29- Aug.  22.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
May  2-Aug.  6.  Cambridge,  S.  R.,  sometimes  rather  common,  May  15- 
July.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  28-Sept.  5.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  28.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  May  10- Aug.  26. 

Nest,  pensile,  of  grasses  interwoven,  near  the  extremity  of  a  limb,  10-15 
feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  bluish  white,  distinctly  and  obscurely  spotted,  blotched, 
and  scrawled  with  fuscous  or  black,  "79  x  "58.  Date,  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May 
29;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  May  14. 

Although  the  Orchard  Oriole  generally  frequents  apple  orchards, 
he  is  entirely  at  home  among  the  shade  trees  of  our  lawns. 

There  is  an  air  of  refinement  about  this  bird  which  seems  to  per- 
vade his  whole  life  history.  He  dresses  quietly  but  with  excellent  taste, 
his  nest  is  of  the  choicest  materials,  while  his  song  suggests  the  finished 
effort  of  a  perfectly  trained  performer.  His  voice  is  indeed  unusually 
rich  and  flexible,  and  he  uses  it  with  rare  skill  and  expression.  Words 
can  not  describe  his  song,  but  no  lover  of  bird-music  will  be  long  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  singing  Orchard  Oriole  without  learning  the  distinguished 
songster's  name. 


PLATE  XXI 


PLUMAGES  OF  THE  ORCHARD  ORIOLE 

1.  Adult  male,  summer. 

2.  Adult  male,  winter. 

3.  Male,  first  nuptial  plumage. 


4.  Male,  first  nuptial  plumage. 

5.  Adult  female. 

6.  Male,  first  winter. 


BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC.  365 

507.  Icterus  galbula  (Linn.}.  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE.  Ad.  d". — Head, 
neck,  throat,  and  upper  back  black;  breast,  belly,  lower  back,  and  lesser 
wing-coverts  deep,  rich,  reddish  orange;  wings  black,  the  outer  margin 
of  the  greater  coverts  and  quills  edged  with  white;  end  half  of  middle  tail- 
feathers  black,  base  orange;  all  the  others  orange,  crossed  by  a  black  band 
in  the  middle.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  brownish  or  grayish  orange,  brighter  on 
the  rump;  head  and  back  mottled  with  black;  wings  fuscous,  greater  and 
middle  coverts  tipped  with  white;  tail  like  the  rump,  the  middle  feathers 
stained  with  black;  underparts  dull  orange,  throat  sometimes  spotted  with 
black.  L.,  7-53;  W.,  3'52;  T.,  2'84;  B.,  '70. 

Range. — Breeds  mainly  in  Transition  and  Upper  Austral  zones  from  cen. 
Alberta,  cen.  Sask.,  Man.,  Ont.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.  s.  to  n.  Tex.,  cen.  La.,  and 
n.  Ga.  and  w.  to  Mont.,  Wyo.,  and  Colo.  e.  of  the  Rocky  Mts.;  migrates 
through  e.  Mex.;  winters  from  s.  Mex.  to  Colombia;  accidental  at  York 
Factory,  Hudson  Bay,  and  in  Cuba. 

Washington,  rather  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29- Aug.  26.  Ossining,  common 
S.  R.,  May  2-Sept.  1.  Cambridge,  very  common,  S.  R.,  May  8  through 
Aug.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  15-Sept.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  26-Sept.  4.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  1. 

Nest,  pensile,  of  grasses,  bark,  plant  fibers,  hair,  strings,  etc.,  firmly 
interwoven,  in  fruit  or  shade  trees,  near  the  extremity  of  a  limb  20-40  feet  up. 
Eggs,  4-6,  white,  singularly  scrawled  with  fine,  distinct  or  obscure  black 
or  fuscous  lines,  and  with  a  few  spots  or  blotches,  '94  x  '63.  Date,  D.  O., 
May  27;  Cambridge,  June  1;  Martin's  Ferry,  Ohio,  May  20;  se.  Minn., 
May  22. 

Sometimes  Nature,  as  if  to  remind  us  of  the  richness  of  her  stores, 
sends  from  the  tropics  a  gayly  attired  bird  which  seems  quite  out  of  place 
among  the  more  soberly  clad  inhabitants  of  northern  climes.  The 
genus  Icterus  contains  nearly  forty  species,  all  more  or  less  brightly 
dressed  in  orange,  yellow,  and  black,  but  not  one  is  more  beautiful 
than  our  Baltimore  Oriole.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  is  not 
unaware  of  his  own  charms;  indeed,  we  may  almost  suspect  him  of 
intentionally  displaying  them.  His  splendor  is  not  to  be  lost  in  the 
forest,  and,  whistling  loudly,  he  flashes  through  our  fruit  and  shade 
trees. 

He  leaves  to  the  female  the  task  of  constructing  their  wonderfully 
made  nest,  but  he  seems  quite  as  deeply  interested  in  the  performance 
as  if  he  were  a  skilled  weaver  himself;  indeed,  he  would  probably  assist 
if  he  were  permitted. 

Young  Orioles  have  been  well  named  by  Mrs.  Olive  Thorne  Miller 
the  cry-babies  of  the  bird  world.  Their  ceaseless  call  for  food  is  almost 
as  much  a  midsummer  voice  as  the  song  of  cicadas.  Long  after  they 
have  left  the  nest  we  may  find  them  in  the  different  trees  about  our  lawn 
calling  out  monotonously  and  persistently  dee-dee-dee-dee,  until  one  of 
the  parents  arrives  and  momentarily  fills  their  mouths. 

BULLOCK'S  ORIOLE  (508.  Icterus  bullocki),  a  species  of  our  Western 
States,  has  been  taken  in  New  York  and  in  Maine. 

509.  Euphagus  carolinus  (Mull.}.  RUSTY  BLACKBIRD.  Ad.  <?,  breed- 
ing plumage. — Entire  plumage  uniform  glossy  bluish  black;  tail-feathers  of 
nearly  equal  length.  Ad.  a*  and  Im.  a"  in  winter. — Similar,  but  the  uppor- 
parts  widely  tipped  with  rufous  or  rusty,  the  underparts  similarly  tipped 
with  ochraceous-  or  cream-buff;  a  buffy  line  over  the  eye.  Ad.  9  in  breeding 
plumage. — Slate-color,  glossy  above,  duller  below;  wings  and  tail  darker 


366  BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC. 

and  more  glosgy.  Ad.  9  and  Int.  9  in  winter. — Similar,  but  somewhat  lighter, 
the  upperparts  widely  tipped  with  rufous  or  rusty,  the  underparts  similarly 
tipped  with  ochraceous-  or  cream -buff.  L.,  9'55;  W.,  4'61;  T.,  3'52; 
B.,  '80. 

Range. — E.  and  n.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zone  from  the  Kowak 
River,  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  s.  Alaska, 
cen.  Alberta,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Ont.,  N.  Y.,  Vt.,  N.  H.,  n.  Maine,  N.  B.,  and 
N.  S.;  winters  mainly  s.  of  the  Ohio  and  Delaware  valleys  to  the  Gulf  coast; 
w.  in  migration  to  the  Plains;  casual  in  B.  C.,  Mont.,  and  Colo.;  accidental 
in  Calif.,  L.  Calif.,  and  Greenland. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  13-Apl.  30.  Ossining,  common  T.  V., 
Mch.  26-May  8;  Sept.  28-Nov.  27.  Cambridge,  very  common  T.  V.,  Mch. 
10-May  8;  Sept.  15-Oct.  31.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  5-May  10; 
Sept.  10-Nov.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  3-May  8;  Sept.  12- 
Nov.  15;  uncommon  W.  V.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  26-N9V.  24. 

Nest,  of  twigs  and  coarse  grasses  lined  with  finer  grasses,  in  coniferous 
trees  or  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-7,  grayish  green  to  pale  green,  thickly 
blotched  with  light  and  dark  brown  and  purple,  TOO  x  "76  (Chamberlain). 
Date,  Wilmurt,  N.  Y.,  May  7;  Kings  Co.,  N.  S.,  May  11. 

This  bird  is  found  during  the  migrations  in  small  flocks  on  fresh- 
water meadows  or  about  open,  bushy  swamps,  feeding  on  the  ground 
in  alder  thickets  or  along  the  edges  of  swampy  woods.  It  resembles, 
more  or  less,  the  Red-winged  Blackbird  in  size,  flight,  and  notes,  but 
unlike  this  species,  with  which  it  sometimes  associates,  it  is  compara- 
tively quiet  and  retiring.  Only  at  times,  in  the  spring,  do  we  find  the 
flocks  musical  centers,  whence  issues  a  confused  medley  of  whistles, 
sweeter  and  higher-pitched  than  the  best  efforts  of  the  Redwings. 
Little  is  known  of  this  Blackbird  in  its  northern  home.  It  gathers  into 
flocks  early  in  the  summer,  and  the  most  frequently  heard  note  is  a 
cluck,  not  in  the  least  characteristic.  Its  quiet  demeanor,  pale  yellow 
eye,  and  uniform  color  are  its  chief  distinguishing  characters  in  the 
field,  where  it  may  be  mistaken  for  the  Bronzed  or  Purple  Grackle. 
The  gray  female  is  unlike  the  streaked  female  Redwing. 

J.  DWIGHT,  JR. 

BREWER'S  BLACKBIRD  (510.  Euphagus  cyanocephalus)  inhabits  western 
North  America,  and  is  of  casual  occurrence  as  far  east  as  Illinois  and 
Louisiana,  and  has  been  once  recorded  from  South  Carolina.  It  may  be 
distinguished  from  E.  carolinus  by  its  deep  violet-purple  head  and  the  com- 
parative absence  of  rusty  tips  to  the  feathers. 

511.  Quiscalus  quiscula  quiscula  (Linn.).  PURPLE  GRACKLE.  (Fig. 
63c.)  Ad.  d*. —  Head,  neck,  throat,  and  upper  breast  all  around  varying 
from  brilliant  metallic  purple  to  bluish  green  or  steel-blue;  back  and  rump 
varying  from  ^bottle-green  to  metallic  purple  or  shining  brassy  green,  the 
feathers  with  iridescent  bars;  wings  and  tail  externally  metallic  purple  or 
bluish  black;  lower  breast  and  belly  resembling  the  back  but  duller.  Ad.  9. — 
Much  duller  than  the  male,  but  the  feathers  of  the  back  generally  show- 
ing at  least  traces  of  iridescence.  <?  L.,  12'00-13'50;  W.,  5*66;  T.,  5'18; 
B.,  1-18. 

Remarks. — Intermediates  between  this  and  the  Bronzed  Grackle  are 
found  where  their  ranges  adjoin,  but  typical  quiscula  always  has  iridescent 
bars  on  the  feathers  of  the  back,  rump,  and  belly,  while  in  aneus  these  bars 
are  wanting.  (On  relationships  of  this  group  see  Chapman,  Bull.  Am.  Mus. 
Nat.  Hist.,  IV,  1892,  1-20.) 

Range. — Middle  Atlantic  coast  region  of  the  U.  S.    Breeds  in  the  Car- 


BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC.  367 

olinian  fauna  from  the  n.  shore  of  L.  I.  Sound,  rarely  Mass.,  and  the  middle 
Hudson  Valley  w.  to  the  Alleghanies  and  s.  to  the  uplands  of  Ga.,  Ala.,  and 
e.  Tenn. ;  winters  mainly  s.  of  the  Delaware  Valley. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.  and  S.  R.,  Feb.  20;  a  few  winter.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Feb.  15-Nov.  8.  Cambridge,  rare  S.  R. 

Nest,  bulky  and  compact,  of  mud  and  coarse  grasses  lined  with  finer 
grasses,  in  colonies,  generally  in  coniferous  trees  about  30  feet  up,  some- 
times in  bushes  or  holes  in  trees.  Eggs,  3-7,  very  variable,  generally  pale 
bluish  or  bluish  green,  singularly  spotted,  blotched,  or  scrawled  with 
cinnamon-brown,  umber,  or  black,  but  sometimes  evenly  speckled  with 
brownish,  and  rarely  almost  solid  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown,  1*15  x  '82. 
Date,  D.  C.,  Apl.  17;  Delaware  Co.,  Pa.,  Apl.  25. 

When  winter  gives  signs  of  retreating,  there  comes  from  the  south 
in  sable  array  the  tried  advance  guard  of  the  feathered  army  which  is 
impatiently  awaiting  the  order  to  march.  In  close  rank  they  come, 
phalanx  after  phalanx,  to  retake  the  land  which  winter — once  conquer- 
ing, now  defeated — yields  to  them.  The  air  resounds  with  martial  music; 
their  harsh  voices,  united,  rise  in  an  inspiring  chorus. 

The  campaign  over,  they  settle  in  colonies  on  their  recently  acquired 
possessions,  and  these  careless  rovers  become  so  attached  to  their 
homes  and  families  that  they  are  rarely  seen  far  from  their  vicinity. 
Sometimes  we  may  see  them  walking  sedately  over  the  lawns  near  their 
home,  their  glossy  plumage  gleaming  in  the  light,  and  their  yellow  eyes 
giving  them  a  peculiar,  unbirdlike  expression.  But  when  their  young  are 
,  old  enough  to  care  for  themselves,  the  old  habits  return,  and,  leading 
their  offspring  into  the  world,  they  teach  them  the  ways  of  wanderers. 
Meeting  others  of  their  kind,  they  join  forces,  and  in  the  fall  we  find 
them  in  hordes  ravaging  the  country. 

The  Crackle's  disposition  is  as  gloomy  as  his  plumage  is  dark.  Life 
with  him  is  a  serious  affair.  He  seems  to  utterly  lack  the  Blue  Jay's 
sense  of  humor.  As  a  parent  he  is  beyond  reproach,  and  every  moment 
is  devoted  to  the  care  of  his  young,  but  it  is  all  done  in  a  joyless  way. 
Eggs  and  nestlings  form  part  of  his  fare,  and  I  can  imagine  bird-mothers 
frightening  their  young  into  obedience  by  threatened  visits  from  that 
ogre,  the  Crackle. 

1892.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bull.  A.  M.  N.  H.,  1-20  (relationships).— 1897. 
JONES,  L.,  Wilson  Bull.,  No.  15,  39-56  (roosts). 

51  la.  Q.  q.  aglaeus  (Baird).  FLORIDA  CRACKLE.  Ad.  <?. — Head, 
neck,  throat  and  upper  breast  all  around  metallic  violet-purple;  back  and 
rump  rich  bottle  green,  the  feathers  with  more  or  less  concealed  iridescent 
bars;  wings  and  tail  externally  metallic  purple  or  bluish  black;  the  wing- 
coverts  generally  with  iridescent  tips;  lower  breast  and  belly  similar  to  the 
back  but  duller.  Ad.  9. — Not  distinguishable  in  color  from  the  9  of  Q.  q. 
quiscula,  but  differing  in  size.  W.,  5'38;  T.,  4'90;  B.,  1*25. 

Range. — S.  Atlantic  coast  from  S.  C.  through  to  Fla.,  and  w.  in  the  s. 
part  of  the  Gulf  States  to  e.  Tex. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  30. 

This  is  a  locally  abundant  bird,  and  is  found  in  flocks  throughout 
the  year.  In  Florida  it  sometimes  lives  in  the  towns  in  which  live-oaks 
grow,  and  it  also  makes  its  headquarters  in  cypress  'bays/  but  its 


368  BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC. 

favorite  resort  is  among  the  cabbage  palmettos,  upon  the  berries  of 
which  it  feeds. 

51  Ib.  Q.  q.  seneus  Ridgw.  BRONZED  GRACKLE.  Ad.  <?. — Head, 
neck,  throat,  and  upper  breast  all  around  varying  from  brilliant  metallic 
purple  to  bluish  green  or  steel-blue;  back  metallic  seal -bronze,  the  feathers 
without  iridescent  bars;  wings  and  tail  metallic  purplish  or  bluish  black; 
lower  breast  and  belly  similar  to  the  back  but  duller.  Ad.  9 . — Much  duller, 
the  back  and  belly  brownish,  sometimes  without  metallic  reflections  and 
never  with  iridescent  bars.  W.,  5'62;  T.,  5'04;  B.,  1'21. 

Range. — Central  and  e.  N.  A.  Breeds  from  Great  Slave  Lake,  cen.  Kee- 
watin,  N.  S.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  Mont.,  and  Colo.  (e.  of  the  Rocky  Mts.)  s. 
to  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  Gulf  States,  cen.  La.,  cen.  Miss.,  cen.  Ala.,  W.  Pa,, 
cen.  N.  Y.,  and  Conn.  (s.  of  N.  Y.  breeds  only  w.  of  the  Alleghanies) ;  win- 
ters mainly  from  the  Ohio  Valley  s.  to  s.  Tex. ;  casual  in  migration  on  the 
s.  Atlantic  coast. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  between  Feb.  20  and  Apl.  17.  Ossining,  toler- 
ably common  T.  V.,  Apl.;  Nov.  Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  10- 
Nov.  1;  occasional  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  1-Nov.  15; 
rarely  winters.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  5-Nov.  15.  SE.  Minn., 
common  S.  R.,  Mch.  18-Nov.  1;  rare  in  winter. 

Nesting  date,  Cambridge,  May  2;  Grinnell,  Iowa,  May  2;  se.  Minn., 
Apl.  25. 

"The  general  habits  of  the  Bronzed  Grackle  are  in  all  respects 
identical  with  those  of  the  Purple  Grackle.  .  .  . 

"From  an  almost  equal  familiarity  with  the  two  birds  we  are  able 
to  say  that  their  notes  differ  decidedly,  especially  those  of  the  male 
during  the  breeding  season,  the  'song'  of  the  western  bird  being  very 
much  louder  arid  more  musical  or  metallic  than  that  of  its  eastern 
relative"  (Ridgway). 

513.  Megaquiscalus  major  major  (VieilL}.  BOAT-TAILED  GRACKLE. 
Ad.  c?. — Glossy  bluish  blank;  head,  throat,  and  breast  more  purplish,  wings 
and  tail  more  blackish.  Ad.  9. — Much  smaller,  upperparts  blackish  brown, 
underparts  soiled  ochraeeous-buff.  d*  L.,  IG'OO;  W.,  7'50;  T.,  7'00;  B.,  155. 

Range. — Austroriparian  fauna  from  Chesapeake  Bay  to  Fla.,  and  w. 
to  the  e.  coast  of  Tex. 

Nest,  bulky  and  compact,  of  grasses,  seaweed,  etc.,  with  a  median  layer 
of  mud  or  partially  decayed  vegetation,  in  colonies  in  bushes.  Eggs,  3-5, 
pale  bluish  white,  frequently  tinged  with  vinaceous-brown,  singularly 
spotted,  blotched,  and  scrawled  with  purplish  or  blackish,  1*32  x  "90.  Date, 
Ft.  Pierce,  Fla.,  Mch.  20;  Ft.  Macon,  N.  C.,  Apl.  26;  Accomac  Co.,  Va., 
Apl.  28. 

Boat-tail  Grackles  are  rarely  if  ever  found  far  from  water.  Shallow 
lakes  or  marshy  lagoons  grown  with  aquatic  plants  are  their  favorite  re- 
sorts. Here  they  may  be  seen  in  small  groups,  which  usually  contain  more 
males  than  females,  walking  or  jumping  from  plant  to  plant,  sometimes 
springing  into  the  air  to  catch  a  passing  insect,  or  wading  along  the  shore 
in  search  of  food.  Their  usual  notes  are  hoarse,  rather  forced  whistles; 
more  rarely  they  utter  a  singular  rolling  call,  which  bears  a  close  resem- 
blance to  the  sound  producd  by  a  Coot  in  pattering  over  the  water. 
The  Great-tailed  Grackle,  the  larger  southern  form  of  this  species,  is 
unquestionably  polygamous,  but  it  is  unknown  whether  the  Boat-tail 
has  more  than  one  mate. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  369 

52.  FAMILY  FRINGILLID^B.   FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  (Fig.  64.) 

This,  the  largest  family  of  birds,  contains  some  twelve  hundred 
species  and  subspecies,  which  are  represented  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
except  the  Australian  region.  Sparrows  are  plastic  birds,  responding 
so  readily  to  environmental  influences  that  probably  not  more  than 
half  the  forms  recognized  in  this  family  deserve  standing  as  species, 
while  the  remaining  half  are  climatic  or  geographic  races.  They  present 
wide  diversity  of  form  and  habit,  but  generally  agree  in  possessing  stout, 
conical  bills,  which  are  admirably  adapted  to  crush  seeds.  They  are 
thus  chief  among  seed-eaters,  and  for  this  reason-  are  not  so  migratory  as 
insect-eating  species.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that  their  great  economic 
value  as  the  destroyers  of  weed-seeds  has  been  recognized. 

The  brown,  streaked  Sparrows  are,  to  a  large  extent,  field-  or  plain- 
inhabiting,  and  their  neutral  colors  are  therefore  a  means  of  protection 
in  the  exposed  situations  they  inhabit.  The  brighter  Grosbeaks  and 
Finches  are  more  arboreal.  Many  species  take  high  rank  as  songsters, 
and  some  of  our  favorite  cage-birds  belong  to  this  family. 

The  birds  of  this  family  are  now  generally  considered  to  represent 
the  most  highly  developed  type  of  the  Class  Aves,  and  the  anatomical 
reasons  on  which  this  claim  is  based  are  supported  by  their  numerical 
abundance;  thus  the  Order  Passeres,  beyond  question  the  highest  of 
avian  groups,  contains  the  greatest  number  of  species,  a  distinction 
in  turn  shared  by  its  'highest'  family. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  Underparts  with  red. 
II.  Underparts  with  no  red  and  without  distinct  streaks;  throat  or  breast 

sometimes  with  a  patch  or  spot. 
III.  Underparts  without  red  and  with  numerous  streaks. 

I.  Underparts  with  red. 

1.  Wing-coverts  plainly  tipped  with  white  or  whitish,  or  with  a  white  or 
yellow  band  in  the  wing. 

A.  No  red  in  the  upperparts. 

a.  Back  black,  rump  whitish,  throat  black,  breast  and  under  wing- 

coverts  rosy  red  .     .     595.  ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK  (<?  ad.) 

b.  Back  and  underparts  streaked  with  black;  under  wing-coverts 

rosy  red.     .     .     .     595.  ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK  (d*  im.). 

B.  With  red  in  the  upperparts. 

a.  Red  on  upperparts  confined  to  crown  or  forehead,  and  sometimes 

a  tinge  on  the  rump;  wing  under  3'25. 

a1.  Rump  and  flanks  generally  without  blackish  streaks;  feathers 
of  back  generally  with  whitish  borders. 

527.  GREENLAND  REDPOLL.     527a.  HOARY  REDPOLL. 
a2.  Rump   and    flanks    always   streaked;    feathers  of   back  with 
little  white,  if  any,  and  generally  with  brownish  borders. 

528.  REDPOLL  and  races. 

a3.  Back  cinnamon-brown,  unstreaked;  crown,  nape,  and  sides  of 
neck  black;  a  yellow  band  in  the  wing. 

EUROPEAN  GOLDFINCH. 

b.  Red  or  pink  spread  more  or  less  over  entire  upperparts;  wing  over 

3'25. 


370  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

b1.  Tips  of  mandibles  crossed. 

522.  WHITE-WINGED  CROSSBILL  (d"  ad.). 

62.  Bill  stout;  mandibles  not  crossed.  515.  PINE  GROSBEAK  (&  ad.). 
2.  Wing-coverts  not  tipped  with  white. 

a.  Throat  black  or  blackish;  wings  and  tail  red;  body  red  or  olive. 

593.  CARDINAL. 

b.  Throat  and  more  or  less  of  underparts  red  or  greenish  red. 

61.  Plumage  blood-red,  brownish  red,  or  greenish  red;  tips  of  the 

mandibles  crossed 521.  AM.  CROSSBILL  <f. 

62.  Plumage  dull  reddish;  belly  whitish ;  back  indistinctly  streaked, 

with  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils. 

517.  PURPLE  FINCH  (cT  ad.). 

63.  Head  blue;  back  green;  rump  red. 

601.  PAINTED  BUNTING  (d1  ad.). 

II.  Underparts  with  no  red  and  without  distinct  streaks;  throat  or 
breast  sometimes  with  a  patch  or  spot. 

1.  Tail  with  white  spots,  bars,  or  patches. 

A.  Back  plain,  without  streaks. 

a.  Throat  and  breast  black,  brown,  or  slate-color,  sharply  denned 

from  the  white  belly. 

a1.  Breast  black  or  brown;  sides  rufous     .     .     .    587.  TOWHEE. 
a2.  Breast  slate-color;  sides  the  same,  or  brownish. 

567.  JUNCO.     567e.  CAROLINA  JUNCO. 
6.  Throat  and  breast  not  black  or  brown. 

b1.  Throat  and  belly  more  or  less  yellow  or  ashy. 

62.  Wing  over  4'00;  bill  stout,  greenish  yellow. 

514.  EVENING  GROSBEAK. 

63.  Bill  small  and  sharp;  back  brown;  throat  yellowish. 

529.  GOLDFINCH  (9  and  im.). 

64.  Body  bright  yellow,  cap  black  .     529.  GOLDFINCH  (<?  ad.). 
c1.  Underparts  pure  white,  middle  of  back  black. 

534.  SNOWFLAKE. 

B.  Back  streaked  with  black,  brown,  or  white. 

a.  Bend  of  the  wing  yellow;  tail  under  2'20. 

546.  GRASSHOPPER  SPARROW. 

b.  Breast    black    or    blackish;    lesser    wing-coverts   reddish    brown. 

539.  McCowN's  LONGSPUR  cf. 

c.  Breast  buffy;  belly  whitish;  outer  tail-feathers  white,  next  three 

or  four  more  or  less  white  with  a  black  band  at  the  end ;  seconda- 
ries not  entirely  white    .     .     .     539.  McCowN's  LONGSPUR  p. 

d.  Underparts  entirely  light  brown  or  buffy,  only  two  outer  tail- 

feathers  white;  no  yellow  on  the  bend  of  the  wing. 

537.  SMITH'S  LONGSPUR. 

e.  Underparts  pure  white,  with  a  blackish  spot  on  the  center  of  the 

breast,   a  black  stripe  on  the  sides  of  the  throat;  sides  of  the 

crown    and    ear-coverts    chestnut       .     .     552.  LARK  SPARROW. 

/.  Wing  slightly  over  4*00;  underparts  pure  white  or  washed  with 

rusty;  head  and  rump  white  or  rusty;  most  of  secondaries  white. 

534.  SNOWFLAKE. 

2.  Tail  without  large  white  spots  or  patches. 
A.  Back  plain,  without  distinct  streaks. 

a.  Back  blue,  bluish  or  brownish  blue. 

a1.  Wing  over  3*00-  lesser  wing-coverts  chestnut  or  with  broad 

chestnut   tips 597.  BLUE   GROSBEAK. 

a2.  Wing  under  3*00;  lesser  wing-coverts  blue  or  bluish,  tipped 

with  light  brown 598.  INDIGO  BUNTING. 

6.  Back  not  blue. 

b1.  Back  green  or  greenish,  or  rump  yellow  or  greenish  yellow. 
62.   Mandibles  not  crossed. 

63.  Back  greenish 601.  PAINTED  BUNTING  9. 


PINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  371 

64.  Back  and  underparts  slaty  gray;  bill  black. 

515.  PINE  GROSBEAK  (9  andim.). 

66.  Forehead,    rump,    underparts,    and    scapulars    yellow   or 
brownish  yellow;  secondaries  white;  bill  yellow. 

514.  EVENING  GROSBEAK  d". 
c2.  Mandibles  crossed. 

c3.  Wing-bars  white    .     .    522.  WHITE-WINGED  CROSSBILL. 
c4.  Without  white  wing-bars   .    .     .     521.  AM.  CROSSBILL. 
c1.  Back  brown  or  brownish,  ashy,  or  slate-color. 

c2.  Head  and  rump  yellowish  or  reddish;  wing-bars  white;  wing 

over  4'00 515.  PINE  GROSBEAK  (9  andim.). 

c3.  Underparts  brownish  cream-buff;  wing-coverts  with  broad 
chestnut  tips;  wing  over  3 '00  .     .     597.  BLUE  GROSBEAK  9. 
c4.  Underparts  whitish;  wing  without  yellow  and  under  3'00. 

598.  INDIGO  BUNTING  9. 

c5.  Back  ashy;  spot  before  the  eye  and  on  bend  of  wing  yellow. 

550.  SEASIDE  SPARROW. 
B.  Back  distinctly  streaked. 

a.  Bend  of  the  wing  yellow. 
a1.  Tail  over  2'20. 

a2.  A  white  throat-patch;  breast  gray;  a  yellowish  line  over 

the  eye 558.  WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW. 

a3.  A  black  spot  on  the  throat;  breast  yellow,  or  both. 

604.  DICKCISSEL. 

a4.  No  yellow  over  the  eye;  breast  ashy  or  buffy;  outer  tail- 
feathers  much  the  shortest. 

575.  PINE-WOODS  SPARROW.     575a.  BACHMAN'S  SPARROW. 
ft1.  Tail   under   2'20,   the  feathers   narrow   and   sharply  pointed. 

62.  Crown   olive-brown,    a   blue-gray   line   through   its   center; 

cheeks  and  breast  ochraceous-buff. 

549a.  NELSON'S  SPARROW. 

63.  Crown  blackish,  a  cream-buff  line  through  its  center. 

546.  GRASSHOPPER  SPARROW. 

b.  Bend  of  the  wing  not  yellow. 

fe1.  Crown  bright  reddish  brown,  the  feathers  sometimes  tipped 

with  ashy  or  brownish,  but  without  black  streaks. 
fc2.  No  white  or  whitish  wing-bars;   outer  tail-feathers  much 
shorter  than  middle  one;  lesser  wing-coverts,  upper  tail- 
coverts,  and  margins  of  most  of  the  tail-feathers  rufous; 

wing  under  2'50 584.  SWAMP  SPARROW. 

b3.  Cheeks  and  throat  ashy,  a  narrow  reddish  brown  line  from 
back  of  the  eye  to  the  nape,  an  indistinct  black  spot  in  the 
center  of  the  breast 559.  TREE  SPARROW. 

64.  Eye-ring  whitish,  entire  bill  brownish  flesh-color. 

563.  FIELD  SPARROW. 

6B.  Rump  slaty  gray;  underparts  generally  all  grayish  white; 
forehead  black,  with  a  narrow  grayish  line  in  its  middle,  a 
narrow  black  line  from  back  of  the  eye  to  the  nape. 

560.  CHIPPING  SPARROW. 
c1.  Crown  not  bright  reddish  brown. 

c2.  Crown  streaked  or  spotted  with  black  or  blajk  and  white. 
c8.  Crown  with   chestnut  streaks,    and   sometimes   a    slight 
ashy  line  through  its  center;  no  white  or  whitish  wing- 
bars;  outer  tail-feathers  much  shorter  than  middle  ones. 

584.  SWAMP  SPARROW  (Im.). 

c4.  Crown  with  reddish  brown;  rump  ashy;  wing-bars  buffy; 
middle  tail-feathers  shortest.  560.  CHIPPING  SPARROW  (Im.). 
c5.  Center  of  crown  white;  the  sides  black;  wing-bars  white. 

554.  WHITE-CROWNED  SPARROW. 

c6.  Crown  grayish;  mandibles  crossed   .   521.  AM.  CROSSBILL. 
86 


372   .  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

dz.  Crown  mixed  grayish  brown  and  rufous,  ashy,  or  slate-color, 

without  black  streaks. 
d3.  Wing  2*50;  bill  brownish  flesh-color;  back  rufous,  streaked 

with  black   .........     563.  FIELD  SPARROW. 

d4.  Wing  3*00;   center   of   crown   grayish   brown,    bordered   by 

chestnut-rufous;  back  grayish  brov/n,  spotted  with  olive- 

brown     ......     554.  WHITE-CROWNED    SPARROW. 

d5.  Crown  slate-color;  a  chestnut  patch  behind  the  eye;  throat 

black    ..........     ENGLISH    SPARROW    d1. 

of6.  Crown    entirely    dull    brown;    lesser    wing-coverts    broadly 

tipped  with  buffy  .......     ENGLISH  SPARROW  9. 

in.  Underparts  without  red  and  with  streaks. 

1.  Tail-feathers  without  white  or  yellow  spots  or  patches. 

A.  Outer  tail-feathers  little  if  any  shorter  than  the  middle  pair. 
a.  Head  of  the  same  general  color  as  the  back. 

a1.  No  yellow  over  the  eye  or  on  the  bend  of  the  wing  or  under 

wing-coverts. 

a2.  Rump  yellowish  or  yellowish  green;  mandibles  crossed. 
a3.  Wing-coverts  tipped  with  white. 

522.  WHITE-WINGED  CROSSBILL  9. 
a4.  Wing-coverts  not  tipped  with  white. 

521.  RED  CROSSBILL  9. 
62.  Rump  brownish  or  sandy  or  rufous;  mandibles  not  crossed. 

63.  Back  pale  brownish  ashy,  streaked  with  brownish;  a  whitish 

streak  over  the  eye;  legs  flesh-color;  first  primary  as  long  as 
or  longer  than  the  second  .  .  541.  IPSWICH  SPARROW. 

64.  Back  and  most  of  underparts  streaked  with  black  and  rod- 

dish  brown;  upper  and  under  tail-coverts  streaked;  first 
primary  shorter  than  second;  outer  tail-feathers  shorter 
than  middle  ones  ......       581.  SONG   SPARROW. 

b5.  Back  distinctly  streaked;   a  cream-buff  band   across  the 
breast  .........    5S3.   LINCOLN'S  SPARROW. 

66.  Back  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  with  or  without  distinct 

streaks;  first  primary  nearly  as  long  as  or  longer  than 
second;  outer  tail-feathers  longer  than  middle  pair;  logs 
and  feet  blackish;  with  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils. 

517.  PURPLE  FINCH  9. 

67.  Back  without  streaks  ;  no  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils. 

598.  INDIGO  BUNTING   9. 

68.  Upper  tail-feathers  and  tail  bright  reddish   brown,  with- 

out black  streaks;  rump  brighter;  wing  about  3'50. 

585.  Fox  SPARROW. 

69.  Cheeks  buffy,  bill  pinkish;  breast  with  a  band  of  black- 

ish blotches     .....     553.  HARRIS'S  SPARROW  Im. 
61.  A  yellow  mark  before  the  eye,  or  on  the  bend  of  the  wing,  or 
under  wing-coverts  yellow. 

62.  Wing  about  4*00;  under  wing-coverts  deep  yellow. 

595.  ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK  9. 

63.  Wing   generally  under   2*90;   feathers   of   the   crown   black, 

bordered  by  chestnut-brown  ;  a  buffy  line  through  the  center 
of  crown      .......     542a.  SAVANNAH  SPARROW. 

b4.  Wing  generally  over  2*90;  feathers  of  crown  with  small  black 
centers  bordered  with  cinnamon-brown  and  pale  brownish 
ay    ..........     541.  IPSWICH  SPARROW. 

ing  about  3'00;  breast  washed  with  yellow. 

604.  PICKCISSEL. 

fefl.  Wing  about  3'00;  sides  brownish;  throat  white,  quite  different 
from  the  grayish  breast. 

558.  WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW. 


gray 
6B.  Wing 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  373 

b.  Head  not  the  same  color  as  the  back. 
ft1.  A  bright  red  crown-cap. 

bz.  Rump  and  flanks  always  heavily  streaked  with  blackish. 

528.  REDPOLL  and  races. 

b3.  Rump    white,     generally    without    streaks;    flanks    lightly 
streaked;  more  or  less  white  in  the  feathers  of  the  back. 

527.  GREENLAND  REDPOLL.     527a.  HOARY  REDPOLL. 
c1.  Crown-cap  black 553.  HARRIS'S  SPARROW.  Ad. 

B.  Tail-feathers  narrow  and  generally  sharply  pointed,  the  outer  ones 

always  much  shorter  than  the  middle  pair. 
a.  Crown  of  a  different  color  from  the  back,  or  a  buffy  line  over  the 

eye. 
a1.  Center  of  crown  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  brownish  or  buffy 

line. 

a2.  Nape  dull,  pale  olive-green,  of  the  same  color  as  the  line  over 

the  eye,  but  finely  streaked  with  black;  back  rufous-brown, 

streaked  with  black    ....     547.  HENSLOW'S  SPARROW. 

a3.  Nape  bright  rufous-brown,  the  feathers  bordered  by  gray; 

the  feathers  of  the  back  black,  bordered  by  buffy  whitish. 

548.  LECONTE'S  SPARROW. 
&1.  Center  of  crown  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  stripe  of  ashy  blue. 

62.  Breast  and  sides  distinctly  streaked  with  black  or  black ish. 

549.  SHARP-TAILED  SPARROW. 

63.  Breast  and  sides  buffy  or  brownish,    the   former   generally 

without   distinct   black   streaks. 

549a.  NELSON'S  SHARP-TAILED  SPARROW. 

5496.  ACADIAN  SHARP-TAILED  SPARROW. 

6.  Crown  of  the  same  color  as  the  back;  no  buffy  line  over  the  eye. 

a.  A  yellow  spot  before  the  eye  and  on  the  bend  of  wing. 

a1.  Upperparts  very  dark  brown  or  black;  the  feathers  edged 

with  olive-gray  or  ashy,  breast  generally  with  black  streaks. 

(Florida.)    .     .    550a.  SCOTT'S  SEASIDE  SPARROW  and  races. 

551.  DUSKY  SE ASIDE  SPARROW. 

a2.  Back  olive-gray;  breast  with  grayish  brown  streaks. 

550.  SEASIDE  SPARROW. 

b.  No  yellow  before  the  eye. 
fe1.  Bend  of  wing  yellow. 

575.  PINE-WOODS  SPARROW.     575a.  BACHMAN'S  SPARROW. 
b2.  A  broad  cream-buff  band  across  the  breast. 

583.  LINCOLN'S  SPARROW. 

fr3.  No  cream-buff  band  on  the  breast;  streaks  on  the  breast 
tending  to  form  a  spot  in  its  middle  .  581.  SONG  SPARROW. 

2.  Tail  with  white  patches  or  base  of  tail  yellow. 

A.  Base  of  the  tail  yellow 533.  PINE  SISKIN. 

B.  Outer  tail-feathers  with  white  patches. 

a.  Hind  toe-nail  shorter  than  the  bill  from  the  nostril. 

a1.  Lesser  wing-coverts  rufous;  breast  streaked  with  black. 

540.  VESPER  SPARROW. 
a2.  Sides  of  crown  and  ear-coverts  chestnut;   a  black  spot  on  the 

center  of  the  breast 552.  LARK  SPARROW. 

6.  Hind  toe-nail  longer  than  bill  from  nostril. 

b1.  Underparts  cream-buff;  two  outer  tail-feathers  mostly  white. 

537.  SMITH'S  LONGSPUR. 

62.  Underparts  whitish ;  breast  streaked  or  spotted  with  black  or 
entirely  black;  second  outer  tail-feather  with  but  little  white. 

536.  LAPLAND  LONGSPUR. 


374  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

A  FIELD  KEY  TO  THE 

ADULT  MALE  FINCHES  AND  SPARROWS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  STATES 
(VIRGINIA  TO  MASSACHUSETTS)  IN  BREEDING  PLUMAGE 

I.  Breast  with  more  or  less  yellow. 
II.  Breast  blue. 

III.  Breast  or  throat  red. 

IV.  Breast  without  either  yellow,  blue,  or  red. 
I.  Breast  with  more  or  less  yellow. 

A.  Chin  white,  throat  black;  haunts  grassy  fields;  song  an  unmusical 

effort  of  six  or  seven  notes  delivered  with  great  earnestness  from  a 
low  perch  (rare  east  of  the  Alleghanies)   ....     604.  DICKCISSEL. 

B.  Underparts  and  breast  pure  yellow,  crown  and  wings  black;  song  a 

sweet  canarylike  warble;  flight  undulating,  frequently  accompanied 
by  the  notes  chlc-o-ree,  per-chlc-o-ree      ....     529.  GOLDFINCH. 
II.  Breast  blue. 

A    Length  over  6*00;  plumage  deep  blue,  a  chestnut  bar  across  the  wings 

(not  found  north  of  Virginia)       ....     597.  BLUE  GROSBEAK. 

B.  Length  under  6'00;  plumage  indigo-blue;  haunts  woody  fields,  scrub 

or  second  growth;  song  clear  and  musical,  generally  delivered  from  a 

tree-top 598.  INDIGO  BUNTING. 

in.  Breast  or  throat  red. 

1.  Length  over  7 '00. 

A.  Length  8*00;  throat  and  region  about  the  base  of  the  bill  black,  rest 

of  the  plumage  bright  vermilion-red;  head  with  a  conspicuous 
crest;  song  a  rich,  musical  whistle;  call-note  an  insignificant  cheep; 
haunts  thickets  and  bushy  woodland  (rare  north  of  New  York 
City) 593.  CARDINAL. 

B.  Length  7'50;  breast  rose-red;  belly,  tip  of  the  tail,  rump,  and  a  band 

in  the  wings  white;  rest  of  the  plumage  black;  haunts  wooded 
growths;  song  loud,  clear,  and  highly  musical;  call-note  a  metallic 
peek 595.  ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK. 

2.  Length  under  7'00. 

A.  Length  under  6*50;  plumage  more  or  less  heavily  washed  with  dull 

reddish ;  haunts  orchards  and  wooded  growths ;  song  a  liquid  warble ; 
call-note  a  metallic  chink,  frequently  uttered  while  on  the  wing, 
x  517.  PURPLE  FINCH. 

B.  Length  about  6 '00;  plumage  dull  blood-red;  mandibles  crossed  at 

the  tips ;  generally  found  in  small  flocks  in  coniferous  woods ;  utters 
a  clicking  or  whistled  note  when  on  the  wing  (rarely  found  south  of 
New  England  after  May  1) 521.  AM.  CROSSBILL. 

C.  Breast  white,  tinged  with  brown;  region  about  the  bill  red,  a  yellow 

band  in  the  wings  (vicinity  of  New  York  City). 

EUROPEAN  GOLDFINCH. 

IV.  Breast  without  either  yellow,  blue,  or  red. 
1.  Underparts  distinctly  streaked  or  spotted. 

A.  Outer  tail-feathers   white,   showing   conspicuously  when  the   bird 

flies;   haunts   dry  fields  and   roadsides;   song  loud   and   musical. 

540.  VESPER  SPARROW. 

B.  Outer  tail-feathers  not  white. 

a.  Song  loud  and  musical;  an  abundant  and  familiar  bird  of  gen- 
eral distribution;  spots  on  the  breast  tending  to  form  one  larger 
spot  in  the  center;  crown  umber,  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye. 

581.  SONG  SPARROW. 

6.  Song  not  loud  and  musical;  short  and  generally  unattractive' 
haunts  wet  meadows  or  marshes;  passes  most  of  the  time  on  the 
ground,  rarely  perching  far  from  it,  and  when  flushed  generally 
returning  to  it. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  375 

b1.  A  buffy  line  over  the  eye  and  at  the  side  of  the  throat,  breast 
generally  washed  with  buffy;  haunts  only  salt  marshes  (rarely 
found  far  from  the  vicinity  of  the  seashore). 

549.  SHARP-TAILED  SPARROW. 

62.  No  buff  on  the  sides  of  the  head  or  breast ;  upperparts  black- 
ish; song  tslp-tslp-tslp'se-e-e-s'r-r-r;  rarely  breeds  south  of 
New  York  City;  haunts  both  salt-  and  fresh-water  marshes. 

542a.  SAVANNAH  SPARROW. 

b3.  Back  reddish,  head  and  neck  buffy  olive;  haunts  generally 
wet  pastures;  song  an  inconspicuous  see-wick  (rather  rare, 
living  in  small  colonies  of  local  distribution). 

547.  HENSLOW'S  SPARROW, 
2.  Underparts  not  distinctly  streaked  or  spotted. 

A.  Underparts  not  white  or  whitish,  all  one  color. 

a.  Throat  pure  white,  sharply  denned  from  the  grayish  breast,  a 
yellow  spot  over  the  eye;  crown  black,  with  a  central  stripe  of 
white;  haunts  thickets  or  bushy  woodlands;  song  a  high,  clear, 
musical  whistle;  call-note  a  sharp  chink. 

558.  WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW. 

6.  Throat  not  white. 

a.  Throat  and  breast  black. 

a1.  Sides  of  the  throat  and  belly  white,  crown  ash,  sides  of  the 
head  chestnut  ...  HOUSE  SPARROW. 

a2.  Length  8'00;  sides  of  the  body  light  rufous,  outer  tail-feathers 
tipped  with  white;  haunts  thickets  and  bushy  woodlands; 
call-note  a  vigorous  towhee  or  chee-wink  .  .  587.  TOWHEE. 

b.  Throat  and  breast  slate-color,  like  the  back;  belly  and  outer  tail- 

feathers  white;  bill  flesh-color  (nests,  in  the  Middle  States,  only 
on  the  higher  parts  of  the  Alleghanies)     .     .     .     567.  JUNCO. 

B.  Underparts  white  or  whitish,  practically  all  one  color. 
a.  Haunts  wet  marshes. 

a1.  Haunts   always   salt   marshes,    generally   near   the   sea;   back 

grayish  550.  SEASIDE  SPARROW. 

a2.  Haunts  both  salt-  and  fresh-water  marshes;  back  brown, 
streaked  with  black;  cap  and  wings  chestnut;  song  a  loud, 
sharp,  rapidly  repeated  weet-weet-weet,  etc. 

584.  SWAMP  SPARROW. 
6.  Haunts  dry  fields,  pastures,  roadsides,  lawns,  thickets,  etc. 

61.  Outer  tail-feathers  white,  middle  of  the  breast  with  a  small 
black  spot  (not  found  east  of  the  Alleghanies). 

552.  LARK  SPARROW. 
c1.  Outer  tail-feathers  not  white. 

c2.  Upperparts  reddish  brown,  bill  pinkish  flesh-color;  haunts 
bushy  fields  and  pastures;  song  a  musical,  plaintive,  c/ier- 
wee,  cher-wee,  cher-wee,  cheeo-dee-dee-dee-dee-dee. 

563.  FIELD  SPARROW. 

c3.  Bill  dark  brown,  a  buffy  line  through  the  center  of  the 
ground;  song  an  insect-like  pit-tuk,  zee-zee-zee-zee-zee. 

546.  GRASSHOPPER  SPARROW. 

c4.  Back  streaked  with  black,  cap  chestnut,  a  white  line  over  the 
eye,  bill  black;  song  a  monotonous  chippy-chippy-chippy,  etc. 

560.  CHIPPING  SPARROW. 

c5.  Larger,  length  about  7*00;  crown  black,  with  a  white  central 
stripe ;  throat  not  noticeably  different  from  the  breast ;  no  yel- 
low over  the  eye  (rare;  nests  north  of  New  England). 

554.  WHITE-CROWNED  SPARROW. 

514.  Hesperiphona  vespertina  vespertina  (W.  Coop.}.  EVENING 
GROSBEAK.  Ad.  d*.  —  Forehead  yellow,  crown  black ;  upperparts  olive- 
brown,  becoming  dull  yellow  on  rump ;  belly  and  scapulars  yellow,  wings  and 


376  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

tail  black;  end  half  of  the  secondaries  and  their  coverts  white.  Ad.  9. — 
Brownish  gray,  lighter  on  the  underparts  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow, 
especially  on  the  nape;  wings  black,  inner  primaries  white  at  the  base, 
secondaries  edged  with  white;  tail  biack,  the  feathers  tipped  with  white  on 
the  inner  web;  upper  tail-coverts  black  tipped  with  white.  Ads.  and  Im. 
in  winter. — Similar  to  ads.  in  summer.  L.,  8'00;  W.,  4'50;  T.,  3'50;  B.,  '72. 

Range. — Cen.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  w.  Alberta;  winters  in  the  interior  of 
N.  A.  s.  of  the  Sask.  and  e.  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  and  more  or  less  irregularly 
s.  to  Mo.,  Ky.,  and  Ohio,  and  e.  to  e.  Pa.,  N.  Y.,  n.  N.  J.,  New  England, 
and  Que. 

Glen  Ellyn,  one  record,  Dec.  11,  1889.  SE.  Minn.,  common  W.  V 
Oct.  17-May  19. 

Nest,  known  from  but  few  specimens,  composed  of  small  twigs,  lined  with 
bark,  hair,  or  rootlets,  placed  within  twenty  feet  of  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-4, 
greenish,  blotched  with  pale  brown  (see  Davie).  Date,  Springer ville,  Ariz., 
June  5  (H.  v.  montana) ;  Las  Vigas,  Vera  Cruz,  alt.  8,000  ft.,  Apl.  30,  young 
on  wing  (H.  v.  mexicana). 

This  distinguished  inhabitant  of  the  far  Northwest  is  a  common 
winter  visitant  in  Manitoba  and  the  contiguous  parts  of  the  bordering 
states.  At  irregular  intervals  it  invades  the  northern  Mississippi 
Valley  in  numbers,  while  still  more  rarely  it  extends  its  wanderings 
to  the  North  Atlantic  States.  It  travels  in  flocks  of  from  six  or  eight 
to  sixty  individuals  which  by  their  tameness  show  their  ignorance  of 
man  and  his  ways.  They  feed  largely  on  the  buds  or  seeds  of  trees — 
maple,  elder,  and  box  elder.  Their  notes  are  described  by  different 
observers  as  a  shrill  "cheepy-teet,"  and  a  "frog-like  peep,"  while  one 
writer  remarks  that  "the  males  have  a  single  metallic  cry  like  the  note 
of  a  trumpet,  and  the  females  a  loud  chattering  like  the  large  Cherry 
Birds  (Ampelis  garrulus)"  Their  song  is  given  as  a  wandering, 
jerky  warble,  beginning  low,  suddenly  increasing  in  power,  and  as  sud- 
denly ceasing,  as  though  the  singer  were  out  of  breath. 

During  the  winter  and  early  spring  of  1890  there  was  a  phenomenal 
incursion  of  Evening  Grosbeaks  into  the  Northern  States,  accounts  of 
which,  by  Amos  W.  Butler,  will  be  found  in  The  Auk,  1892,  pp.  238-247; 
1893,  pp.  155-157.  In  the  winter  of  1910-11  the  birds  again  appeared 
in  large  numbers.  Records  of  their  occurrence  will  be  found  in  The 
Auk  and  Bird-Lore  for  1911. 

1910.  ROBERTS,  T.  S.,  Bull.  Minn.  Acad.  Sci.,  IV,  406-414  (habits  in 
Minn.).— 1901.  BIRTWELL,  F.  J.,  Auk,  XVIII,  388-391  (nesting). 

515.  Pinicola  enucleator  leucura  (Mull.}.  PINE  GROSBEAK.  (Fig. 
64a.)  Ad.  <?. — Slaty  gray,  more  or  less  strongly  washed  with  rose-red, 
strongest  on  the  crown,  rump,  upper  tail-coverts,  and  breast;  wings  fuscous, 
their  coverts  edged  with  white;  tail  fuscous.  This  plumage  is  acquired  at  the 
first  postnuptial  molt.  Ad.  9. — Slaty  gray,  crown,  upper  tail-coverts,  and 
breast  more  or  less  strongly  washed  with  olive-yellow;  wings  and  tail  as  in 
the  <?.  Im. — Resembles  the  9,  but  is  somewhat  brighter.  L.,  9'08;  W.,  4'36; 
T.,  3-67;  B.,  '54. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  forests  from  nw.  Mackenzie  (Great 
Bear  Lake),  cen.  Keewatin,  and  n.  Ungava  to  the  White  Mts.  of  N.  H.t 
Maine,  cen.  N.  B.,  s.  N.  S.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.;  winters  s.  to  Iowa,  Ind., 
Pa.,  n.  N.  J.,  and  casually  to  D,  C.  and  Ky.;  w.  to  Man.,  Minn.,  and  e, 
Kans. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  377 

Washington,  casual  in  winter.  Ossining,  irregular  W.  V.,  Dec.  18-Apl. 
12.  Cambridge,  irregular  W.  V.,  frequently  common,  sometimes  abundant, 
Nov.  1-Mch.  25.  N.  Ohio,  occasional  W.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  uncommon  and 
irregular  W.  V.,  Oct.  25-?  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  W.  V. 

Nest,  of  twigs  and  rootlets  lined  with  finer  materials,  in  coniferous  trees  a 
few  feet  up.  Eggs,  "pale  greenish  blue,  spotted  and  blotched  with  dark 
brown  surface  markings  and  lilac  shell-spots,  1'05  x  '74. "  Date,  Bangor, 
Maine,  June  5. 

The  Pine  Grosbeak,  like  the  Spruce  Partridge  and  Canada  Jay,  may 
be  said  to  find  its  true  home  in  the  coniferous  forest  or  Canadian  belt, 
which  crosses  the  continent  diagonally  from  Maine  to  Alaska. 

Like  many  of  its  congeners  in  this  inhospitable  region,  it  nests  so 
early  in  the  springtime  that  the  winter's  frost  and  snow  are  still  domi- 
nant among  the  evergreens  when  the  eggs  come  to  claim  the  attention 
of  the  pair. 

Its  habits  at  this  season  are  but  little  known;  but  in  midwinter,  when 
it  comes  southward  in  search  of  food,  it  is  a  well-known  frequenter,  in 
flocks,  of  plantations  of  mountain-ash  trees,  or  groups  of  sumach  bushes, 
whose  unfallen  berries  provide  it  with  a  bountiful  supply  of  nourishing 
diet. 

Its  form  has  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  the  common  Robin, 
but  its  very  short,  thick  beak  and  its  forked  tail  are  striking  differences. 
It  is  rather  slow  and  inactive  when  in  a  tree,  and  when  on  the  wing 
it  has  a  loud  whistle  which  is  very  characteristic  and  during  the  spring- 
time has  a  prolonged  and  melodious  song.  At  all  times  its  colors,  as 
above  described,  should  distinguish  the  bird  at  a  very  considerable 
distance.  ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

1895.   BREWSTER,  WM.,  Auk,  XII,  245-256  (remarkable  flight  of). 

517.  Carpodacus  purpureus  purpureus  (GmeL).  PURPLE  FINCH. 
Ad.  <?. — Body  streaked,  suffused  with  rose-red,  strongest  on  the  head,  rump, 
and  breast,  more  brownish  on  the  back;  whiter,  generally  white,  on  the  belly; 
wings  and  tail  brownish  fuscous,  the  outer  webs  of  the  feathers  finely  edged 
with  rose-red;  a  small  tuft  of  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils;  outer  tail- 
feathers  longest.  This  plumage  is  acquired  at  the  first  postnuptial  molt. 
Ad.  9. — Very  different,  sparrowlike  in  appearance;  upperparts  dark  grayish 
brown,  finely  streaked  with  black;  wings  and  tail  dark  grayish  brown;  under- 
parts  white,  streaked,  or  with  wedge- 
shaped  spots  of  fuscous.  A  whitish  super- 
ciliary line.  Im.  d". — Similar  to  adult 
female.  L.,  6'22;  W.,  3'24;  T.,  2'29; 
B.,  '45. 

Remarks. — Females  and  young  males 
bear  a  decided  resemblance  to  some  Spar- 
rows, but  the  rounded  bill,  tufts  of  feathers 
over  the  nostrils,  and  forked  tail  are  dis- 
tinguishing characters. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Cana- 
dian and  Transition  zones  from  cen.  B. 
C.,  ne.  Alberta,  n.  Ont.  (Moose  Factory), 
cen.  Que.  (Gaspe  Basin),  and  N.  F.  to  s. 
Alberta,  N.  D.  (Turtle  Mts.),  cen.  Minn., 

n.   Ills.,   Pa.   (mts.),  n.   N.  J.,  and  L.  I.;  FIG.  100.   Purple  Finch 

winters  from  considerably  n.  of  the  south-  (Natural  size.) 


378  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

era  boundary  of  its  breeding  range  to  the  Gulf  coast  from  Tex.  to  Fla.; 
casual  in  Colo. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Sept.  12-May  26,  largely  a  migrant. 
Ossining,  rare  P.  R.,  common  T.  V.  Cambridge,  P.  R.,  common  from  Apl. 
to  Oct.;  irregular,  but  sometimes  abundant,  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common 
W.  V.,  Sept.  1-May  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  8-May  15; 
Aug.  25-Nov.  2.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.-Apl.,  Sept.-Oct.,  uncom- 
mon W.  V. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  grasses,  and  rootlets,  thickly  lined  with  long  hairs,  in 
coniferous  trees,  5-30  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-6,  blue,  spotted  about  the  larger 
end  with  fuscous,  *79  x  '56.  Date,  Cambridge,  May  25;  Holland  Patent, 
N.  Y.,  May  15. 

During  the  nesting  season  the  Purple  Finch  frequently  takes  up 
its  abode  in  private  grounds,  even  becoming  a  familiar  garden  bird, 
while  others  of  its  race  find  a  congenial  home  in  wild  mountain  forests, 
far  away  from  the  society  of  man.  The  rosy  plumage  of  the  males 
makes  it  attractively  noticeable  as  a  garden  bird;  but  a  serious  offense 
must  be  charged  against  it — it  has  far  too  ready  a  taste  for  the  blos- 
soms of  fruit  trees,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  confirmed  bud-eater  of 
all  our  birds.  It  has  naturally  a  roving  disposition,  and,  in  the  autumn 
especially,  seems  ever  to  be  impelled  by  some  restless  impulse.  At  this 
season  it  may  often  be  seen  descending  with  airy,  sweeping  flight  into 
some  leafless  treetop,  as  if  from  a  far  aerial  journey,  its  identity  made 
known  by  its  very  characteristic  utterance,  a  short,  rather  dull-sound- 
ing note,  scarcely  metallic — the  metal  pressed  the  instant  the  bell  is 
struck. 

Although  the  Purple  Finch  often  essays  to  sing  in  the  autumn  and 
earliest  spring,  its  full  powers  of  voice  belong  alone  to  the  nuptial 
season.  Then  it  easily  takes  its  place  among  our  noteworthy  song 
birds.  Its  full  song  is  a  sweet-toned,  carelessly  flowing  warble — not 
too  brief  to  miss  definite  character  as  a  song,  and  positive  enough  in 
modulation  and  delivery  to  find  ready  place  in  the  memory.  At  times, 
indeed,  its  singing  is  of  a  character  not  to  be  easily  forgotten.  The 
song  bursts  forth  as  if  from  some  uncontrollable  stress  of  gladness, 
and  is  repeated  uninterruptedly  over  and  over  again,  while  the  ecstatic 
bird  rises  high  into  the  air,  and,  still  singing,  descends  into  the  trees. 

EUGENE  P.  BICKNELL. 

Passer  domes ticus  domes ticus  (Linn.}.  HOUSE  or  ENGLISH  SPARROW. 
Ad.  (?. — Crown  gray,  bordered  from  the  eye  backward  and  on  the  nape  by 
chestnut;  lesser  wing-coverts  chestnut,  middle  coverts  tipped  with  white; 
back  streaked  with  black  and  chestnut ;  rump  ashy ;  middle  of  the  throat  and 
breast  black;  sides  of  the  throat  white;  belly  whitish.  Ad.  9. — Head  and 
rump  grayish  brown;  back  streaked  with  black  and  deep  pchraceous-buff; 
underparts  dirty  whitish,  the  breast  and  sides  washed  with  pale  grayish 
brown.  L.,  6'33;  W.,  3'01;  T.,  2'30;  B.,  '48. 

Range. — "Nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  but  replaced  in  Italy  by  P.  italice, 
extending  eastward  to  Persia  and  Central  Asia,  India,  and  Ceylon"  (Sharpe). 
Introduced  and  naturalized  in  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  etc. 

Nest,  of  any  available  material  in  any  available  place.  Eggs,  4-7,  varying 
from  plain  white  to  almost  uniform  olive-brown,  generally  white,  finely 
and  evenly  marked  with  olive,  1*86  x  "62.  Date,  D.  C.,  Mch.  1. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  379 

This  pest  was  first  introduced  into  the  United  States  at  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  in  1851  and  1852.  As  late  as  1870  it  was  largely  confined  to 
the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  States,  but  since  that  date,  partly  through 
man's  agency  and  partly  through  the  bird's  rapid  increase  in  numbers 
and  its  adaptability,  it  has  spread  over  most  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Its  harsh  insistent,  incessant  chirp  is  now  the  dominant  bird 
voice  about  our  homes,  where  we  may  never  again  hope  to  hear  a  chorus 
of  native  bird  music  unmarred  by  the  discordant  chatter  of  this  alien. 

1889.  BARROWS,  W.  B.,  Bull.  No.  1,  Biological  Survey,  1-405  (economic 
status).— 1909.  TOWNSEND,  C.  W.,  Auk,  XXVI,  13-19  (habits). 

The  EUROPEAN  TREE  SPARROW  (Passer  montanus)  has  become  natural- 
ized about  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 

521.  Loxia  curvirostra  minor  (Brehm).   AM.  CROSSBILL.    (Fig.  64d.) 
Ad.  cf. — Tips  of  the  mandibles  crossed;  body  dull  red,  brighter  on  the  rump, 
browner  on  the  back;  wings  and  tail  fuscous.    This  plumage  is  acquired 
at  the  first  postnuptial  molt.   Ad.  9 . — Dull  olive-green,  yellower  on  the  rump, 
indistinctly  mottled  with  blackish  on  the  head  and  back,  mixed  with  whitish 
on  the  underparts.    Im.  <?. — Similar  to   the  9,  but  mixed   with  red   and 
green.   L.,  6'19;  W.,  3'40;  T.,  2'13;  B.,  '66. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  cen.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Ungava, 
and  N.  F.  s.  to  Calif.  (Sierra  Nevada  and  San  Bernardino  Mts.),  s.  Colo., 
Mich.,  and  in  the  Alleghanies  of  n.  Ga.  (casually  in  Mass.,  Md.,  and  Va.); 
winters  irregularly  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  N.  M.,  n.  Tex.,  La.,  and  Fla. 

Washington,  irregular  W.  V.,  sometimes  abundant.  Ossining,  irregular; 
noted  in  almost  every  month.  Cambridge,  of  common  but  irregular  occur- 
rence at  all  seasons.  N.  Ohio,  irregular,  often  common,  sometimes  breeds. 
Glen  Ellyn,  uncommon  and  irregular,  Oct.  20- June  11.  SE.  Minn.,  W.  V., 
Oct.  25. 

Nest,  of  twigs  and  grasses,  lined  with  bits  of  moss  and  rootlets,  in  conifer- 
ous trees,  15-30  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  "pale  greenish,  spotted  and  dotted  about 
the  larger  end  with  various  shades  of  brown  and  lavender  shell-markings, 
1*75  x  "57."  Date,  Morehouseville,  N.  Y.,  Mch.  30. 

These  parrotlike  Finches  are  famous  for  their  erratic  wanderings. 
They  seem  to  have  no  regard  for  the  laws  of  migration  which  regulate 
the  journeys  of  most  birds,  and,  having  no  home  ties,  may  linger  in 
regions  which  offer  them  abundant  fare  without  much  regard  to  season. 
They  nest  early  in  the  spring,  sometimes  when  they  are  far  south  of 
their  breeding  range,  but  they  seem  quite  unconcerned  by  their  unusual 
surroundings,  and  their  young  are  born  and  raised  in  a  foreign  land. 
Coniferous  forests  form  their  natural  surroundings,  and  their  bills 
are  especially  adapted  to  aid  them  in  forcing  off  the  scales  from  the 
cones  of  these  trees  to  obtain  the  seed  within. 

They  live  in  flocks,  and  when  in  the  trees  climb  about  like  Parrots, 
sometimes  exhibiting  as  little  fear  of  man  as  Polly  on  her  pedestal.  When 
feeding,  they  have  a  short,  whistled  call-note;  they  take  wing  in  a  body, 
and  their  undulating  flight  is  accompanied  by  a  sharp  clicking  or  whistled 
note.  Their  song  is  described  as  "varied  and  pleasing,  but  not  powerful 
or  in  any  respect  remarkable." 

522.  Loxia  leucoptera  Gmel.    WHITE-WINGED   CROSSBILL.    Ad.  <?. — 
Tips  of  the  mandibles  crossed;  body  dull  pink,  brighter  on  the  rump,  more 


380  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

or  loss  marked  with  black  on  the  back;  belly  whitish;  wings  and  tail  black, 
the  greater  and  middle  wing-coverts,  and  sometimes  tertials,  tipped  with 
white.  This  plumage  is  assumed  at  the  first  postnuptial  molt.  Ad.  9. — Dull 
olive-green,  yellow  on  the  rump,  grayer  on  the  underparts,  mottled  with 
blackish  on  the  head  and  back;  wings  and  tail  as  in  the  d*.  Im.  cf. — Similar 
to  9,  but  plumage  often  with  more  or  less  pink.  L.,  6'05;  W..  3'27-  T  2'41  • 
B.,  '62. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones  s.  to  s.  B.  C.,  s.  Alberta, 
cen.  Ont.,  N.  Y.  (Adirondacks),  N.  H.  (White  Mts.),  s.  Maine,  and  s. 
N.  S.;  winters  in  much  of  its  breeding  area  and  s.  irregularly  to  n.  Ore. 
(Cascades),  Nev.,  Colo.,  Kans.,  s.  Ills.,  s.  Ohio  and  N.  C. 

Washington,  casual.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct.  29-Dec.  6.  Cambridge, 
irregular  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  rare  W.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare,  fall  records  only, 
Nov.  SE.  Minn.,  W.  V.,  latest  record  Mch.  4. 

Nest,  of  twigs  and  strips  of  birch  bark,  covered  exteriorly  with  moss 
(  Usnea),  and  lined  with  soft  moss  and  hair,  on  the  fork  of  an  evergreen  in 
deep  forests.  Eggs,  3  (?),  pale  blue,  spotted  and  streaked  near  larger  end 
with  reddish  brown  and  lilac,  *80  x  '55  (Chamberlain).  Date,  Wolfeville, 
N.  S.,  Feb.  6  (Thayer  Coll.). 

Goss  writes  that  in  general  habits  these  birds  resemble  the  American 
Crossbill.  Their  flight  is  swift  and  undulating.  While  feeding  and  mov- 
ing about  they  are  quite  noisy,  almost  constantly  uttering  a  plaintive 
wheep  or  cheeping  note.  Their  song  is  low,  soft,  and  sweet,  much  like 
that  of  the  American  Goldfinch. 

527.  Acanthis    hornemanni    hornemanni     (Holb.}.      GREENLAND 
REDPOLL.    Similar  to  the  next,  but  "larger  (length  about  5'50-6'SO),  with 
proportionally  thicker  and  less  acute  bill.    &  W.,  3*37;  T.,  2'75;  exposed 
culmen,  "35;  depth  of  B.  at  base,  *31." 

Range. — Arctic  Am.  and  Europe.  Breeds  in  Greenland  n.  to  70°  and 
in  Iceland;  winters  in  its  breeding  area  and  s.  to  Ungava;  casual  at  Ft. 
Churchill,  Hudson  Bay,  and  Gait,  Ont. 

527a.  A.  h.  exilipes  (Coues).  HOARY  REDPOLL.  Ad.  <?. — Bill  very 
sharply  pointed,  a  small  tuft  of  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils;  crown-cap 
bright  red ;  back  dark  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  more  or  less  margined  with 
white;  rump  white,  generally  unstreaked,  and  tinged  with  pink;  wings  and 
tail  brownish  fuscous,  the  feathers  all  more  or  less  edged  with  white;  middle 
of  the  throat  blackish,  breast  tinged  with  pink,  belly  white,  a  few  streaks  on 
the  side.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with  no  pink  on  the  rump  or  breast.  Im. — 
Similar  to  the  9,  but  without  the  red  crown-cap.  L.,  5'00;  W.,  3'00;  T.,  2*30; 
B.,  '30. 

Remarks. — This  species  is  to  be  distinguished  from  Acanthis  linaria  and 
its  races  by  the  greater  amount  of  white  in  its  plumage,  its  unstreaked  rump, 
and  comparatively  unstreaked  underparts. 

Range. — Arctic  Am.  and  ne.  Asia.  Breeds  from  w.  Alaska  to  Ungava, 
and  on  Chukche  Peninsula,  ne.  Asia;  winters  occasionally  s.  to  B.  C.,  Mont., 
11.  Minn.,  Mich.,  Ills.,  Ont.,  Maine,  and  Mass. 

Cambridge,  rare  W.  V. 

Nest,  of  grass  and  twigs  lined  with  feathers,  in  a  low  tree  or  on  the 
ground.  Eggs,  3-5,  white,  tinged  with  blue  or  green,  spotted  with  reddish 
brown,  *65  x  '50  (Chamberlain).  Date,  Ft.  Chimo,  Lab.,  May  19. 

528.  Acanthis  linaria  linaria  (Linn.).    REDPOLL.    Ad.  <?. — Bill  very 
sharply  pointed,  a  small  tuft  of  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils;  crown-cap 
bright  red;  back  fuscous  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  margined  with  ochra- 
ceous-buff;  rump  tinged  with  pink;  wings  arid  tail  fuscous,  the  feathers  more 
or  less  edged  with  whitish;  chin  and  upper  throat  blackish,  breast  suffused 


PLATE  XXII 


REDPOLL 


PINE  SISKIN 

TREE  SPARROW 
SNOW  BUNTING 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  381 

with  pink,  belly  white,  sides  streaked  with  fuscous.  This  plumage  is  ac- 
quired at  the  first  postnuptial  molt.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  without  pink  on 
the  rump  or  breast,  the  sides  more  heavily  streaked.  Im. — Similar  to  the  9 , 
but  without  a  red  crown-cap.  L.,  5'32;  W.,  2'80;  T.,  2'32;  B.,  '36;  depth 
of  B.  at  base,  '22. 

Range. — N.  parts  of  N.  Hemisphere.    Breeds  M^sr-  . 

in  N.  A.  in  Boreal  zones  from  nw.  Alaska,  n. 
Mackenzie,  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  n.  Alberta,  cen. 
Keewatin,  and  islands  of  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence; 
winters  in  more  n.  parts  of  U.  S.,  irregularly  s.  to 
Lassen  Co.,  Calif.,  se.  Ore.,  Colo.,  Kans.,  Ind., 
Ohio  and  Va.;  casual  in  Ala.  and' Bermuda. 

Washington,  very  rare  and  irregular  W.  V. 
Ossining,  irregular  W.  V.,  Nov.  25-Mch.  26. 
Cambridge,  irregular  W.  V.,  often  very  abun- 
dant, Oct.  25-Apl.  10.  N.  Ohio,  rare  W.  V. 
Glen  Ellyn,  irregular  W.  V.,  Nov.  6-Mch.  7. 
SE.  Minn,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  31-Apl.  7.  FIG.  101.  Redpoll.  (Natura 

Nest,  of  dry  grass  and  moss  lined  with  hair,  size.) 

feathers,  or  plant  down,  in  a  low  tree  or  tuft  of 

grass.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  tinged  with  green  or  blue,  spotted  with  reddish 
brown,  '65  x  '50  (Chamberlain).  Date,  St.  Michael's,  Alaska,  June  6. 

The  little  Redpoll  is  one  of  those  birds  that  are  best  known  as  win- 
ter visitors.  Sometimes  it  comes  from  the  north  in  flocks  when  driven 
from  home  by  the  annual  failure  of  the  food-supply,  and  speedily  attracts 
attention  by  frequenting  the  gardens  and  orchards,  even  when  these 
are  within  the  limits  of  a  town.  In  general  habits  it  resembles  a  Gold- 
finch, and  while  with  us  it  finds  its  wants  supplied  chiefly  by  the  various 
grasses  and  herbs  which  project  through  the  snow  and  still  retain 
their  seed  in  spite  of  wind  and  weather.  It  is  noted  for  its  affectionate 
and  confiding  disposition,  and  although  it  is  not  known  to  breed  in 
captivity  it  has  always  proved  an  easily  tamed  and  interesting  pet. 

ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

528a.    A.    1.    holboelli     (Brehm).    HOLBCELL'S    REDPOLL.    Similar  to 

A.  1.  linaria,  but  larger,  the  bill  longer.    W.,  3'20;  T.,  2'35;  B.,  '38;  depth  of 

B.  at  base,  '22. 

Range. — N.  parts  of  N.  Hemisphere.  Breeds  on  Herschel  Is. ;  s.  in  winter 
to  Germany,  Japan,  and  se.  Siberia;  occasional  in  migration  to  nw.  Alaska 
and  se.  to  Keewatin,  Iowa,  Ills.,  Mass.,  Maine,  and  Que. 

Cambridge,  very  rare  W.  V. 

This  is  an  intermediate  between  A.  I.  linaria  and  A.  I.  rostrata,  most 
closely  approaching  the  former,  from  which  it  sometimes  can  with  diffi- 
culty be  distinguished.  It  is  an  exceedingly  rare  bird  in  eastern  North 
America,  where  there  are  but  few  records  of  its  occurrence. 

528b.  A.  1.  rostrata  (Coues).  GREATER^  REDPOLL.  Similar  to  A. 
I.  linaria,  but  larger,  the  margins  to  the  feathers  of  the  upperparts  averaging 
darker,  the  bill  shorter  and  stouter.  L.,  5'50;  W.,  3'20;  T.,  2'55;  B.,  '35; 
depth  of  B.  at  base,  '28. 

Range. — Resident  in  Greenland.  In  winter  s.  through  Man.,  Ont.,  Que., 
and  Ungava  to  Colo.,  n.  Ills.,  Mich.,  n.  Ind.,  N.  J.,  and  Mass. 

Ossining,  A.  V.  Cambridge,  irregular  W.  V.,  Nov.-Feb.  SE.  Minn., 
uncommon  W.  V. 


382  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

"The  Greater  Redpoll  is  often  rather  common,  and  in  February, 
1883,  it  occurred  along  the  seacoast  near  Boston  in  positive  abundance. 
As  one  sees  them  in  winter  in  New  England,  the  forms  just  mentioned, 
with  A.  hornemannii  exilipes,  do  not  differ  appreciably  in  notes,  habits, 
or  general  appearance.  It  is  true  that  A.  I.  rostrata  may  be  often  recog- 
nized by  its  superior  size,  but  the  birds  as  a  rule  are  so  nervous  and  rest- 
less, and  when  in  large  flocks  so  constantly  in  motion  and  so  likely  to 
depart  altogether  at  any  moment,  that  a  free  use  of  the  gun  is  ordinarily 
indispensable  to  positive  identification"  (Brewster,  Minot's  "Land 
Birds  and  Game  Birds,"  2d  ed.,  App.,  p.  472). 

529.  Astragalinus  tristis  tristis  (Linn.).  GOLDFINCH.  Ad.  <?  in  summer. 
— Bright  canary-yellow;  crown,  wings  and  tail  black;  wing-bars  and  inner 
vanes  of  tail-feathers  white;  longer  upper  tail-coverts  gray;  lesser  wing- 
coverts  yellow.  This  plumage  is  acquired  at  the  second  prenuptial  molt.  Ad.  <? 
in  winter. — Wings  and  tail  as  in  summer  but  white  edgings  wider,  lesser  wing- 
coverts  still  yellow;  back  grayish  brown,  olive-tinged;  throat  and  chest  dull 
yellow,  belly  whitish,  sides  brownish  buff.  Im.  <?  in  winter. — Similar  to  ad.  d" 
in  winter  but  lesser  wing-coverts  olive-green  or  olive-gray.  Im.  <?.  in  sum- 
mer.— Similar  to  ad.  d1  in  summer  but  lesser  wing-coverts  as  in  winter.  Ad.  9 
summer. — No  black  crown-cap;  upperparts  yellowish  brown;  below  dull 
yellow;  wings  and  tail  less  black  than  in  ad.  d1;  lesser  wing-coverts  olive- 
green.  Ad.  9  and  Im.  9  in  winter. — Similar  to  im.  d"  in  winter,  but  wings 
and  tail  less  black.  L.,  5'10;  W.,  2'82;  T.,  1'95;  B.,  '40. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  lower  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Upper 
Austral  zones  from  s.  Man.,  cen.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  e.  Colo.,  s.  Okla.,  cen. 
Ark.,  and  n.  Ga.;  winters  over  most  of  its  breeding  area  and  s.  to  Gulf  coast. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  very 
common  P.  R.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  P.  R.  SE. 
Minn.,  P.  R.,  common  in  summer,  uncommon  in  winter. 

Nest,  externally  of  fine  grasses,  strips  of  bark,  and  moss,  thickly  lined 
with  thistledown,  in  trees  or  bushes,  5-30  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-6,  pale  bluish 
white,  '65  x  *48.  Date,  D.  C.,  July  5;  Newport,  R.  I.,  June  20;  Cambridge, 
July  21;  Ogle  Co.,  Ills.,  June  30;  se.  Minn.,  July  26. 

Except  when  nesting,  Goldfinches  are  generally  found  in  small 
flocks.  Few  birds  seem  to  enjoy  life  more  than  these  merry  rovers. 
Every  month  brings  them  a  change  of  fare,  and  in  pursuit  of  fresh 
dainties  the  nesting-time  is  delayed  almost  until  summer  begins  to  wane. 

Seed-bearing  plants,  whether  in  field  or  garden,  form  their  larder; 
the  old  sunflowers  rattle  before  their  vigorous  attack;  the  thistles  spring 
into  sudden  blossom  of  black  and  gold  as  they  swing  from  the  nodding 
heads. 

Their  flight  is  expressive  of  their  joyous  nature,  and  as  they  bound 
through  the  air  they  hum  a  gay 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  383 

Their  love  song  is  delivered  with  an  ecstasy  and  abandon  which  car- 
ries them  off  their  feet,  and  they  circle  over  the  fields  sowing  the  air 
with  music.  The  song  has  a  canary  like  character,  and  while  it  is  less 
varied  it  possesses  a  wild,  ringing  quality  wanting  in  the  cage-bound 
bird's  best  efforts. 

1898.   BRUCE,  M.  E.,  Auk,  XV,  239-243  (home-life). 

Carduelis  carduelis  (Linn.).  EUROPEAN  GOLDFINCH.  Ads. — Region 
about  the  base  of  the  bill  bright  red;  crown,  and  a  stripe  extending  from  it 
on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck,  black;  back  cinnamon-brown;  wings  black, 
crossed  by  a  broad  yellow  band ;  tail  black,  inner  webs  of  the  feathers  tipped 
with  white;  underparts  white,  sides  tinged  with  the  color  of  back.  L.,  5*50; 
W.,  3'00;  T.,  2'95;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — "Europe  generally,  except  extreme  northern  part"  (Sharpe). 
Introduced  near  New  York  City  and  occurring  also  about  Boston;  naturalized 
in  Bermuda. 

Nest,  externally,  of  grasses  and  plant  down,  lined  with  plant  down,  in 
coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  with  purplish  spots,  '72  x  *50.  Date, 
Central  Park,  Apl.  26. 

This  European  species  was  introduced  into  this  country  at  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  in  1878,  and  descendants  of  the  original  birds  probably  still  exist 
in  this  part  of  New  Jersey,  since  I  observed  two  at  Englewood  in  June, 
1911.  In  1879  it  appeared  in  Central  Park,  New  York  City,  where 
it  was  probably  also  introduced,  but  it  is  now  exceedingly  rare  in  New 
York  City.  A  third  point  of  introduction  is  Boston,  where,  according 
to  Hoffmann,  "it  occurs  rarely."  In  general  habits  this  species  resem- 
bles its  American  cousin  with  which  it  sometimes  associates. 

533.  Spinus  pinus  pinus  (Wils.).  PINE  SISKIN.  Ads. — Bill  sharply 
pointed,  a  small  tuft  of  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils ;  upperparts  streaked 
with  black,  the  feathers  margined  with  buffy;  wings  fuscous,  most  of  the 
feathers  margined  with  yellow,  and  yellow  at  the  base;  tail  fuscous,  all  but 
the  middle  feathers  yellow  at  the  base;  underparts  white,  tinged  with  buffy 
and  heavily  streaked  with  black.  L.,  5'00;  W.,  2*76;  T.,  1'90;  B.,  '40. 

Remarks. — The  yellow  markings  in  the  wings  and  tail  of  this  species  will 
always  serve  to  distinguish  it. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  mainly  in  Canadian  zone,  s.  through  the  higher 
mts.  of  w.  U.  S.  to  n.  L.  Calif.,  and  s.  N.  M.,  and  to  n.  Minn.,  n.  Mich.,  N. 
B.,  N.  S.,  and  in  mts.  to  N.  C.,  and  casually  in  the  lower  Hudson  Valley 
and  Mass. ;  occurs  in  winter  over  most  of  the  U.  S.  s.  to  n.  Mex. 

Washington,  irregularly  abundant  W.  V.,  Oct.  24-May  20.  Ossining, 
irregular  P.  R.  Cambridge,  irregular  W.  V.,  Oct.  15-May  10;  sometimes 
very  abundant;  one  breeding  record.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  W.  V., 
Sept.  20-May  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  irregular  T.  V.,  Apl.  8-May  24;  Sept.  8- 
Nov.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  and  W.  V.  Oct.  29- Apl.  9. 

Nest,  of  twigs  and  rootlets,  lined  with  plant  down  and  long  hairs,  in  co- 
niferous trees.  Eggs,  4,  pale  bluish  white,  thinly  spotted  with  reddish  brown, 
•67  x  '46.  Date,  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  25;  Lyons  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Apl.  25; 
Farmington,  Maine,  June  14. 

Like  some  other  winter  birds  whose  movements  are  governed  by  the 
food-supply,  the  Siskin  is  more  or  less  irregular  in  its  occurrence  south 
of  its  breeding  range,  being  abundant  some  years  and  rare  or  absent 
others. 

During  the  summer  it  is  an  inhabitant  of  coniferous  growths  and 


384  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

its  habits  now  resemble  those  of  the  Goldfinch.  It  has  a  flight-song,  but 
this  with  its  perch-song  is  less  musical  than  that  of  its  more  brightly 
plumaged  relative. 

During  its  post-breeding  wandering,  it  is  found  in  closely  massed 
flocks  which  move  as  one  bird  and  which  feed  much  upon  the  ground 
where  they  may  be  closely  approached. 

1887.  ALLEN,  J.  A.,  Auk,  IV,  284-286  (nesting). 

The  BLACK-HEADED  GOLDFINCH  (532.  Spinus  notatus\  a  Mexican  spe- 
cies, is  recorded  by  Audubon  from  Kentucky,  where  its  occurrence  is,  of 
course,  purely  accidental. 

534.  Plectrophenax  nivalis  nivalis  (Linn.}.  SNOW  BUNTING.  (Fig. 
10.)  Ad.  cf  in  summer. — Whole  head  and  neck,  rump,  and  underparts  white; 
back  and  scapulars  black;  outer  primaries  black,  white  basally,  secondaries 
wholly  white;  outer  tail-feathers  white,  inner  ones  black.  Ad.  9  in  summer. 
Similar,  but  entire  upperparts  streaked  with  black;  outer  primaries  all 
fuscous;  secondaries  more  or  less  tipped  with  fuscous.  &  in  winter. — Upper- 
parts  a  kind  of  rusty  brown,  almost  umber  on  the  center  of  the  crown ;  back 
streaked  with  black,  caused  by  the  black  bases  of  the  feathers  showing 
through  their  rusty  tips;  wings  and  tail  much  as  in  summer,  but  more  or 
less  edged  with  rusty;  underparts  white,  the  breast  and  sides  washed  with 
rusty.  9  in  winter. — Similar  to  d",  but  wings  as  in  summer  9.  L.,  6'88; 
W.,  4-07;  T.,  2-70;  B.,  '42. 

Range.— N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.,  breeds  in  Arctic  zone  from  at  least 
83°  north  (including  Greenland)  to  n.  parts  of  mainland  from  Alaska  to 
Ungava;  winters  from  Unalaska,  s.  Alberta,  s.  Keewatin,  and  s.  Ungava  s. 
to  n.  U.  S.  arid  irregularly  to  n.  Calif.,  Colo.,  Kans.,  s.  Ind.,  s.  Ohio,  and 
Fla. ;  casual  in  Bermuda. 

Washington,  W.  V.,  casual,  one  instance.  Ossining,  irregular  W.  V., 
Oct.  25-Mch.  22.  Cambridge,  common  W.  V.,  Nov.  1-Mch.  15;  abundant 
in  migrations.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  W.  V.,  Dec.  10-Mch.  15.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  9-Mch.  14. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  rootlets,  and  moss,  lined  with  finer  grasses  and  feathers, 
on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-7,  pale  bluish  white,  thinly  marked  with  umber 
or  heavily  spotted  or  washed  with  rufous-brown,  '85  x  '64.  Date,  Pt.  Barrow, 
Alaska,  June  12. 

The  Snowflake  may  readily  be  known  by  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only 
one  of  our  sparrowlike  birds  that  has  white  predominating  on  its  wings 
and  tail,  as  well  as  on  its  body.  It  feeds  exclusively  on  seeds,  and  is  so 
much  like  the  Shorelark  in  habits  that  the  two  species  occasionally 
associate.  The  Snowflake  is  also  strictly  a  ground  bird,  rarely  perching 
on  a  tree,  though  it  often  does  so  on  a  house  or  fence.  It  always  pro- 
gresses by  walking,  not  by  hopping. 

Throughout  Canada  and  the  northern  tier  of  states  this  is  the 
familiar  little  white  bird  of  winter.  As  soon  as  the  chill  season  comes  on 
in  icy  rigors,  the  merry  Snowflakes  appear  in  great  flocks,  and  come 
foraging  about  the  barnyards  when  there  is  no  bare  ground  left  in  the 
adjacent  fields.  Apparently  they  get  but  little  to  eat,  but  in  reality 
they  always  find  enough  to  keep  them  in  health  and  spirits,  and  are  as 
fat  as  butter  balls.  In  midwinter,  in  the  far  north,  when  the  thermome- 
ter showed  thirty  degrees  below  zero,  and  the  chill  blizzard  was  blowing 
on  the  plains,  I  have  seen  this  brave  little  bird  gleefully  chasing  his 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  385 

fellows,  and  pouring  out  as  he  flew  his  sweet,  voluble  song  with  as  much 
spirit  as  ever  Skylark  has  in  the  sunniest  days  of  June.  As  long  as  the 
snow  lasts  the  Snowflake  stays,  and  as  soon  as  the  ground  grows  bare 
and  there  is  promise  of  better  days,  this  bird  of  winter  betakes  himself 
again  to  the  north  as  far  as  the  most  northern  habitation  of  man,  and 
'  there  builds  his  nest.  ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

536.  Calcarius  lapponicus  lapponicus  (Linn,).  LAPLAND  LONG- 
SPUR.  Hind  toe-nail  as  long  as  or  longer  than  toe.  Ad.  <?  in  summer. — Head, 
neck,  throat,  and  breast  black ;  a  buff y  line  behind  the  eye ;  nape  rufous ;  back 
streaked  with  black  and  ochraceous-  and  cream-buff;  tail  fuscous,  the  two 
outer  feathers  with  more  or  less  white ;  belly  white ;  sides  streaked  with  black. 
Ad.  9  in  summer. — Upperparts  streaked  with  black,  rufous,  ochraceous-  and 
cream-buff;  nape  ochraceous-buff,  the  color  some- 
times concealed  by  the  tips  of  the  feathers;  tail 
fuscous,  the  outer  one  or  two  feathers  marked  with 
white;  underparts  white,  the  breast  and  sides 
streaked  with  black  and  ochraceous-buff.  &  in 
winter. — Similar  to  9  in  summer,  but  upperparts 
blacker,  nape  more  rufous,  breast  more  heavily 
marked  with  black,  most  of  the  feathers  black  at 
the  base.  9  in  winter. — Similar  to  9  in  summer, 
but  upperparts  duller,  nape  with  little  or  no 
ochraceous  L  6'25;  W.  375;  T  2;55;  B  '40.  FlG.  102.  Hind  toe  of  Lap. 

Remarks. — In  some  plumages  this  bird  bears  a  land  Longspur. 

general    resemblance    to     certain    Sparrows,    but 

differs  from  them  in  having  the  hind  toe-nail  as  long  as  or  longer  than  the 
toe. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.  breeds  from  about  lat.  73°  on  Arctic 
islands,  and  w.  Greenland,  and  from  lat.  75°  in  e.  Greenland  s.  to  limit  of 
trees  in  Mackenzie  (at  least  as  far  w.  as  long.  120°),  cen.  Keewatin,  and  n. 
Ungava;  winters  from  s.  Que.,  and  n.  cen.  U.  S.  irregularly  s.  to  the  middle 
States  and  Tex.,  rarely  Ky.  and  S.  C. 

Washington,  W.  V.,  one  instance,  Dec.  Ossining,  W.  V.,  casual.  Cam- 
bridge, one  record.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common,  W.  V.,  Nov.  15-Apl.  25. 
Glen  Ellyn,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  16— May  16.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
W.  V. 

Nest,  of  grasses  and  moss,  lined  with  grasses,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-6, 
bluish  white,  almost  obscured  by  a  uniform  grayish  brown,  *82  x  '60.  Date, 
Pt.  Barrow,  Alaska,  June  6. 

In  the  east,  Lapland  Longspurs  are  generally  found  among  flocks 
of  Shorelarks  or  Snowflakes,  but  on  the  western  plains  they  occur  in 
great  numbers.  "High  in  the  air  they  fly  in  long,  straggling  flocks,  all 
singing  together;  a  thousand  voices,  a  tornado  of  whistling.  .  .  .  When 
in  the  fields  they  have  a  curious  habit  of  squatting  just  behind  some 
clod,  and,  as  their  colors  are  nearly  matched  to  the  soil,  they  are  not 
easily  observed,  nor  will  they  move  until  you  are  within  a  few  feet;  they 
then  run  a  few  feet  and  squat  again.  ..."  (Seton). 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  bird  tragedies  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  is  recorded  by  Dr.  T.  S.  Roberts  (Auk,  1907,  pp.  369-377)  as 
occurring  in  southwestern  Minnesota  on  March  13,  1904,  when  at  least 
several  million  Lapland  Longspurs  were  killed  in  a  single  night  as  the 
result  of  a  storm  in  which  they  became  exhausted  and  fell,  or  confused 
and  struck  various  obstacles. 


386  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

537.  Calcarius  pictus  (Swains.).  SMITH'S  LONGSPUB.  Ad.  <?  in  sum- 
mer.— Top  and  sides  of  the  head  black,  a  line  over  the  eye  and  the  ear-coverts 
white ;  back  and  rump  streaked  with  black  and  ochraceous-buff ;  lesser  wing- 
coverts  black,  broadly  tipped  with  white ;  tail  fuscous,  the  two  outer  feathers 
mostly  white;  nape  and  underparts  ochraceous-buff.  Ad.  9  in  summer. — 
Upperparts  black,  the  feathers  margined  and  tipped  with  pale  cream-buff; 
two  outer  tail-feathers  mostly  white;  underparts  pale  cream-buff;  breast  and 
sides  sometimes  lightly  streaked  with  blackish.  &  in  winter. — Similar  to  9 
in  summer,  but  with  the  lesser  wing-coverts  black,  tipped  with  white.  L., 
6'60;  W.,  375;  T.,  2'50;  B.,  '42. 

Range. — Interior  of  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Arctic  zone  on  the  Barren  Grounds 
from  Ft.  Anderson,  Mackenzie,  e.  to  Hudson  Bay  (Ft.  Churchill) ;  has  been 
taken  w.  to  Ft.  Yukon;  winters  from  Kans.  to  cen.  Tex.;  e.  in  migrations  to 
the  prairies  of  Ills,  and  sw.  Ind. ;  casual  in  S.  C. 

Nesting,  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding.  Date,  Ft.  Anderson,  Mack., 
June  12. 

"Their  habits  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  C.  lapponicus  while 
upon  the  ground.  .  .  When  flushed  they  invariably  uttered  a  sharp, 
clicking  note,  rapidly  repeated  several  times.  When  driven  from  their 
feeding-place  by  my  approach  they  would  rise  in  a  loose  flock,  and, 
after  wheeling  about  a  few  times,  start  off  in  a  direct  line,  gradually 
rising  higher  until  they  disappeared.  After  a  short  time  their  peculiar 
note  would  be  heard,  and,  darting  down  from  a  considerable  height, 
they  would  alight  near  the  place  from  which  they  were  driven"  (Nelson). 

The  CHESTNUT-COLLARED  LONGSPUR  (538.  Calcarius  ornatus)  a  species 
of  the  Great  Plains,  has  been  recorded  from  Massachusetts,  Long  Island, 
Maryland  and  Maine. 

McCowN's  LONGSPUR  (539.  Rhynchophanes  mccowni),  a  species  of  the 
Great  Plains,  is  of  casual  occurrence  in  Illinois. 

540.  Pooecetes  gramineus  gramineus  (GmeL).  VESPER  SPARROW. 
Ads. — Upperparts  brownish  gray,  streaked  with  black  and  a  little  ochra- 
ceous-buff; wings  fuscous,  greater  and  middle  coverts  tipped  with  white, 
lesser  coverts  bright  rufous;  tail  fuscous,  the  outer  feather  mostly  white,  the 
next  one  with  much  less  white;  underparts  white;  the  breast  and  sides 
streaked  with  black  and  ochraceous-buff.  L.,  6'12;  W.,  3'06;  T.,  2'38;  B.,  '41. 
Remarks. — The  white  tail-feathers  and  rufous  lesser  wing-coverts  will 
always  distinguish  this  species  from  any  other  of  our  Sparrows. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds 
in  lower  Canadian,  Transition, 
and  Upper  Austral  zones  from 
sw.  Keewatin,  cen.  Ont.,  cen. 
Que.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  s.  to 
e.  Neb.,  cen.  Mo.,  Ky.,  Va.,  and 
N.  C.,  w.  tow.  Minn.;  winters 
from  the  s.  part  of  its  breeding 
range  to  the  Gulf  coast,  w.  to 
middle  Tex. ;  casual  in  Bermuda 
and  Yucatan. 

Washington,    P.    R.,    very 
FIQ.  103.    Tail-feathers  of  Vesper  Sparrow.          common  T.  V.,  less  so  in  sum- 
mer and  winter.  Ossining,  toler- 
ably common  S.  R.,  Apl.  2  to  Nov.  4.    Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  5- 
Oct.  25.    N.   Ohio,  abundant  S.   R.,  Mch.  20-Nov.   7.    Glen  Ellyn,  fairly 
common  S.  R.,  Mch.  21-Oct.  25.    SE.  Minn.,  commgn  S.  R..  Apl.  1-Oct.  29 
Nest,  of  rather  coarse  grass,  lined  with  finer  grasses,  rootlets,  and  long 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  387 

hairs,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-5,  bluish  white  or  pinkish  white,  speckled  and 
spotted  with  rufous-brown  or  umber,  1 '83  x  '61.  Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa., 
May  5;  Norwich,  Conn.,  May  8;  Cambridge,  May  10;  se.  Minn.,  May  6. 

In  walking  through  dry  upland  fields  or  along  dusty  roadsides  a 
rather  pale,  streaked  Sparrow  will  sometimes  run  rapidly  ahead  of 
you,  wait  for  you  to  catch  up,  then  run  ahead  again.  It  is  best  to  be 
content  with  what  measure  of  his  confidence  and  society  he  voluntarily 
grants  you,  for,  if  you  quicken  your  steps  and  try  to  overtake  him,  he 
will  rise  and  bound  on  before  you  or  swing  off  to  one  side,  showing,  as 
he  flies,  the  white  feathers  on  each  side  of  his  tail. 

Frequently  he  will  alight  on  a  fence  rail  or  even  the  higher  branch 
of  a  tree,  for,  although  a  field  Sparrow,  he  is  by  no  means  a  purely  ter- 
restrial one.  When  singing,  he  generally  selects  an  elevated  perch  and 
gives  himself  entirely  to  his  musical  devotions.  Early  morning  and 
late  afternoon  are  his  favorite  hours,  but  he  can  be  heard  at  other  times. 
His  song,  which  is  loud,  clear,  and  ringing,  may  be  heard  at  a  distance 
of  several  hundred  yards.  It  resembles  that  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  but 
is  sweeter  and  more  plaintive.  When  heard  in  the  evening  it  is  a  truly 
inspired  and  inspiring  melody. 

541.  Passerculus  princeps  Mayn.  IPSWICH  SPARROW.  Ads. — Gen- 
erally with  a  spot  of  sulphur-yellow  before  the  eye  and  on  the  bend  of  the 
wing;  upperparts  pale  brownish  ashy,  streaked  on  the  head,  back,  and 
upper  tail-coverts  with  black  and  cinnamon-brown ;  the  nape  and  rump  with 
few  or  no  streaks;  a  white  line  over  the  eye;  wings  grayish  brown,  outer 
webs  of  greater  coverts  and  tertials  margined  with  pale  ochraceous-buff;  tail 
grayish  brown,  the  outer  webs  of  the  feathers  margined  with  brownish  ashy; 
underparts  white;  breast  and  sides  lightly  streaked  with  blackish  and 
ochraceous-buff.  L.,  6'25;  W.,  3'00;  T.,  2'25;  B.,  '40. 

Range. — Breeds  on  Sable  Is.,  N.  S.;  winters  from  Sable  Is.  s.  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  Ga. 

Cambridge,  casual,  two  instances,  Oct. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  in  a  cup-shaped  hollow  scratched  by  the  birds,  of 
weed-stalks,  and  coarse  grasses,  lined  with  finor  grasses.  Eggs,  4-5,  indistin- 
guishable from  those  of  the  Savannah  Sparrow  but  averaging  a  little  larger 
(Dwight).  Date,  Sable  Is.,  N.  S.,  June  4. 

Those  who  care  to  visit  in  winter  the  bleak,  wind-swept  sand  hillocks 
of  our  Atlantic  coast  will  find  this  bird  much  less  rare  than  it  was  once 
supposed  to  be.  It  never  strays  far  from  the  wavkig  tufts  of  coarse 
beach-grass  that  scantily  cover  the  sand-drifts,  and  single  individuals 
may  be  found  skulking  among  such  surroundings.  They  seldom  allow 
a  near  approach,  but  fly  wildly  away  to  considerable  distances,  and 
on  alighting  run  off  so  rapidly  that  they  are  difficult  to  find  a  second 
time.  The  flight  is  rapid  and  irregular,  and  the  birds  may  easily  be 
mistaken  for  Savannah  Sparrows,  with  which,  during  the  migrations, 
they  are  sometimes  associated.  On  rare  occasions  a  sharp  chirp  is 
heard,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  silent. 

It  is  an  interesting  species,  discovered  in  1868,  and  at  first  mistaken 
for  Baird's  Sparrow  of  the  far  west,  a  species,  by  the  way,  that  it  resem- 
bles very  little.  For  many  years  nothing  was  known  of  its  breeding 
range.  In  1884  some  large  eggs  from  Sable  Island,  Nova  Scotia,  sup- 
27 


388  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

posed  to  be  of  the  Savannah  Sparrow,  were  unearthed  at  the  National 
Museum,  Washington,  and  later  a  summer  specimen  of  the  Ipswich 
Sparrow  was  obtained  from  this  island.  Ten  years  later  I  had  the 
pleasure  of  visiting  Sable  Island  and  solving  all  the  conjectures  that 
had  become  current  regarding  the  Ipswich  Sparrow's  summer  home. 
The  bird  proved  to  much  resemble  the  Savannah  Sparrow  in  breeding 
habits,  song,  nest,  and  eggs.  J.  DWIGHT,  JR. 

1895.  DWIGHT,  J.  H.,  JR.,  Mem.  No.  II,Nutt.  Orn.  Club.,  1-56  (mono- 
graph).—1902.  SAUNDERS,  W.  E.,  Auk,  XIX,  267-271  (nesting). 

542a.    Passerculus    sandwichensis    savanna     (Wils.).      SAVANNAH 

SPARROW.  Ads. — A  pale  yellow  mark  over  or  before  the  eye  and  on  the 
bend  of  the  wing ;  general  tone  of  the  upperparts  brownish  black,  the  centers 
of  the  feathers  black,  margined  first  by  rufous  or  ochracequs-buff,  then  by 
ashy;  wings  fuscous,  the  outer  webs  of  the  feathers  margined  with  ochra- 
ceous-buff; tail  fuscous,  the  outer  web  of  the  feathers  margined  with  whit- 
ish; underparts  white,  heavily  streaked  with  blackish  and  rufous,  the  breast 
feathers  tipped  with  wedge-shaped  marks.  Ads.  and  Im.  in  winter. — Similar, 
but  color  deeper,  more  suffused  with  ochraceous.  L.,  5*68;  W.,  2'62;  T., 
2'09 ;B., '40. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  Boreal  and  Transition  zones  from 
cen.  Keewatin  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  n.  Iowa  (casually  Mo.),  n.  Ind.,  mts.  of 
Pa.,  Conn.,  and  L.  I.,  and  casually  in  s.  N.  J.;  winters  from  s.  Ind.  and  s. 
N.  J.  s.  to  ne.  Mex.,  the  Gulf  coast,  Bahamas,  and  Cuba;  casual  in  Bermuda. 

Washington,  abundant  T.  V.,  Mch.  20-May  11;  Sept.  21-Oct.  23;  a  few 
winter.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  3-May  13;  Aug.  28-Oct.  28.  Cam- 
bridge, abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.;  Oct.;  breeds  sparingly.  N.  Ohio,  not  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  20-May  12.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  plentiful  S.  R.,  Apl.  8-Oct.  20. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  17-Oct.  23. 

Nest,  of  grasses  and  sometimes  moss,  lined  with  finer  grasses  or  hair,  on 
the  ground.  Eggs,  4-5,  bluish  white,  thickly  marked,  sometimes  heavily 
washed,  with  reddish  brown  or  cinnamon,  '78  x  '56.  Date,  Bolton,  Mass., 
May  9;  Cambridge,  May  21;  Utica,  N.  Y.,  May  19. 

This  is  essentially  a  bird  of  the  fields,  and  one  of  the  most  abun- 
dant species  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  of  Canada — in  fact,  character- 
istic of  them.  The  roadsides  abound  with  the  birds  bobbing  up  and 
down  on  the  fence-posts  and  chipping  vigorously  at  every  passerby. 
Their  boldness  is  tempered  with  a  certain  timidity  that  becomes  appar- 
ent when  they  are  followed,  for,  dropping  into  the  grass,  they  will  slip 
away  with  surprising  rapidity.  They  have  a  startling  way,  sometimes, 
of  springing  up  with  a  whirr  of  wings  almost  from  under  your  very  feet 
as  you  cross  the  fields  where  they  have  been  feeding.  At  the  southern 
limits  of  their  breeding  range  they  gather  into  irregularly  distributed, 
isolated  colonies  frequenting  wet,  boggy  meadows,  and  exhibit  a  shy- 
ness that  is  not  shared  by  their  northern  brethren.  In  the  fall,  young 
and  old  gather  into  bands,  and,  joining  with  other  species,  form  an 
important  part  of  the  large  flocks  of  migrating  Sparrows  that  fill  the 
fields  and  hedgerows. 

The  song  is  insignificant — a  weak,  musical  little  trill  following  a  grass- 
hopperlike  introduction,  and  is  of  such  small  volume  that  it  can  be  heard 
but  a  few  rods.  It  usually  resembles  tslp-tslp-tsip'  se'-e-e-s'r-r-r.  More 
singing  is  heard  toward  sunset,  when  of  a  quiet  evening  the  trills  are 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  389 

audible  at  greater  distances.  Each  male  seems  to  have  a  number  of 
favorite  perches,  weeds  or  fence-posts,  which  are  visited  as  inclination 
dictates,  but  he  is  of  too  restless  a  disposition  to  remain  long  on  any  of 
them.  The  most  familiar  note  is  a  sharp  tsip  of  alarm  or  expostu- 
lation heard  during  migration,  but  so  constantly  employed  by  both 
sexes  in  the  breeding  season,  even  on  slight  provocation,  that  one  gets 
to  think  of  them  as  veritable  scolds. 

They  are  more  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Vesper  Sparrow,  which 
they  resemble  even  in  flight,  than  for  any  other  except  perhaps  the 
Ipswich  and  Sharp-tailed  Sparrows.  J.  DWIGHT,  JR. 

BAIRD'S  SPAHROW  (545.  Ammodramus  bairdi),  a  bird  of  the  Great 
Plains  region,  has  been  once  recorded  from  east  of  the  Mississippi, — Mon- 
tauk  Point,  L.  I.,  Nov.  13,  1899  (Helme,  Auk,  1900,  296). 

546.  Ammodramus  savannarum  aus  trails  Mayn.  GRASS- 
HOPPER SPARROW.  Ads. — Upperparts  mixed  black,  rufous-brown,  ashy,  and 
cream-buff;  crown  blackish,  a  cream-buff  line  through  its  center;  nape 
rufous-brown,  each  feather  with  a  small  black  central  spot  and  bordered  by 
ashy;  back  black,  the  feathers  bordered  by  cream-buff  and  with  a  small 
central  tip  of  rufous-brown;  rump  rufous-brown  and  ashy;  an  orange  mark 
before  the  eye;  bend  of  the  wing  yellow, 
lesser  wing-coverts  yellowish  olive-green; 
greater  coverts  tipped  with  whitish;  tail- 
feathers  pointed,  of  about  equal  length,  dark 
grayish  brown,  the  centers  of  the  feathers 
darker,  the  end  half  of  the  outer  feather 
generally  dusky  whitish ;  underparts  gener- 
ally not  streaked;  breast  and  sides  buffy;  

belly   white       Nestlings    have    the    breast        FlG.  104.   Tail  of  Grasshopper 
spotted  with  blackish.    L.,  5'38;  W.,  2'38;  Sparrow 

T.,  179;  B.,  '43. 

Remarks. — The  yellow  on  the  wing,  unstreaked  underparts,  even, 
pointed  tail,  and  grayish  mark  on  the  outer  tail-feather  are  the  principal 
characters  of  this  species. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Austral  zones  (sporadically  in  Transition) 
e.  of  the  Great  Plains  from  s.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  and  s.  N.  H.  s.  to  s.  La.,  cen. 
Ala.,  n.  Ga.,  and  n.  S.  C.;  winters  from  s.  Ills,  and  N.  C.  s.  to  the  Bahamas, 
Cuba,  Yucatan,  and  the  Gulf  coast  of  Mexico;  casual  in  Maine. 

Washington,  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  17-Nov.  20.  Ossining,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Oct.  23.  Cambridge,  rare  S.  R.,  May  16-Sept.  1.  N.  Ohio, 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  May  4- 
Sept.  13.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Sept.  6. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  sometimes  lined  with  hairs,  arched,  on  the  ground.  Eggs, 
4-5,  white,  distinctly  spotted  and  speckled  with  rufous,  "73  x  '54.  Date, 
Hall  Co.,  Ala.,  May  11;  Richmond,  Va.,  May  25;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  27; 
se.  Minn.,  June  6. 

Few  common  birds  may  be  more  easily  overlooked  than  this  Spar- 
row. Its  terrestrial  habits  and  weak  notes  place  it  among  the  birds  that 
you  are  not  likely  to  find  unless  you  know  how  and  where  to  look  for 
them.  I  remember  once  introducing  this  bird  and  its  song  to  a  visiting 
ornithological  friend.  On  returning  to  his  home,  greatly  to  his  surprise, 
he  found  it  a  common  resident  of  the  fields  about  his  house,  where, 
owing  to  his  unfamiliarity  with  its  notes  and  habits,  its  presence  had 
been  before  unsuspected. 


390  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

In  the  North  you  will  generally  find  it  in  old,  dry  daisy  or  sorrel 
fields;  in  the  South  it  inhabits  the  broom  sedge.  It  will  not  take  wing 
until  almost  stepped  upon;  then,  if  bushes  are  near,  it  takes  refuge  in 
or  under  them,  but  out  in  the  open  field  it  flies  rapidly  some  distance 
and  drops  to  the  ground. 

Its  usual  perch,  when  singing,  is  a  fence-rail;  and  it  does  not  often 
seek  a  more  elevated  position.  Its  fine,  insectlike  notes  give  it  the  name 
of  Grasshopper  Sparrow.  They  may  be  written  pit-tuck,  zee-e-e-e-e- 
e-e-e-e.  Under  favorable  circumstances  they  can  be  heard  by  an  atten- 
tive listener  at  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  but  the  casual 
observer  would  pass  within  ten  feet  of  a  singing  bird  and  be  none  the 
wiser. 

54 6b.  A.  s.  floridanus  (M earns).  FLORIDA  GRASSHOPPER  SPARROW. 
Similar  to  A.  s.  australis  "but  smaller,  with  larger  bill,  longer  tarsus,  and 
much  darker  coloration  above,  paler  below;  chestnut  of  upper  surfaces  much 
reduced  in  amount  and  replaced  by  black;  lateral  dark  areas  of  crown  almost 
black,  interscapular  region  much  blacker."  (Mearns,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.t 
XXIV,  1902,  915.) 

Range. — Central  Florida.  (Kissimmee  Prairie  region.) 

547.  Passerherbulus  henslowi  henslowi  (And.).  HENSLOW'S  SPAR- 
ROW. Ads. — Top  and  sides  of  head  and  nape  dull,  pale  olive- green,  more 
buffy  in  the  fall;  sides  of  crown  black;  nape  finely  streaked  with  black;  back 
rufous-brown,  the  feathers  with  narrow,  central,  wedge-shaped  black  streaks, 
and  narrow  ashy  margins;  bend  of  wing  pale  yellow;  wing-coverts  much 
like  back;  tail-feathers  very  narrow  and  sharply  pointed;  middle  feathers 
rufous-brown;  the  outer  ones  much  the  shortest;  underparts  white,  more 
or  less  washed  with  buffy  and  streaked  with  black  on  the  breast  and  sides. 
Nestlings  have  no  spots  on  the  breast.  L.,  5'00;  W.,  2'20;  T.,  2'00;  B.,  '42. 

Remarks. — The  peculiar  olivaceous  color  of  the  head  and  nape,  and  the 
bright  rufous-brown  color  of  the  back,  wing-coverts,  and  middle  tail-feathers 
are  the  best  distinguishing  marks  of  this  species. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Transition  and  Upper  Austral  zones  from  cen. 
Minn.,  Ont.,  N.  Y.,  and  s.  N.  H.  s.  to  s.  Mo.,  and  n.  Va.;  winters  in  s.  U.  S. 
to  Tex.  and  s.  Fla. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Oct.  21.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Oct. 
5-Oct.  10.  Cambridge,  very  rare  S.  R.  N.  Ohio,  S.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  not 
common  S.  R.,  May  8-Sept.  26.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  sometimes  lined  with  hairs,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-5, 
grayish  white,  tm'ckly  and  evenly  speckled  with  pale  rufous-brown,  '75  x  *57. 
Date,  Cape  May  Co.,  N.  J.,  May  25;  Richland  Co.,  Ills.,  May  23. 

During  the  summer  this  species  seems  to  prefer  wet  meadows,  but 
in  the  winter  it  inhabits  the  dry  'old  fields'  grown  with  broom  sedge, 
which  are  so  common  in  the  south.  It  has  the  secretive  habits  of  the 
Grasshopper  and  Leconte's  Sparrows,  and  takes  wing  only  when 
forced  to. 

P.  L.  Jouy  writes  of  its  song:  "Besides  the  characteristic  notes  of 
tee-wick,  they  have  quite  a  song  which  may  be  fairly  represented  by  the 
syllables  sis^r-r-rit-srit-srit,  with  the  accent  on  the  first  and  last  parts. 
This  song  is  often  uttered  while  the  bird  takes  a  short  flight  upward; 
it  then  drops  down  again  into  the  tangled  weeds  and  grasses,  where  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  follow  it"  (Bull  Null.  Orn.  Club,  VI,  1881,  p.  57). 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  391 

548.  Passerherbulus  lecontei  (And.).    LECONTE'S  SPARROW.    Ads.— 
No  yellow  before  the  eye  or  on  the  bend  of  the  wing;  a  broad  ochraceous-buff 
line  over  the  eye,  and  a  cream-buff  line  through  the  center  of  the  blackish 
crown;  nape  rufous-brown,  each  feather  with  a  small  black  central  spot  and 
an  ashy  border;  back  black,  the  feathers  margined  first  by  rufous,  then  cream- 
buff  and  whitish;  tail  grayish  brown,  with  a  slight  rufous  tinge,  darker  along 
the  shaft;  the  feathers  narrow  and  sharply  pointed,  the  outer  ones  much  the 
shortest;  breast  and  sides  tinged  with  buffy,  and  more  or  less  streaked* with 
black;  belly  white.    L.,  5'00;  W.,  2'00;  T.,  2'05;  B.,  '35. 

Range. — Cen.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones  from 
Great  Slave  Lake,  Mackenzie,  s.  Sask.,  and  Man.,  s.  to  N.  D.  and  s.  Minn.; 
winters  from  s.  Kans.,  and  s.  Mo.,  to  Tex.,  Fla.,  and  the  coast  of  S.  C.,  and 
occasionally  to  N.  C.;  casual  in  Ont.  and  N.  Y.;  accidental  in  Idaho  and 
Colo. 

Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  May  4-?;  Sept.  8-Oct.  6.  SE.  Minn., 
uncommon  S.  R.,  May  1-Oct.  17. 

Nest,  of  fine  grasses,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-5,  delicate  pink,  lightly 
spotted  with  brownish  and  black  near  the  larger  end,  *75  x  '50  (Seton). 
Date,  Raeburn,  Man.,  June  6. 

My  experience  on  the  coast  of  Texas  with  this  elusive  little  Spar- 
row conforms  with  that  of  most  observers,  and  the  few  specimens  I 
found  were  in  wet  marshes.  Mr.  L.  M.  Loomis,  however,  tells  us  that 
at  Chester,  South  Carolina,  where  Leconte's  Sparrow  is  a  locally  com- 
mon winter  visitant,  it  shows  a  marked  preference  for  dry  'old  fields 
of  broom  sedge  (Auk,  II,  1885,  p.  190). 

Few  birds  are  more  difficult  to  flush.  It  exhibits  a  rail-like  disin- 
clination to  take  wing,  and  flying  low  and  feebly,  makes  for  the  nearest 
cover.  Ernest  Thompson  Seton  records  it  as  an  abundant  summer  resi- 
dent in, the  willow  sloughs  and  grassy  flats  of  Manitoba,  and  describes 
its  call-notes  as  a  thin,  sharp,  ventriloquial  tweet,  and  a  single,  long- 
drawn  bizz;  while  its  song,  which  is  delivered  from  some  low  perch  a 
little  above  the  grass,  is  a  tiny,  husky,  double-noted  reese,  reese,  "so 
thin  a  sound  »and  so  creaky,  that  I  believe  it  is  usually  attributed  to  a 
grasshopper." 

1901.    PEABODY,  P.  B.,  Auk,  XVIII,  129-134  (nesting). 

549.  Passerherbulus    caudacutus     (GmeL).      SHARP-TAILED    SPAR- 
HOW.    Ads. — General  color  of  the  upperparts  a  brownish  olive-green;  crown 
olive-brown,  with  a  blue-gray  line  through  its  center;  gray  ear-coverts,  in- 
closed by  ochraceous-buff  lines,  one  of  which  passes  over  the  eye  and  one 
down  the  side  of  the  throat;  feathers  of  the  back  margined  with  grayish  and 
sometimes   whitish;    bend   of   the   wing   yellow;    tail-feathers   narrow   and 
sharply  pointed,   the  outer  feathers  much  the  shortest;   breast  and  sides 
washed  with  buffy,  paler  in  summer,   and  distinctly  streaked  with  black; 
middle  of  the  throat  arid  belly  white  or  whitish.    "L.,  5'85;  W.,  2'30;  T.,  1'90; 
B.,  '50"  (Dwight). 

Remarks. — The  chief  points  of  difference  between  this  and  the  two  fol- 
lowing birds  arc  found  in  the  markings  of  the  breast  and  sides.  In  the  pres- 
ent species  these  parts  are  pale  ochraceous-buff,  distinctly  streaked  with 
blackish;  in  nelsoni  they  are  deep  ochraceous-buff,  lightly  if  at  all  streaked ; 
in  subvirgatus  they  are  cream-buff,  indistinctly  streaked  with  grayish. 

Range. — Salt  marshes  of  Atlantic  coast.  Breeds  in  Alleghanian  and 
Carolinian  faunas  from  Mass,  to  Va. ;  winters  on  salt  marshes  from  N.  J. 
(casually  from  Mass.)  to  Fla. 

'  Cambridge,  formerly  common  S.  R.,  but  occurs  no  longer. 


392  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

Nest,  of  grasses  and  seaweed,  lined  with  fine  grasses,  on  the  ground.  Eggs, 
3-4,  white  or  grayish  white,  finely  speckled  with  cinnamon-brown,  especially 
at  the  larger  end,  78  x  '57.  Date,  Amityville,  N.  Y.,  May  31;  Lynn,  Mass., 
June  6. 

This  species  is  confined  exclusively  to  the  salt-water  marshes  of  our 
coast,  where  it  may  be  found  in  large  numbers.  It  runs  about  among  the 
reeds'  and  grasses  with  the  celerity  of  a  mouse,  and  is  not  apt  to  take 
wing  unless  closely  pressed.  Mixed  flocks  of  the  several  varieties 
of  the  Sharp-tail,  together  with  the  Seaside  Sparrow,  gather  in  the  fall 
among  the  sedges,  and  may  be  observed  hiding  in  the  grass  or  clinging 
to  the  tall  stalks  of  the  cat-tails.  In  the  breeding  season  it  is  usually 
associated  with  the  Seaside  Sparrow  on  the  same  marsh,  but  it  prefers 
the  drier  parts,  and  builds  its  nest  in  the  tussocks  on  the  bank  of  a  ditch 
or  in  the  drift  left  by  the  tide,  rather  than  in  the  grassier  sites  chosen 
by  its  neighbor. 

From  some  bit  of  driftwood  or  a  convenient  stake,  its  infrequent 
song  may  be  heard  morning  and  evening.  It  is  short  and  gasping,  and 
only  less  husky  than  the  somewhat  similar  performance  of  the  Seaside 
Sparrow.  J.  DWIGHT,  JR. 

549.1.  Passerherbulus  nelsoni  nelsoni  (Allen).  NELSON'S  SPAR- 
ROW. Similar  to  P.  caudacutus,  but  smaller,  the  upperparts  darker,  the 
feathers  of  the  back  more  olive-brown  and  more  broadly  margined  with 
whitish;  the  throat,  breast,  and  sides  deeper  ochraceous-buff,  very  slightly  if 
at  all  streaked  with  blackish.  "L.,  5'50;  W.,  2'25;  T.,  1'90;  B.,  '43"  (Dwight). 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  upper  Transition  zones 
from  Great  Slave  Lake  and  w.  cen.  Alberta  se.  to  sw.  Man.  and  ne.  S.  D.; 
winters  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  from  N.  C.  to  Fla.  and  Tex. ;  n.  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  during  migration  at  least  to  N.  Y.,  Mass.,  and  Maine, 
accidental  in  Calif. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  May-Sept.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V., 
Sept.  28-Oct.  17.  Cambridge,  formerly  uncommon  T.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  one 
record,  Oct.  2,  1893.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  of  fine  grasses.  Eggs,  5,  grayish  white  ground, 
thickly  sprinkled  and  clouded  all  over  with  markings  of  brown,  thickening 
on  the  extreme  butt  into  a  dark  brown  zone,  '65  x  50.  Date,  (found  by  E. 
S.  Rolfe,  at  Devil's  Lake,  N.  D.,  June  14,  1899;  Auk,  1899,  356). 

This  interior  representative  of  the  Sharp-tailed  Sparrow  occurs  on 
the  Atlantic  Coast  only  as  a  migrant  and  winter  visitant  when  it  is 
associated  with  the  Sharp-tail  and  Acadian  Sharp-tail. 

549. la.  P.  n.  subvirgatus  (Dwight).  ACADIAN  SHARP-TAILED  SPAR- 
ROW. Similar  to  P.  caudacutus,  but  paler  above  and  with  the  throat,  breast, 
and  sides  washed  with  cream-buff  and  indistinctly  streaked  with  ashy.  "L., 
5-55;  W.,  2-30;  T.,  2'00;  B.,  '46"  (Dwight). 

Range. — Marshes  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  Breeds  mainly  in  Canadian 
fauna  from  se.  Que.,  Prince  Edward  Is.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  to  Maine; 
winters  on  coasts  of  S.  C.,  Ga.,  and  Fla. 

Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Sept.  29-Oct.  16.  Cambridge,  formerly  T.  V.,  May; 
Sept.  and  Oct. ;  very  common  in  fall. 

Since  this  race  was  separated  by  me  in  1887  few  new  facts  have  been 
developed  regarding  it,  except  that,  as  I  anticipated,  it  has  been  found 
in  other  parts  of  the  Maritime  Provinces,  and  never  far  from  salt  water. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  393 

While  frequenting  brackish  or  fresh-water  marshes,  where  the  grasses 
grow  more  luxuriantly  than  in  the  haunts  of  its  southern  relative,  it 
prefers  the  more  open  spots  or  those  where  damp  ditches  make  high- 
ways of  escape  for  it  afoot.  It  is  locally  abundant,  particularly  in  the 
great  marshes  that  border  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  but  so  retiring  that,  save 
for  its  little  song,  its  presence  might  be  easily  overlooked.  Swaying 
on  a  tall  stalk  of  meadow  rue  or  squatting  on  a  convenient  fence,  the 
males  may  be  found  at  all  hours  of  the  day  repeating  their  song  a  few 
times  and  then  flying  to  some  new  perch  or  burying  themselves  in  the 
grass.  Occasionally  toward  nightfall  one  will  mount  into  the  air  and 
with  set  wings  float  down,  fairly  gushing  with  song,  a  habit  shared  by 
the  ordinary  Sharp-tail  and  by  the  Seaside  Sparrow  as  well. 

With  these  birds  they  associate  in  autumn,  and  may  be  flushed  one 
or  two  at  a  time  from  the  strips  of  grass  or  reeds  that  are  left  on  the 
salt  marshes  along  the  ditches  after  the  hay  has  been  cut. 

The  song  is  a  husky,  gasping  effort,  not  very  loud,  and  executed 
with  a  nod  of  the  head.  It  is  sung  in  less  than  a  second,  and  resem- 
bles ksh-sh-sh-oolp,  the  last  syllable  occupying  one-fifth  of  the  time 
and  rather  musical  compared  with  the  harsh  lisp  that  precedes  it.  They 
also  have  a  tchep  of  alarm,  but  it  is  the  exception  for  them  to  show  much 
anxiety  about  their  nests  or  young.  The  nest  has  never  been  taken. 

J.  DWIGHT,  JR. 

550.  Passerherbulus  maritimus  maritimus  (Wils.).  SEASIDE 
SPARROW.  Ads. — A  yellow  line  before  the  eye  and  on  the  bend  of  the  wing; 
upperparts  grayish  olive-green;  tail  grayish  brown,  the  outer  webs  of  the 
feathers  margined  with  olive-greenish;  a 
dusky  line  from  the  base  of  the  lower 
mandible  passes  down  the  sides  of  the 
throat ;  breast  more  or  less  suffused  with 
buffy  (wanting  in  summer  specimens), 
and  indistinctly  streaked  with  grayish; 
throat  and  middle  of  the  belly  white; 
sides  grayish.  L.,  6'00;  W,,  2'50;  T., 
2-20;  B.,  '60. 

Range. — Salt  marshes  of  the  Atlantic 
coast.      Breeds    chiefly    in     Carolinian 

fauna  from    s.   Mass,  to  Va.;   winters  FIG.  105.  'seaside  Sparrow, 

from  Va.  to  Ga.  (Natural  size.) 

Ossmmg,  A.  V. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses  and  reed  stalks,  lined  with  grasses,  on  the  ground. 
Eggs,  3-4,  white  or  bluish  white,  clouded  or  finely  speckled  with  cinnamon- 
brown,  especially  at  the  larger  end,  '80  x  '63.  Date,  Northampton  Co.,  Va., 
May  18;  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  May  24. 

Like  most  marsh-loving  birds,  Seaside  Sparrows  are  so  consistent 
in  their  choice  of  a  home  that  it  would  be  quite  useless  to  look  for  them 
anywhere  but  in  a  marsh,  and  that  a  salt  one,  generally  within  sound 
or  at  least  sight  of  the  sea.  The  baymen  call  them  'Meadow  Chippies/ 
and  often  when  Snipe  and  Plover  shooting,  I  have  drawn  numbers  to  me 
by  simply  squeaking.  They  tipped  all  the  reeds  about  my  blind,  chirping 
excitedly  at  the  peculiar  sound  which  aroused  their  curiosity.  They  pass 
much  of  their  time  on  the  ground  among  the  reeds  and  grasses,  but 


394  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

mount  a  stalk  to  sing  their  short,  unattractive  song  of  four  or  five  notes. 
Sometimes  they  flutter  into  the  air  a  few  feet  above  the  reeds  and  deliver 
their  song  while  on  the  wing. 

The  absence  of  distinct  streaks  on  the  breast  and  lack  of  rufous 
in  their  olivaceous  or  grayish  plumage  will  distinguish  them  from  the 
Sharp-tailed,  Swamp,  Savannah,  or  Song  Sparrows,  the  only  ones  which 
are  likely  to  be  found  in  their  haunts. 

550a.  P.  m.  peninsulse  (Allen).  SCOTT'S  SEASIDE  SPARROW.  Similar 
to  the  preceding,  but  much  darker ;  prevailing  color  of  the  upperparts  brown- 
ish black,  the  feathers  margined  with  grayish  olive-green;  underparts  more 
heavily  streaked,  the  breast  and  sides  streaked  with  black  or  blackish.  W.. 
2'30;  T.,  2'00;  B.,  '52. 

Range. — W.  coast  of  Fla.,  w.  probably  to  Ala. 

550c.  P.  m.  fisheri  (Chapm.).  LOUISIANA  SEASIDE  SPARROW.  Similar 
to  P.  in,  peninsula  but  darker  above,  the  breast  and  sides  heavily  washed  with 
rusty  buff  and  streaked  with  black. 

Range. — Cen.  Gulf  coast.  Breeds  on  coasts  of  La.  and  Miss. ;  winters  sw. 
along  the  coast  to  Corpus  Christi,  Tex.,  and  e.  to  Tarpon  Springs,  Fla.; 
casual  at  Charleston,  S.  C. 

550d.  P.  m.  macgillivraii  (And.).  MACGILLIVRAY'S  SEASIDE  SPAR- 
ROW. Similar  to  P.  m.  fisheri  but  above  grayer,  less  black;  breast  and  flanks 
but  faintly  washed  with  buff  and  streaked  with  dusky  grayish.  Grayer 
above  than  P.  m.  peninsula  and  less  heavily  streaked  below. 

Range. — S.  Atlantic  coast.  Breeds  from  N.  C.  to  Ga.  and  n.  Fla. ;  winters 
along  the  Gulf  coast  to  La. 

551.  Passerherbulus  nigrescens  (Ridgw.].  DUSKY  SEASIDE  SPARROW. 
Ads. — Upperparts  black,  narrowly  margined  with  grayish  and  grayish  olive- 
green;  underparts  sharply  streaked  with  black  and  white  in  about  equal 
proportions.    "L.,  5'95;  W.,  2'25-2'40;  T.,  2'10-2'50;  B.,  'SO-W  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Marshes  at  n.  end  of  Indian  River,  Fla. 
Nest  and  eggs  unknown. 

This  Sparrow  has  been  recorded  from  Salt  Lake,  near  Titusville, 
Fla.,  but  with  this  exception  it  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  western 
side  of  Merritt's  Island  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Indian  River.  In 
March,  1898,  I  found  it  to  be  abundant  near  the  mouth  of  Dummitt's 
Creek  where  it  inhabited  the  sedge  (Borrichia)  bordering  the  water  and 
the  adjoining  grassy  marshes.  Savannah  and  Swamp  Sparrows  were 
also  common  in  these  marshes.  The  paler  color  and  darting,  more 
extended  flight  of  the  former  at  once  distinguished  it  from  nigrescens, 
which,  while  more  like  the  Swamp  Sparrow,  was  soon  recognized  by  its 
darker  colors  and  shorter,  more  hesitating  flight.  The  birds  were  not 
in  song. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  this  species  is  abundant  and  that  the  region 
it  inhabits  is  in  no  sense  isolated,  but  that  both  to  the  north  and  south 
there  are  marshes  apparently  similar  to  those  it  occupies,  the  restriction 
of  its  range  to  an  area  only  a  few  square  miles  in  extent  make  its  dis- 
tribution unique  among  North  American  birds. 

552.  Chondestes  grammacus  grammacus  (Say).    LARK  SPARROW. 
Ads. — Sides  of  the  crown  and  ear-coverts  chestnut,  a  whitish  line  over  the 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  395 

eye  and  through  the  center  of  the  crown;  a  black  streak  on  the  sides  of  the 
throat;  upperparts  brownish  ash;  back  streaked  with  blackish;  tail  fuscous 
or  black,  the  outer  feathers  tipped  with  white;  underparts  white,  a  small 
black  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  breast.  L.,  6'25;  W.,  3'50;  T.,  275;  B.,  '45. 

Range. — Miss.  Valley  e.  of  the  Great  Plains.  Breeds  mainly  in  Austral 
zones  from  e.  Nebr.,  nw.  Minn.,  cen.  Wise.,  and  s.  Ont.  s.  to  s.  La.  and  cen. 
Ala.  and  e.  to  w.  Pa.,  w.  Md.,  and  nw.  W.  Va. ;  casual  in  N.  S.,  N.  Y.,  Mass., 
N.  J.,  D.  C.,  N.  C.,  and  Fla.;  winter  home  unknown,  except  in  s.  Miss. 

Washington,  A.  V.,  Aug.,  two  captures.  N.  Ohio,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl.  28. 
Glen  Ellyn,  local  and  uncommon  S.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20- 
Aug.  2. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  lined  with  rootlets,  fine  grasses,  and  long  hairs,  on  the 
ground  or  in  low  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  3-5,  white  or  pinkish  white,  spotted, 
blotched,  or  scrawled  with  purplish  or  black,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end, 
78  x  '60.  Date,  se.  Minn.,  May  17. 

This  is  a  common  bird  in  the  West.  It  frequents  localities  of  much 
the  same  nature  as  those  selected  by  the  Grass  Finch,  and  in  its  general 
habits  reminds  one  of  that  species.  The  song  is  described  by  Ridgway 
("Birds  of  Ills.,"  I,  p.  262)  as  "composed  of  a  series  of  chants,  each  syllable 
rich,  loud,  and  clear,  interspersed  with 
emotional  trills.  At  the  beginning  the 
song  reminds  one  somewhat  of  that  of 
the  Indigo  Bird  (Passerina  cyanea},  but 
the  notes  are  louder  and  more  metallic, 
and  their  delivery  more  vigorous. 
TjThough  seemingly  hurried,  it  is  one 
continued  gush  of  sprightly  music ; 
now  gay,  now  melodious,  and  then 
tender  beyond  description — the  very 
expression  of  emotion.  At  intervals  FlG- 

.,.  »,.  .,.         ,  ,11 

the  singer  1  alters,  as  11  exhausted  by 
exertion,  and  his  voice  becomes  scarcely  audible;  but  suddenly  reviv- 
ing in  his  joy  it  is  resumed  in  all  its  vigor  until  he  appears  to  be  really 
overcome  by  the  effort." 

553.  Zonotrichia  querula  (Nutt.).  HARRIS'S  SPARROW.  Bill  pinkish; 
crown  and  throat  or  breast  more  or  less  black.  Ads. — Crown,  throat,  breast 
and  lores  glossy  black,  cheeks  gray;  above  brownish  gray  streaked  with 
black;  rump  brownish  ashy,  tail  fuscous-gray;  two  white  wing-bars;  belly 
white,  sides  with  blackish  streaks.  Im. — Similar,  but  crown  tipped  with 
brownish;  breast,  and  sometimes  throat,  with  black  streaks  or  blotches; 
cheeks,  flanks  and  under  tail-coverts  buffy.  L.,  7'50;  W.,  3'50;  T.,  3'25; 
B.,  -50. 

Range. — Cen.  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  zone  at  Ft.  Churchill, 
Hudson  Bay,  Artillery  Lake,  Mackenzie,  and  probably  to  Great  Bear  Lake 
and  the  district  just  s.  of  the  Barren  Grounds;  in  migration  ranges  e.  to  w. 
Ont.  and  e.  Ills.,  and  w.  to  cen.  Mont,  and  e.  Colo.;  winters  from  n.  Kans. 
and  w.  Mo.  s.  to  s.  Tex.;  casual  in  B.  C.;  accidental  in  Calif.,  Ore.,  Wash., 
and  Ohio.  Glen  Ellyn,  one  record,  May  19,  1897.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V., 
May  6-?;  Sept.  21-Oct.  25. 

„  Nest  (found  Aug.  5,  1907,  by  E.  T.  Seton,  at  Last  Wood,  Great  Slave 
Lake,  and  the  only  one  known),  "was  on  the  ground  under  a  dwarf  birch,  was 
made  of  grass  and  resembled  the  nest  of  a  White-throated  Sparrow.  It  con- 
tained three  young  nearly  ready  to  fly"  (Auk,  1908,  72). 


396  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

This  handsome  Sparrow  barely  enters  the  western  limits  of  the  region 
covered  by  the  Handbook."  It  there  inhabits  brushy  undergrowths 
and  much  the  same  localities  which  White-throats  frequent.  Its  pink 
or  reddish  bill  and  buff  cheeks  are  excellent  field  characters.  Its  call- 
note  is  a  sharp,  metallic  clink,  louder  than  the  White-throat's  call,  and, 
like  that  species,  it  utters  low,  chuckling,  contented  musical  notes.  GOBI? 
describes  its  song  as  composed  of  "pleasing,  plaintive,  whistling  notes, 
in  musical  tone  much  like  the  White-throated  Sparrow's,  but  delivered 
in  a  widely  different  song." 

554.  Zonotrichia  leucophrys  leucophrys  (Forst,).  WHITE-CROWNED 
SPARROW.  Ads. — No  yellow  before  the  eye  or  on  the  bend  of  the  wing;  cen- 
ter of  crown  white  bordered  on  either  side  by  black  stripes,  no  white  before  the 
eye;  a  white  line  from  over  the  eye  passes  backward  along  the  side  of  the 
head;  nape  gray;  back  dark  grayish  brown,  margined  with  gray;  rump  dark 
brownish  ash;  greater  and  middle  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white;  tail  fus- 
cous; underparts  grayish,  white  on  the  belly,  flanks  and  under  tail-coverts 
cream-buff.  Im. — Similar,  but  much  browner,  sides  of  the  crown  rufous- 
brown,  center  of  the  crown  pale  grayish  brown;  nape  brownish  ash;  back 
margined  with  the  same  color.  L.,  6'88;  W.,  3'03;  T.,  2'88;  B.,  '43. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones  of  high  mts. 
from  s.  Ore.  to  cen.  Calif.,  and  e.  to  Wyo.  and  s.  N.  M.,  and  from  limit  of 
trees  in  cen.  Keewatin  and  n.  Ungava  to  se.  Keewatin,  cen.  Que.,  and  s. 
Greenland;  winters  from  n.  L.  Calif.,  s.  Ariz.,  s.  Kans.,  and  the  Ohio  Valley 
(casually  from  the  Potomac  Valley,  s.  to  La.  and  Miss,  and  in  Mex. 

Washington,  irregularly  common  W.  V.  and  T.  V.,  May  1-1-7;  Oct.  7-  ;*' 
Nov.  20.    Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  May  9-26;  Oct.  3-30.  Cambridge,  uncommon  fr 
T.  V.,  May  12-22;  Oct.  1-20.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  22-May  20;  Sept. 
5-Oct.  16.    Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.;  chiefly  spring,  Apl.  24-May  31; 
Oct.  2-21.    SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  30-     ;  Sept.  26-Oct.  14. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground  or  in  bushes.  Eggs,  4-5,  pale  greenish 
blue,  speckled  and  spotted  with  bay,  especially  at  the  larger  end,  '90  x  "62 
(Davie).  Date,  Ft.  Chimo,  Lab.,  June  3. 

This  is  one  of  the  aristocrats  of  the  family.  Its  size  and  its  hand- 
some markings  at  once  distinguish  it  from  its  congeners,  and  are  sure 
to  attract  attention.  Though  its  season  of  love  and  music  is  spent  in 
the  far  north,  it  often  favors  us  with  selections  of  its  melodies  as  it 
rests  in  thickets  and  hedgerows  while  slowly  passing  through  our 
country  on  its  northward  pilgrimage.  Its  usual  song  is  like  the  latter 
half  of  the  White-throat's  familiar  refrain,  repeated  a  number  of  times 
with  a  peculiar  sad  cadence  and  in  a  clear,  soft  whistle  that  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  group.  It  resembles  its  relatives  also  in  singing  its 
sweetest  songs  in  the  woods,  sometimes  during  the  darkest  hours  of 
the  night.  ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

554a.  Z.  1.  gambeli  (Nutt.).  GAMBEL'S  SPARROW.  Similar  to  Z.  L 
leucophrys  but  the  lores  wholly  gray  or  whitish,  the  white  superciliary  there- 
fore reaching  the  bill. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones  from  limit  of  trees  in  nw. 
Alaska  and  n.  Mackenzie  (rarely  outside  the  mts.  s.  of  Groat  Slave  Lako)  s. 
to  cen.  Ore.  and  cen.  Mont.,  w.  to  coast  mts.  of  sw.  Alaska  and  B.  C.;  win* 
ters  from  n.  Calif,  and  Utah  s.  to  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mazatlan,  L.  Calif.,  and 
outlying  islands;  casual  e.  in  migrations  to  Minn.,  Iowa,  Kans.,  and  e.  Tex. 
SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  30;  Sept.  26-Oct.  14. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  397 

The  GOLDEN-CROWNED  SPARROW  (557.  Zonotrichia  cpronata)  of  the 
Pacific  coast  region  is  of  accidental  occurrence  in  Wisconsin  (Nelson,  Bull. 
Essex.  Inst.,  VIII,  1876,  108). 

558.  Zonotrichia albicollis  (GmeL).  WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW.  Ads. — 
A  yellow  line  before  the  eye ;  bend  of  the  wing  yellow;  center  of  the  crown  with 
a  white  stripe  bounded  on  either  side  by  much  wider  black  stripes;  a  white 
stripe  from  the  eye  passes  backward  along  the  side  of  the  head ;  back  rufous 
or  rufous-brown,  streaked  with  black  and  slightly  margined  with  whitish; 
rump  grayish  brown;  greater  and  middle  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white; 
tail  grayish  brown;  underparts  grayish,  more  so  on  the  breast;  throat  with 
a  square  white  patch;  belly  whitish;  flanks  and  under  tail-coverts  tinged  with 
grayish  brown.  Im.  and  Ads.  in  winter. — Yellow  before  the  eye,  and  on  the 
bend  of  the  wing  duller;  crown  streaks  brownish  ashy  and  mixed  chestnut 
and  black,  instead  of  white  and  black ;  throat-patch  less  sharply  defined  and 
in  some  (Im.)  specimens  practically  obsolete  when  the  breast  is  obscurely 
streaked  with  blackish.  L.,  674;  W.,  2'89;  T.,  2'86;  B.,  '44. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  lower  Hudsonian  zones 
from  n.  Mackenzie  (Ft.  Good  Hope),  cen.  Keewatin,  and  s.  Ungava  s.  to 
cen.  Alberta,  s.  Mont.,  cen.  Minn.,  cen.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  and  mts.  of  n.  Pa., 
N.  Y.,  and  Mass. ;  winters  from  Mo.,  the  Ohio  Valley,  s.  Pa.,  Mass,  (casually 
Maine),  s.  to  ne.  Mex.  and  Fla. ;  casual  in  Ore.,  Calif.,  Utah,  and  Colo. 

Washington,  very  common  W.  V.,  abundant  T.  V.,  Mch.  18-May; 
Sept.  15-Dec.  16.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  10-May  21;  Sept.  20- 
Oct.  30;  a  few  winter.  Cambridge,  very  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  25-May  15; 
Oct.  1-Nov.  10;  a  few  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl  1-May  21;  Sept. 
10-Nov.  7.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  9-May  26;  Sept.  13-Nov.  7. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  8-  ;  Sept.  27Nov.  13. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses,  rootlets,  moss,  strips  of  bark,  etc.,  lined  with  finer 
grasses,  on  the  ground  or  in  bushes.  Eggs,  4-5,  bluish  white,  finely  and 
evenly  speckled  or  heavily  and  irregularly  blotched  with  pale  rufous-brown, 
•82  x  '60.  Date,  Wilmurt,  N.  Y.,  May  28;  Lancaster,  N.  H.,  June  5;  Char- 
lotte Co.,  N.  B.,  June  5. 

In  September,  when  the  hedgerows  and  woodland  undergrowths  begin 
to  rustle  with  Sparrows,  Jim- 
cos,  and  Towhees,  I  watch 
eagerly  for  the  arrival  of 
these  welcome  fall  songs- 
sters.  There  are  a  few  sweet, 
tremulous  trials  before 
their  plaintive,  sympathetic 
whistle  brings  cheer  to  the 
browning  woods: 

Few  birds  are  more  sociable  than  the  White-throats.  At  this  season 
they  are  always  in  little  companies,  and  they  frequently  roost  together 
in  large  numbers  in  the  depths  of  dense  thickets  or  clumps  of  ever- 
greens. After  they  have  retired  one  may  hear  the  sharp  chink  of  their 
'quarrier'  chorus,  and  when  darkness  comes,  with  low,  brooding  notes 
of  cozy  companionship  they  are  hushed  for  the  night. 

559.  Spizella  monticola  monticola  (Gmel).  TREE  SPARROW.  Ads. — 
No  black  on  the  forehead ;  an  indistinct  black  spot  on  the  center  of  the  breast; 
top  of  the  head  rufous-brown,  sometimes  edged  with  ashy;  a  grayish  line 
over  the  eye  and  a  rufous-brown  line  behind  it;  back  streaked  with  rufous- 
brown,  black,  and  pale  ochraceous-buff ;  rump  pale  grayish  brown;  greater 


398  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

and  middle  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white;  outer  web  of  the  outer  tail- 
feather  whitish;  breast  grayish  white;  middle  of  the  belly  white;  sides 
tinged  with  pale  grayish  brown;  upper  mandible  black;  lower,  yellow  at  the 
base,  the  tip  black.  L.,  6'36;  W.,  2'99;  T.,  2'82;  B.,  '41. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  zone  from  cen.  Mackenzie  and 
n.  Ungava  to  Great  Slave  Lake,  cen.  Keewatin,  n.  Que.,  and  N.  F. ;  winters 
from  s.  Minn.,  Ont.,  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  s.  to  e.  Okla.,  cen.  Ark., 
and  S.  C. 

Washington,  abundant  W.  V.,  Oct.-Apl.  1.  Ossining,  common  W.  V., 
Oct.  10-Apl.  27.  Cambridge,  common  W.  V.,  abundant  T.  V.,  Oct.  25- 
Nov.  25;  Mch.  20-Apl.  20.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  W.  V.,  Oct.  24-May  3.  Glen 
Ellyn,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  4-Apl.  28.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Oct.  6- 
May  5;  a  few  winter. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  rootlets,  and  hair,  on  or  near  the  ground.  "Eggs,  4-5, 
pale  green  or  greenish  blue,  spotted  with  reddish  brown,  '75  x  *60"  (Cham- 
berlain). Date,  Ft.  Chimo,  Lab.,  June  16. 

Tree  Sparrows  wear  a  small  black  dot  on  the  center  of  their  other- 
wise unmarked  breasts,  a  badge  which  will  aid  in  their  identification. 
They  come  in  flocks  when  the  fields  are  beginning  to  look  brown  and 
dreary,  but  seem  contented  with  the  surroundings  from  which  other 
birds  have  fled.  They  feed  on  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  grasses,  and  even 
when  the  snow  is  deepest  always  find  an  abundance  of  food.  I  like  to  see 
them  feasting  on  the  seed-stalks  above  the  crust,  and  to  hear  their 
chorus  of  merry,  tinkling  notes,  like  sparkling  frost  crystals  turned  to 
music. 

Winter  Chippies  they  are  sometimes  called,  but  at  this  season  there 
is  little  of  the  Chippy's  nature  about  them.  In  February  or  March 
they  begin  to  sing  a  song  which  has  been  compared  to  that  of  a  Canary, 
but  is  "finer,  sweeter,  and  not  so  loud." 

560.  Spizella  passerina  passerina  (Beck.).  CHIPPING  SPARROW.  Ads. 
— Forehead  black,  a  short  grayish  line  in  its  middle;  top  of  the  head  rufous; 
the  nape  generally  with  a  few  black  streaks;  a  grayish  line  over  the  eye  and 
a  black  line  behind  it;  back  of  the  neck  grayish,  separating  the  rufous  crown 
from  the  back;  back  streaked  with  black,  a  little  rufous,  and  more  pale 
buffy  ochraceous;  rump  slaty  gray;  wing-bars  not 
conspicuous;  underparts  grayish  white,  whiter  on 
the  throat  and  belly;  bill  entirely  black.  Ads.  in 
winter  and  Im. — Similar,  but  no  rufous  crown-cap 
or  black  on  the  forehead;  top  of  the  head  streaked 
like  the  back;  bill  brownish.  Nestlings  have  the 
breast  streaked  with  black.  L.,  5'37;  W.,  274;  T., 
2-29;  B.,  '36. 

Remarks. —  In  adults  the  rufous  crown,   black 
FIG.  107.   Chipping  Spar-   forehead,  gray  rump,  and  black  bill  are  characteris- 
row.    (Natural  size.)       tic;  in  winter  the  gray  rump  is  a  good  distinguishing 

mark. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Austral  zones 
from  cen.  Sask.,  sw.  Keewatin,  n.  Ont.,  cen.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  to 
cen.  Tex.,  s.  Miss.,  and  cen.  Ga.;  winters  chiefly  in  s.  States,  occasionally 
as  far  n.  as  Okla.  and  s.  N.  J. ;  casual  in  Cuba  and  ne.  Mex. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  abundant  T.  V.,  Mch.  9-Nov.  11,  occasion- 
ally winters.  Ossining,  common  S.  .R.,  Apl.  9-Nov.  7.  Cambridge,  abun- 
dant S.  R.,  Apl.  12-Oct.  25.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  23  to  Oct.  10. 
Glen  Ellyn,  not  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  5-Nov.  5.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  8-Oct.  26. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  399 

Nest,  of  grasses,  fine  twigs,  or  rootlets,  thickly  lined  with  long  hairs,  in 
trees  or  bushes,  5-20  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5,  blue  or  greenish  blue,  with  cinnamon- 
brown  or  blackish  markings,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  '72  x  '51.  Date, 
Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  May  8;  Cambridge,  May  12;  se.  Minn.,  May  16. 

The  Chippy  is  among  Sparrows  what  the  Phoebe  is  among  Fly- 
catchers— the  humblest,  most  unassuming  member  of  its  family.  Both 
show  trustfulness,  which,  in  spite  of  their  unattractive  appearance  and 
far  from  pleasing  voices,  wins  our  affection.  Chippy  makes  his  nest  in 
the  vines  on  our  piazza,  and  feeds  on  the  crumbs  at  our  doorstep,  quite 
as  though  he  were  a  member  of  the  family;  and  he  needs  only  a  little 
encouragement  to  give  evidence  of  his  entire  confidence  in  our  good 
will  by  feeding  from  our  hands.  His  song  is  a  monotonous  chippy- 
chippy-chippy-chippy,  rather  high  and  wiry  and  frequently  running 
into  an  insectlike  trill — by  no  means  a  musical  performance. 

In  the  fall,  Chippy  changes  his  dress,  dons  a  streaked  cap  for  the 
one  of  bright  bay,  and,  with  others  of  his  kind,  goes  to  the  fields  to 
feast  on  the  year's  harvest  of  seeds.  He  is  generally  found  near  trees 
and  hedgerows,  into  which,  when  alarmed,  he  flies  with  his  companions. 

561.  Spizella  pallida  (Swains).  CLAY-COLORED  SPARROW.  Ads. — • 
With  a  general  resemblance  to  immature  S.  socialis,  but  less  rufous  above, 
whiter  below,  the  line  over  the  eye  white,  and  the  rump  pale  grayish  brown 
instead  of  slaty  gray.  W.,  2*40;  T.,  2'35;  B.,  '34. 

Range. — Interior  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones  from 
se.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  sw.  Keewatin,  and  Isle  Royale,  Mich.,  to  w.  Mont., 
se.  Colo.,  n.  Nebr.,  and  nw.  Ills.;  winters  from  s.  Ariz.,  s.  N.  M.,  and  s. 
Tex.  s.  to  s.  Mex.,  Guanajuato,  Puebla,  Oaxaca,  and  Chiapas;  casual  in 
Ont.  and  Ind.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  26-Oct.  19. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  lined  with  hairs,  on  the  ground  or  in  bushes.  Eggs,  3-5, 
similar  to  those  of  the  preceding.  Date,  se.  Minn.,  May  23. 

"This  pale  Sparrow  of  the  plains  is  very  similar  in  actions  to  the 
Chipping  Sparrow,  but  less  familiar  and  confiding  in  habits"  (Goss). 

BREWER'S  SPARROW  (562.  Spizella  breweri),  a  western  species,  has 
been  recorded  once  from  Massachusetts.  (Brewster,  Am.  Nat.,  VIII,  1874, 
366.) 

563.  Spizella  pusilla  pusilla  (Wils.).  FIELD  SPARROW.  Bill  reddish 
brown.  Ads. — Top  of  head  rufous,  a  gray  line  over  the  eye;  nape  slightly 
gray;  back  like  the  crown,  but  finely  streaked  with  black  and  narrowly 
edged  with  brownish  ashy;  rump  brownish  ashy;  middle  and  greater  wing- 
coverts  tipped  with  white;  underparts  whitish,  tinged  with  ochraceous-buff 
on  the  breast  and  sides.  Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — Similar,  but  the  colors  duller, 
the  crown  edged  with  grayish  arid  sometimes  a  faint  grayish  line  through  its 
center.  Nestlings  have  the  breast  streaked  with  black.  L.,  5'68;  W.,  2'50; 
T.,  2'55;  B.,  -36. 

Remarks. — This  bird  may  be  known  by  its  brightly  colored  back,  buffy 
breast,  and  especially  by  its  reddish  bill. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Transition  and  Austral  zones  from  s. 
Minn.,  s.  Mich.,  s.  Que.,  and  s.  Maine,  to  cen.  Tex.,  cen.  La.,  and  n.  Fla.; 
winters  from  Mo.,  Ills.,  s.  Pa.,  and  N.  J.  to  the  Gulf  coast,  casually  further  n. 

Washington,  very  common  P.  R.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  2-Nov. 
7.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  12-Nov.  1;  casual  in  winter.  N.  Ohio, 
abundant  in  summer,  Mch.  6-Oct.  25.  Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common  S.  R., 
Mch.  27-Oct.  11.  SE,  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  1-Dec.  28. 


400  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

Nest,  of  rather  coarse  grasses,  weed  stalks,  rootlets,  etc.,  lined  with  fine 
grasses  and  long  hairs,  on  the  ground  or  in  low  bushes.  Eggs,  3-5,  white  or 
bluish  white,  with  numerous  rufous  markings,  chiefly  about  the  larger  end, 
•70  x  '52.  Date,  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  May  4;  Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  May  5; 
New  London,  Conn.,  May  21;  Cambridge,  May  25;  Wheatland,  Ind.,  Apl. 
30. 

Its  bright  rufous  color,  the  absence  of  spots  on  its  breast,  and  espe- 
cially its  flesh-colored  bill,  are  the  best  field-marks  of  this  misnamed 
Sparrow,  for  he  is  not  a  true  Field  Sparrow,  but  prefers  old  pastures 
dotted  with  clumps  of  bushes  or  young  cedars.  There  is  something 
winning  in  his  appearance;  he  seems  such  a  gentle,  innocent,  dove- 
like  little  bird.  His  song  is  in  keeping  with  his  character,  being  an 
unusually  clear,  plaintive  whistle,  sweeter  to  the  lover  of  birds'  songs 
than  the  voice  of  the  most  gifted  songstress.  It  is  subject  to  much 
variation.  Not  only  do  the  same  individuals  sing  several  different 
songs,  but  two  individuals  in  the  same  locality  rarely  sing  alike.  There 
is  also  much  variation  in  the  songs  of  birds  from  different  regions.  For 
this  reason  it  is  quite  impossible  to  give  a  description  of  the  song  which 
will  apply  throughout  the  bird's  range.  However,  an  average  song 
consists  of  the  syllables  cher-wee,  ch&r-wee,  ch&r-wee,  ch$r-wee,  chee-o, 
de-de-de-de-de,  the  last  notes  joined  in  a  trill. 

This  gives,  of  course,  no  idea  of  the  quality  of  the  Field  Sparrow's 
song,  but  to  be  convinced  of  its  rare  beauty  one  need  only  hear  it  as 
the  sun  goes  down  and  the  hush  of  early  evening  is  quieting  the  earth. 

The  WESTERN  FIELD  SPARROW  (563a.  Spizella  pusilla  arenacea),  a  pale 
form,  has  been  recorded  from  the  vicinity  of  New  Orleans. 

567.  Junco  hy emails  hyemalis  (Linn.).  SLATE-COLORED  JUNCO.  Ad. 
cf. — Upperparts,  throat,  and  breast  grayish  slate-color;  upperparts  more  or 
less  washed  with  grayish  brown;  belly  white,  sides  grayish;  no  wing-bars;  tail 
fuscous,  the  two  outer  feathers  and  part  of  the  third  white;  bill  flesh-color. 
Ad.  p. — Similar,  but  the  upperparts  browner,  throat  and  breast  paler.  Ads. 
in  winter. — Resemble  ads.  in  summer  but  are  more  richly  washed  with  brown- 
ish or  rusty.  Nestlings,  resemble  the  adults,  but  have  the  upperparts,  throat, 
and  breast  streaked  with  black.  L.,  6'27;  W.,  3'03;  T.,  271;  B.,  '41. 

Range. — E.  and  n.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones 
in  nw.  Alaska  (tree  limit),  n.  Mackenzie  (tree  limit),  cen.  Keewatin,  and  cen. 
Ungava  s.  to  base  of  Alaska  Peninsula,  s.  Yukon,  cen.  Alberta,  n.  Minn., 
cen.  Mich.,  Ont.,  and  mts.  of  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  and  Mass.;  winters  throughout  the 
e.  U.  S.  and  s.  Ont.  s.  to  the  Gulf  coast;  casual  in  Calif.,  Ariz.,  and  N.  M.; 
straggles  to  Siberia. 

Washington,  abundant  W.  V.,  Sept.  26-May  12.  Ossining,  common  W. 
V.,  Sept.  19-May  4.  Cambridge,  rather  common  W.  V.,  abundant  T.  V., 
Sept.  20-Nov.  25;  Mch.  20- Apl.  20.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  W.  V.,  Oct.  2-May 
5.  Glen  Ellyn,  W.  V.,  abundant  spring  and  fall,  Aug.  30-May  13.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  4-  ;  Sept.  20-Nov.  12. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  moss  and  rootlets,  lined  with  fine  grasses  and  long  hairs, 
on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-5,  white  or  bluish  white,  finely  and  evenly 
speckled  or  spotted,  sometimes  heavily  blotched  at  the  larger  end  with 
rufous-brown,  '76  x  '58.  Date,  Wilmurt,  N.  Y.,  May  27;  Grand  Manan,  N. 
B.,  May  25. 

When  the  snow  begins  to  fly,  you  will  look  out  some  gray  morning 
to  find  a  flock  of  small,  plump,  slate-colored  birds  hopping  about  the 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  401 

dooryard,  picking  up  what  they  can  find,  or  sitting  in  the  bushes  with 
an  air  of  contentment  that  it  is  pleasant  to  see. 

Coming,  as  they  do,  when  most  of  the  home  birds  have  left  for  the 
south,  they  bring  their  own  welcome,  and  soon  seem  like  old  friends. 
But  if  you  would  really  know  your  gentle  winter  visitors,  you  must 
go  back  into  the  woods  when  summer  comes  and  find  them  in  their 
own  homes. 

Look  for  them  in  a  tangle  of  fallen  tree-tops,  logs,  and  upturned 
roots.  A  pair  I  once  surprised  in  such  a  place  at  first  sat  and  chirped 
at  me — with  bills  full  of  food — but  soon  they  were  flying  freely  back 
and  forth  to  the  upturned  root  where  they  had  hidden  their  nest. 

I  noticed  with  surprise  that  their  gray  plumage  toned  in  so  well 
with  the  dark  earth  that  they  were  hard  to  see.  The  sharp  horizontal 
line  across  the  breast  where  the  gray  turns  abruptly  to  white  added 
to  the  disguise,  the  straight  line  breaking  the  round  form  of  the  bird. 

The  Jtsip  of  the  Junco  is  unmistakable  and  more  often  heard  than 
his  song,  but  he  has  both  a  trill  and  a  low,  sweet  song  as  unpretentious 
and  cheery  as  the  friendly  bird  himself. 

FLORENCE  MERRIAM  BAILEY. 

567e.  J.  h.  carolinensis  Brewst.  CAROLINA  JUNCO.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  slightly  larger,  the  upperparts,  throat,  and  breast  uniform 
grayish  slate-color  without  a  brownish  wash,  bill  horn-color.  W.,  3*26; 
T.,  2-85;  B.,  '43. 

Range. — S.  Alleghanies.  Breeds  in  the  Canadian  zone  (overlapping 
into  the  Alleghanian  fauna)  of  mts.  from  w.  Md.,  Va.,  and  W.  Va.,  s.  to  n. 
Ga.;  winters  in  adjacent  lowlands. 

Nesting  date,  Cold  Knob,  W.  Va.,  May  21. 

This  is  a  common  and  apparently  permanent  resident  species  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  southern  Alleghanies. 

567f.  J.  h.  montanus  Ridgw.  MONTANA  JUNCO.  Similar  to  J.  h. 
hyemalis,  but  head  and  breast  blacker,  the  former,  sharply  defined  from  the 
brownish  black,  the  sides  strongly  washed  with  brownish  pink.  W.,  3' 15; 
T.,  2-60. 

Range. — N.  Rocky  Mts.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  s.  Alberta  s. 
to  n.  Idaho  and  nw.  Mont.;  winters  s.  to  Ariz.,  N.  M.,  Chihuahua,  and  Tex., 
and  e.  casually  to  Kans.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  Mass.,  and  Md. 

Cambridge,  one  record  (Mch.  25,  1874). 

575.  Peucsea  aestivalis  sestivalis  (Licht.).  PINE-WOODS  SPARROW. 
Ads. — Upperparts  light  ^chestnut,  more  or  less  streaked  with  black  and  mar- 
gined with  gray;  a  grayish  line  over  the  eye;  bend  of  the  wing  yellow;  tail- 
feathers  narrow,  grayish  fuscous,  the  outer  ones  much  the  shortest;  breast 
and  sides  washed  with  pale  brownish  ash ;  breast  sometimes  with  a  few  black 
spots;  middle  of  the  belly  white.  L.,  5'80;  W.,  2'50;  T.,  2'50;  B.,  '45. 

Range. — Ga.  and  Fla.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  s.  Ga.  s. 
to  cen.  Fla. ;  winters  in  cen.  and  s.  Fla. 

Nest,  of  fine  grasses,  on  the  ground,  beneath  scrub  palmetto.  Eggs,  3-5, 
pure  white,  '72  x  '61.  Date,  Lake  Okeechobee,  Fla.,  Apl.  14;  San  Mateo, 
Fla.,  Apl.  23. 

This  is  a  common  bird  in  Florida.  It  winters  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  State  and  migrates  northward  in  March.  It  is  found  only  in 


402  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

pine  woods  having  an  undergrowth  of  scrub  palmetto.    Here  it  passes 
most  of  its  time  on  the  ground,  and  is  difficult  to  flush. 

When  singing,  it  seeks  an  elevated  perch.  In  my  opinion  its  song 
is  more  beautiful  than  that  of  any  other  of  our  Sparrows.  It  is  very 
simple — I  write  it,  che-e-e-e — de,  de,  de',  che-e — chee-o,  chee-o,  chee-o, 
chee-o — but  it  possesses  all  the  exquisite  tenderness  and  pathos  of  the 
melody  of  the  Hermit  Thrush;  indeed,  in  purity  of  tone  and  in  execu- 
tion I  should  consider  the  Sparrow  the  superior  songster.  It  sings  most 
freely  very  early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the  afternoon,  when  the 
world  is  hushed  and  the  pine  trees  breathe  a  soft  accompaniment  to 
its  divine  music. 

575a.  P.  se.  bachmani  (And.}.  BACHMAN'S  SPARROW.  Similar  to 
the  preceding  subspecies,  but  the  upperparts  rufous,  black  streaks  generally 
confined  to  the  back,  or  absent;  line  over  the  eye  buffy;  breast  and  sides 
brownish  cream-buff  without  streaks. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas 
in  cen.  Ills,  (locally  to  se.  Iowa),  s.  Ind.,  s.  Ohio  and  cen.  Va.  s.  to  cen.  Tex., 
and  extreme  nw.  Fla. ;  winters  from  s.  N.  C.  s.  into  Fla. ;  casual  near  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Washington,  one  record,  Apl. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  domed  and  cylindrical,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-4,  pure 
white,  '74  x  '60  (Bendire,  Auk,  V,  1888,  356).  Date,  Weaverville,  N.  C., 
May  6;  Greensboro,  Ala.,  May  8. 

In  Florida,  where  this  bird  is  not  uncommon  during  the  winter,  I 
have  found  it  in  pine  woods  undergrown  with  turkey  oaks,  and  not  in 
localities  frequented  by  P.  cestivalis.  In  South  Carolina  it  was  observed 
in  essentially  similar  localities,  and  its  song  did  not  differ  materially 
from  that  of  cestivalis.  Mr.  Ridgway  writes  that  in  Illinois  this  is 
"emphatically  a  bird  of  open  oak  woods,  where  large  white  and  post 
oaks  prevail,  with  grass  land  immediately  adjoining,  or  where  the  in- 
tervals between  the  trees  consist  of  sward  rather  than  undergrowth; 
but  neglected  fields,  grown  up  to  weeds,  and  in  which  dead  trees  are 
left  standing,  are  also  its  favorite  haunts." 

He  speaks  of  its  song  as  reminding  one  somewhat  of  the  plaintive 
chant  of  the  Field  Sparrow,  but  as  far  sweeter  and  louder;  "the  modu- 
lation, as  nearly  as  can  be  expressed  in  words,  resembling  the  syllables 
theeeeeee-thut,  lut,  lut,  lut,  the  first  being  a  rich,  silvery  trill,  pitched  in 
a  high  musical  key,  the  other  syllables  also  metallic,  but  abrupt,  and 
lower  in  tone." 

1888.   BENDIRE,  C.  E.,  Auk,  V,  351-356  (nesting). 

581.  Melospiza  melodia  melodia  (Wils.}.  SONG  SPARROW.  Ads. — 
Crown  rufous-brown,  with  a  grayish  line  through  its  center;  a  grayish  line 
over  the  eye;  a  rufous-brown  line  from  behind  the  eye  to  the  nape;  feathers 
of  the  back  streaked  with  black  and  margined  with  rufous-brown  and  grayish ; 
greater  wing-coverts  with  black  spots  at  their  tips;  no  white  wing-bars  or 
yellow  on  the  wing;  tail  rufous  grayish  brown,  the  middle  feathers  darker 
along  their  shafts;  outer  feathers  shortest;  sides  of  the  throat  with  black  or 
blackish  streaks;  breast  with  wedge-shaped  streaks  of  black  and  rufous- 
brown  which  tend  to  form  one  larger  blotch  on  the  center;  sides  washed 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  403 

with  brownish  and  streaked  with  black  and  rufous-brown;  middle  of  the 
belly  white.  L.,  6'30;  W.,  2'52;  T.,  2'62;  B.,  '49. 

Range. — N.  A.  e.  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition, 
and  Upper  Austral  zones  from  s.  Mackenzie  (Great  Slave  Lake),  cen.  Kee- 
watin,  n.  Ont.,  cen.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  s.  to  s.  Nebr.,  cen.  Mo.,  Ky., 
s.  Va.,  and  s.  N.  C.  (mts.),  and  w.  to  the  Rocky  Mts.  of  Alberta;  winters 
from  Neb.,  Ills.,  Mass,  (locally),  and  N.  J.,  s.  to  the  Gulf  coast,  and  sporadi- 
cally n.  to  Mich.,  and  N.  S. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.,  abundant  T.  V.,  Mch.  and  Oct.  Ossining, 
common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  very  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  10— Nov.  1;  locally 
common  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  P.  R.,  abundant  in  summer,  common  in  winter. 
Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  Feb.  12-Nov.  2.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch. 
16-Nov.  11. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses,  rootlets,  dead  leaves,  strips  of  bark,  etc.,  lined 
with  finer  grasses  and  sometimes  long  hairs,  on  the  ground,  sometimes  in 
bushes.  Eggs,  4-5,  white  or  bluish  white,  with  numerous  rufous-brown  mark- 
ings which  sometimes  nearly  conceal  the  ground  color,  '76  x  '60.  Date, 
Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  Apl.  27;  Cambridge,  Apl.  30;  se.  Minn.,  Apl.  27. 

The  Song  Sparrow's  vast  range  in  a  dozen  varying  climates,  its 
readiness  to  adapt  itself  to  the  different  conditions  in  each  of  the  regions 
it  inhabits,  its  numerical  abundance  and  steady  increase  while  some  of 
its  family  are  dying  out,  its  freedom  from  disease  and  vermin,  and  its 
perennial  cheerfulness,  evidenced  by  its  never-failing  music — all  pro- 
claim that  it  is  indeed  one  of  Nature's  successes. 

Its  irrepressible  vivacity  and  good  spirits  in  spite  of  all  circum- 
stances are  aptly  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  its  song  may  be  heard  in 
every  month  of  the  year  and  in  all  weathers;  also  by  night  as  well  as 
by  day — for  nothing  is  more  common  in  the  darkest  nights  than  to 
hear  its  sweet  chant  in  half-conscious  answer  to  the  hooting  of  the 
Owl  or  even  the  report  of  a  gun. 

It  is  never  seen  far  from  water,  and  when  it  is  alarmed  it  flies  down- 
ward or  along — never  upward — into  some  low  thicket,  pumping  its 
tail  as  it  flies. 

Its  alarm  note  is  a  simple  metallic  chip,  which  is  very  distinctive 
when  once  learned.  But  its  merry  chant — which  has  won  for  it  the 
name  of  "Song  Sparrow" — is  its  best-known  note.  It  is  a  voluble  and 
uninterrupted  but  short  refrain,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  sweetest  of  the 
familiar  voices  of  the  meadow  lands.  The  song  that  it  occasionally 
utters  while  on  the  wing  is  of  quite  a  different  character,  being  more 
prolonged  and  varied. 

Though  so  abundant,  it  can  not  be  styled  a  sociable  species.  Even 
during  the  migrations  it  is  never  seen  in  compact  flocks  like  the  Red- 
poll or  Snowflake;  at  most  it  will  be  found  forming  a  part  of  a  long, 
scattered  migrating  train  that  usually  includes  a  number  of  different 
but  nearly  related  species.  ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

1899.   OWEN,  D.  E.,  Auk,  XVI,  221-225  (growth  of  young). 

583.  Melospiza    lincolni     lincolni    (And.).     LINCOLN'S    SPARROW. 

Ads. — Upperparts  streaked  with  black,  brownish  gray,  and  grayish  brown; 

tail-feathers    narrow  and  rather  pointed,   the  outer  ones  shortest;  under- 

parts  white,   rather  finely  streaked  with   black,   a  broad  cream-buff  band 

28 


404  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

across  the  breast,  a  cream-buff  stripe  on  either  side  of  the  throat;  sides 
tinged  with  cream-buff.  L.,  5'75;  W.,  2'50;  T.,  2'40;  B.,  "41. 

Remarks. — The  cream-buff  band  on  the  breast  is  distinctive  of  this 
species. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones  from  Alaska  and  n.  Ungava  s. 
to  n.  Minn.,  cen.  Ont.,  n.  N.  Y.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.  and  s.  in  the  Cascade, 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  Rocky  Mts.  to  s.  Calif,  and  n.  N.  M. ;  winters  from  San 
Jacinto  Mts.,  Calif.,  s.  Okla.,  and  n.  Miss,  to  Guatemala;  casual  only  e.  of 
the  Alleghany  Mts.  s.  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  May  8-21;  Sept.  30-Oct.  1.  Ossining,  rare  T. 
V.,  Sept.  29-Oct.  16.  Cambridge,  not  uncommon,  T.  V.,  May  15-May  25; 
Sept.  14-Oct.  10.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  25-May  25.  Glen 
Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  fall  records  only,  Sept.  11-Oct.  9.  SE.  Minn., 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  17-  ;  Sept.  10-Oct.  30. 

Nest,  generally  similar  to  that  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  on  the  ground. 
"Eggs,  4-5,  pale  green  or  buffish,  sometimes  almost  white,  thickly  spotted 
and  blotched  with  reddish  brown  and  lilac,  "80  x  "60"  (Chamberlain). 
Date,  Wilmurt,  N.  Y.,  June  10;  Racine,  Wise.,  June  6. 

The  most  striking  characteristic  about  the  Lincoln's  Sparrow  is  its 
shyness,  whether  migrating  in  the  lavish  abundance  of  the  West,  stray- 
ing casually  through  the  states  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  or  settled 
for  the  summer  in  a  chosen  spot  of  the  northern  evergreen  woods. 
Scampering  like  a  mouse  along  some  tumble-down  stone  wall  half 
buried  in  poison  ivy,  sumach,  and  all  the  tangled  growth  that  goes  to 
make  up  an  old  hedgerow,  or  peering  out  from  a  clump  of  low-spreading 
bushes,  this  little  bird  may  sometimes  be  detected;  but  as  he  hurries 
northward  late  in  the  migration,  when  all  the  woods  and  fields  are 
ringing  with  bird  music,  our  attention  is  seldom  directed  toward  the 
silent  straggler,  while  in  the  autumn  he  is  lost  in  the  waves  of  Sparrows 
that  flood  the  country. 

If  we  follow  him  northward,  we  find  him  irregularly  distributed  in 
small  colonies  or  single  pairs  in  damp  clearings,  perhaps  along  brooks 
or  ponds,  but  avoiding  almost  entirely  the  wetter,  more  open  localities, 
where  the  Swamp  Sparrow  is  at  home.  Attracted-  by  a  sharp  chirp 
which,  at  times  reduplicated,  resembles  that  of  a  young  Chipping 
Sparrow,  we  may  succeed  in  catching  a  glimpse  of  him  as  he  lurks 
beneath  a  little  spruce  perhaps  no  bigger  than  an  umbrella. 

Sometimes  venturing  timidly  to  the  outer  boughs  of  a  spruce,  he 
surprises  the  hearer  with  a  most  unsparrowlike  song.  It  is  not  loud, 
and  suggests  the  bubbling,  guttural  notes  of  the  House  W7ren,  com- 
bined with  the  sweet  rippling  music  of  the  Purple  Finch,  and  when 
you  think  the  song  is  done  there  is  an  unexpected  aftermath.  The 
birds  sing  very  little  and  at  long  intervals,  and  are  seldom  heard  dur- 
ing the  later  hours  of  the  day,  ceasing  at  once  if  anybody  approaches. 

J.  D  WIGHT,  JR. 

584.  Melospiza  georgiana  (Lath.}.  SWAMP  SPARROW.  Ads.  in  sum- 
mer.—  Crown  chestnut-rufous;  forehead  black;  a  grayish  line  over  the 
eye;  a  blackish  line  behind  the  eye;  nape  slaty  gray  with  a  few  black  streaks; 
feathers  of  the  back  broadly  streaked  with  black  and  margined  with  rufous 
and  cream-buff  or  ashy  buff;  wing-coverts  rufous,  the  greater  ones  with 
black  spots  at  their  tips;  rump  rufous  grayish  brown,  sometimes  streaked 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  405 

with  black;  tail  rufous  grayish  brown,  the  middle  feathers  darker  along  their 
shafts;  throat  and  middle  of  the  belly  white,  breast  grayish,  sides  washed 
with  pale  grayish  brown.  Ads.  in  winter  and  Im. — Similar,  but  the  top  of 
the  head  streaked  with  black,  rufous-brown,  and  grayish;  nape  less  gray; 
breast  washed  with  brownish.  L.,  5'89;  W.,  2'34;  T.,  2'32;  B.,  '46. 

Remarks. — The  underparts  resemble  those  of  some  immature  White- 
throated  Sparrows,  but  the  wing-bars  and  the  yellow  bend  of  the  wing  will 
always  distinguish  the  latter. 

Range. — N.  A.  e.  of  Great  Plains.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and 
part  of  Upper  Austral  zones  from  w.  cen.  Alberta,  cen.  Mackenzie,  cen. 
Keewatin,  cen.  Que.,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  n.  Nebr.,  n.  Mo.,  n.  Ills.,  W.  Va.  (mts.) 
and  N.  J. ;  winters  from  Nebr.,  Ohio  Valley,  and  Mass,  (rarely)  s.  to  the  Gulf 
coast  from  cen.  Fla.  to  Mex. ;  accidental  in  Utah  and  Colo. 

Washington,  very  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  12-May  19;  Sept.  28-Oct.  29; 
a  few  winter.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  4-Dec.  2;  a  few  winter. 
Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  12-Nov.  10;  a  few  winter.  N.  Ohio,  com- 
mon T.  V.,  Mch.  23-May  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Apl. 
2-May  26;  Sept.  2-Oct.  24;  possibly  S.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
5-Nov.  18. 

Nest,  generally  similar  to  that  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  on  the  ground.  Eggs, 
4-5,  similar  in  color  to  those  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  but  the  markings  gener- 
ally more  confluent,  '76  x  '57.  Date,  Cambridge,  May  13;  New  Canada, 
N.  S.,  May  19;  Pewaukee,  Wise.,  May  23;  se.  Minn.,  May  25. 

While  wintering  in  the  South,  Swamp  Sparrows  frequently  belie 
their  name,  and  I  have  often  found  numbers  of  them  in  dry  'old  fields' 
of  broom  sedge;  but  at  the  north  they  are  more  consistent,  and  one 
rarely  sees  them  beyond  the  confines  of  a  wet  meadow,  or,  more  prefer- 
ably, a  large  grassy  marsh  with  reed-bordered  streams. 

Swamp  Sparrows  may  be  distinguished  from  their  cousins,  the  Song 
Sparrows,  by  their  unstreaked  breast,  much  darker  upperparts,  and 
totally  different  notes.  Their  usual  call-note  is  a  sharp  cheep,  not  unlike 
that  of  the  White-throated  Sparrow,  and  quite  different  from  the 
rather  nasal  chimp  of  the  Song  Sparrow.  Their  song  is  a  simple,  sweet, 
but  somewhat  monotonous  tweet-tweet-tweet,  repeated  many  times,  all 
on  one  note,  and  sometimes  running  into  a  trill. 

585.  Passerella  iliaca  iliaca  (Merr.}.  Fox  SPARROW.  Ads. — Upper- 
parts  rufous-brown,  the  feathers  margined  by  cinnamon-brown  and  without 
black;  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail  bright  rufous;  wings  margined  with  rufous; 
underparts  heavily  streaked  and  spotted  with  rufous-brown  and  blackish; 
middle  of  the  belly  white;  lower  mandible  yellowish.  L.,  7'26;  W.,  3*39; 
T.,  2-85;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Boreal 
zones  from  tree  limit  in  ne.  Alaska, 
and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  cen.  Alberta,  n. 
Man.,  s.  Keewatin,  Magdalen  Islands, 
and  N.  F. ;  winters  from  lower  Ohio 
and  Potomac  valleys  (occasionally 
further  n.)  to  cen.  Tex.  and  n.  Fla.; 
casual  on  the  coast  of  s.  Alaska  and  in 
Calif. 

Washington,  very  abundant  T.  V., 
Mch.  13-May  11;  Oct.  23-Nov.  15; 

a  few  winter.    Ossining,  tolerably  com-  v"%'      A  ' 

mon  T.  V.,  Mch.  4-Apl.   20;  Oct.   14-  '  '•'*  * 

Nov.  28.    Cambridge,  abundant  T.  V.,      FIG.  108.  Fox  Sparrow.  (Natural  size.) 


406  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

Mch.  15-Apl.  12;  Oct.  20-Nov.  15;  occasional  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  12-Apl.  23;  Oct.  1-Nov.  16.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  T.  V., 
Mch.  11-Apl.  28;  Sept.  22-Nov.  8.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  12-  ; 
Sept.  17-Nov.  *2. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses,  lined  with  finer  grasses,  hair,  moss,  and  feathers, 
on  the  ground,  and  in  low  trees  and  bushes.  Eggs,  4-5,  pale  bluish,  evenly 
speckled  or  heavily  blotched  with  umber  or  vinaceous-brown,  *80  x  '63  (see 
Bendire,  Auk,  VI,  1889,  108).  Date,  Ft.  Resolution,  Mack.,  June  1. 

In  the  early  spring  the  Fox  Sparrow  is  seen  mostly  about  damp 
thickets  and  roadside  shrubbery;  later  it  takes  more  to  woodsides, 
foraging  on  leaf-strewn  slopes  where  there  is  little  or  no  undergrowth, 
often  associated  with  small  parties  of  Juncos.  On  its  return  in  the 
autumn  it  again  becomes  a  common  denizen  of  hedgerows  and  thickets, 
and  also  invades  the  weedy  grainfields,  rarely,  however,  straying  far 
from  some  thickety  cover.  Sometimes  large  numbers  congregate 
among  withered  growths  of  tall  weeds,  whence  they  emerge  with  a 
loud  whirring  of  wings  as  their  retreat  is  invaded,  and  hie  away  in 
tawny  clouds,  flock  after  flock.  It  is  a  great  scratcher  among  dead 
leaves,  and  can  make  the  wood  rubbish  fly  in  a  way  which,  in  propor- 
tion to  its  size,  a  barnyard  fowl  could  scarcely  excel. 

The  usual  note  of  the  Fox  Sparrow  is  a  feeble  tseep.  A  note  of 
excitement  is  louder  and  sharper  in  tone.  Its  song  is  not  surpassed 
by  that  of  any  of  our  Sparrows.  It  is  a  revelation  to  hear  it  at  sun- 
down on  some  vernally  softened  evening  of  early  springtime;  little 
swarms  of  gnats  hover  in  the  balmy  air;  from  the  twilight  meadows 
comes  the  welcome,  half-doubtful  piping  of  the  first  hylas — no  other 
sound.  Then  perhaps  from  some  dusky  thicket  a  bird's  songj  An 
emotional  outburst  rising  full-toned  and  clear,  and  passing  "all  too 
quickly  to  a  closing  cadence,  which  seems  to  linger  in  the  silent  air. 
It  is  the  song  of  the  Fox  Sparrow  with  that  fuller  power  and  richness 
of  tone  which  come  into  it,  or  seem  to,  at  the  sunset 'hour.  It  breaks 
forth  as  if  inspired  from  pure  joy  in  the  awakened  season,  though  with 
some  vague  undertone,  scarcely  of  sadness,  rather  of  some  lower  tone 
of  joy.  EUGENE  P.  BICKNELL. 

1889.   BENDIRE,  C.  E.,  Auk,  VI,  107-116  (nesting). 

587.  Pipilo  erythrophthalmus  erythrophthalmus  (Linn.). 
TOWHEE.  Ad.  d*. — Upperparts  black,  sometimes  margined  with  rufous; 
throat  and  breast  black,  belly  white,  sides  rufous;  outer  web  of  primaries 
with  white;  tail  black,  the  three  outer  feathers  tipped  with  white;  outer  web 
of  the  outer  feather  entirely  white;  iris  red.  Ad.  ?. — Upperparts,  wings, 
throat,  and  breast  bright  grayish  brown;  tail  fuscous-brown  the  three  outer 
feathers  tipped  with  white;  sides  rufous,  middle  of  the  belly  white.  Nestlings 
have  the  back  and  underparts  streaked  with  black.  L.,  8'35;  W.,  3*34;  T., 
3'68;  B.,  '55. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Alleghanian  and  Carolinian  faunas  from 
se.  Sask.,  s.  Man.,  s.  Ont.,  and  s.  Maine  s.  to  cen.  Kans.  and  n.  Ga. ;  winters 
from  se.  Nebr.,  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  valleys  (casually  New  England)  to 
cen.  Tex.,  the  Gulf  coast,  and  s.  Fla. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  very  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  5-Oct.  21;  a  few 
winter.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  21-Oct.  31.  Cambridge,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Oct.  15.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  10-Oct.  25.  Glen 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  407 

Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  30-Nov.   18.    SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  11-Nov.  8. 

Nest,  externally  of  dead  leaves  and  strips  of  bark,  lined  with  fine  grasses, 
on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  finely  and  evenly  speckled  with 
shades  of  rufous,  sometimes  blotched  at  the  larger  end,  '96  x  '71.  Date, 
Fairfax  Co.,  Va.,  May  8;  Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  May  17;  Cambridge,  May 
20;  Rosetta,  111.,  May  2;  Wheatland,  Ind.,  May  6. 

There  is  a  vigorousness  about  the  Townee's  notes  and  actions  which 
suggests  both  a  bustling,  energetic  disposition  and  a  good  constitu- 
tion. He  entirely  dominates  the  thicket  or  bushy  undergrowth  in 
which  he  makes  his  home.  The  dead  leaves  fly  before  his  attack;  his 
white-tipped  tail-feathers  flash  in  the  gloom  of  his  haunts.  He  greets 
all  passers  with  a  brisk,  inquiring  chewink,  towhee,  and  if  you  pause 
to  reply,  with  a  fluff-fluff  of  his  short,  rounded  wings  he  flies  to  a  nearby 
limb  to  better  inspect  you. 

It  is  only  when  singing  that  the  Towhee  is  fully  at  rest.  Then  a 
change  comes  over  him;  he  is  in  love,  and,  mounting  a  low  branch, 
he  gives  voice  to  his  passion  in  song.  I  have  long  tried  to  express  the 
Towhee's  song  in  words,  but  never  succeeded  as  well  as  Ernest  Thomp- 
son Seton  when  he  wrote  it  chuck-burr,  pill-a-will-a-will-a. 

587a.  P.  e.  alleni  Coues.  WHITE-EYED  TOWHEE.  Similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding, but  with  less  white  on  the  wings  and  tail ;  only  two  outer  tail-feath- 
ers tipped  with  white;  iris  yellowish  or  white.  L.,  8'00;  W.,  3'20;  T.,  3'60; 
B.,  '52. 

Range. — Coast  region  from  about  Charleston,  S.  C.,  s.  through  Fla. 
Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  18. 

This  southern  race  of  the  Towhee  does  not  associate  with  the 
northern  bird,  which  is  abundant  in  the  south  in  the  winter. 

The  latter  selects  haunts  of  much  the  same  nature  as  those  in 
which  it  passes  the  summer,  while  the  southern  bird  lives  in  heavy 
growths  of  scrub  palmetto.  The  notes  of  alleni  differ  from  those  of 
erythrophthalmus;  its  towhee  is  much  higher,  and  its  song,  as  Dr.  Allen 
pointed  out  years  ago,  is  shorter.  It  is  also  a  shyer  bird  than  its  northern 
cousin. 

The  ARCTIC  TOWHEE  (588.  Pipilo  maculatus  arcticus)  of  the  Great 
Plains  and  Rocky  Mountain  region,  is  of  casual  occurrence  in  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin.  It  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  P.  e.  erythrophthalmus,  but  has 
more  white  in  the  tail  and  the  scapulars  and  back  are  marked  with  white. 

The  GREEN-TAILED  TOWHEE  (592.1.  Oreospiza  chlorura)  of  the  western 
United  States  is  of  accidental  occurrence  in  Virginia. 

593.  Cardinalis  cardinalis  cardinalis  (Linn.).  CARDINAL.  Ad.  cf. — 
Throat  and  regions  about  the  base  of  the  bill  black;  rest  of  the  plumage 
bright  rosy  red,  the  upperparts  tipped  with  grayish;  a  conspicuous  crest; 
bill  red.  Ad.  9. — Throat  and  region  about  the  base  of  bill  grayish  black; 
crest,  wings,  and  tail  dull  red;  upperparts  olive  brownish  ash;  underparts 
buffy  ochraceous,  lighter  on  the  belly,  and  sometimes  tinged  with  red  on  the 
breast.  L.,  8'25;  W,  375;  T.,  4'00;  B.,  '64. 

Range. — Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas  from  se.  S.  D.,  s.  Iowa, 
n.  Ind.,  n.  Ohio,  s,  Ont.  (locally),  se,  and  sw.  Pa.,  and  s.  Hudson  Valley  s. 


408  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

to  the  Gulf  States;  casual  in  Minn.,  Wise.,  Mich.,  N.  B.,  Mass.,  and  Conn.; 
resident  in  Bermuda. 

Washington,  common  P.  R. ;  less  common  than  formerly.  Ossining,  A. 
V.  Cambridge,  irregular  but  not  very  infrequent  at  all  seasons.  N.  Ohio, 
common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  S.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  rare. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  rootlets,  and  strips  of  bark,  lined  with  grasses  and  rootlets, 
in  bushes.  Eggs,  3-4,  white  or  bluish  white,  speckled  or  spotted  with  grayish 
brown,  cinnamon-brown,  or  umber,  TOO  x  '70.  Date,  D.  C.,  Apl.  15; 
Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  Apl.  30;  Central  Park,  New  York  City,  May  5. 

One's  first  impression  of  the  Cardinal  Grosbeak  will  usually  be  that 
he  is  rather  a  clumsy  fellow.  His  body  appears  to  be  stiff,  as  if  it  were 
made  of  wood,  different  in  every  way  from  the  pliant,  lithe  body  of  the 
Catbird,  for  example.  He  hops  about  on  the  ground  with  tail  held  well 
up  out  of  harm's  way,  and  comes  heavily  down  upon  his  feet, 
as  if  his  body  were  really  very  solid.  In  fact,  he  is  not  at  all  a 
graceful  bird. 

He  is  a  famous  singer,  his  song  being  a  loud,  clear  whistle,  into 
which  usually  enters  quite  frequently  the  sound  of  q  I  q !  q !  and  a  pecu- 
liar long-drawn-out  e-e!  sometimes  sjdlabled  as  "three  cheers!"  He  is  a 
favorite  cage-bird.  The  female  Cardinal  is  herself  a  charming  singer, 
more  pleasing  to  many  than  her  mate,  her  music  being  softer  in  tone 
and  otherwise  different  from  his.  The  common  call-note  of  both  is  a 
sharp,  abrupt  tsip!  easily  recognized  after  being  once  heard. 

As  the  head  of  a  family  the  Cardinal  is  admirable,  not  only  in  his 
attentions  to  his  lovely  dove-colored  mate,  but  in  singing  to  her  by  the 
hour,  and  in  protecting  her  from  intrusion  or  danger.  To  the  young  in 
the  nest  he  is  an  untiring  provider  of  worms  and  grubs,  and  thus  most 
useful  in  a  garden.  Nothing  can  be  more  comical  than  his  behavior 
when  he  first  conducts  his  young  family  out  into  the  world  while  his 
mate  is  engaged  with  her  second  sitting.  He  is  as  fussy  as  any  young 
mother,  hopping  about  in  great  excitement,  and  appearing  to  think 
the  whole  world  thirsting  for  the  life  of  his  pretty  little  ones. 

The  Cardinal  mother  shows  the  restless  manners  and  anxious  spirit 
of  her  mate,  taking  one's  intrusion  upon  her  domestic  affairs  greatly 
to  heart,  and  being  so  much  disturbed  that  there  is  more  pain  than 
pleasure  in  making  acquaintance  with  her  nestlings. 

OLIVE  THORNE  MILLER. 

593d.  C.  c,  floridanus  Ridgw.  FLORIDA  CARDINAL.  Similar  to 
C.  c.  cardinalis  but  smaller,  male  averaging  deeper  red;  female  darker  and 
richer  in  color,  particularly  on  breast.  W.,  3 '40. 

Range. — Florida. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  12. 

595.  Zamelodia  ludoviciana  (Linn.}.  ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK. 
Ad.  cf.  in  summer  — Head,  throat,  and  back  black;  breast  and  under  wing- 
coverts  bright  rose-red,  this  color  sometimes  extending  down  the  center  of 
the  white  belly;  rump  white,  tipped  with  black;  wings  black;  primaries 
white  at  the  base;  tail  black,  the  outer  feathers  tipped  with  white  on  the 
inner  web.  Ad.  <?  in  winter. — Similar  but  unperparts  and  breast  marerined 
with  brown;  throat  rose;  superciliary  whitish,  sides  with  black  spots.  Im. 
d"  in  winter. — Resembles  the  9,  but  under  wing-coverts  rose-red;  breast 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  409 

tinged  with  rose.  Im.  <?  in  summer. — Similar  to  ad.  cf  in  summer  but  wing- 
quills  and  some  tail-feathers  brownish  as  in  9 .  The  ad.  winter  plumage  is 
acquired  at  the  next  (first  postnuptial)  molt,  and  the  ad.  summer  the  follow- 
ing spring.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  grayish  brown,  margined  with  cream- 
buff  and  pale  grayish  brown;  a  buffy  line  through  the  center  of  the  crown, 
and  a  conspicuous  whitish  line  over  the  eye ;  wings  and  tail  dark  grayish 
brown;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white;  under  wing-coverts  orange;  under- 
parts  buffy,  streaked  with  dark  grayish  Jbrown.  L.,  8' 12;  W.,  4'02;  T., 
2'99;  B.,  '69. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  and  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  in  lower  Canadian  and  Transi- 
tion zones  from  s.  cen.  Mackenzie,  n.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  s.  Que.  and  Cape 
Breton  Is.  s.  to  cen.  Kans.,  cen.  Mo.,  cen.  Ohio,  cen.  N.  J.,  and  in  mts.  to 
n.  Ga. ;  winters  from  s.  Mex.  to  Ecuador;  casual  in  migration  in  Cuba, 
Jamaica,  and  the  Bahamas;  accidental  in  Ariz.,  Colo.,  and  Calif. 

Washington,  rather  common  T.  V.,  May  1-30;  Aug.  29-Oct  6.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  S.  R.,  May  3-Oct.  1.  Cambridge,  very  common  S.  R., 
May  10-Sept.  10.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn, 
fairly  common  S.  R.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  27-Sept.  28.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Sept.  23. 

Nest,  of  fine  twigs,  weed  stalks,  and  rootlets,  in  bushes  or  trees,  5-20 
feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5,  pale  blue,  with  numerous  olive-brown  or  rufous-brown 
markings,  *90  x  '69.  Date,  Carmel,  N.  J.,  May  20;  Cambridge,  May  25; 
se.  Minn.,  May  21. 

Sometimes  in  passing  through  young  second  growths,  and  more 
rarely  densely  undergrown  woodland,  I  hear  a  singular  kind  of  ques- 
tioning call-note,  not  loud,  but  distinct — a  steely-  peek,  peek.  It  is  a 
signal  to  me  to  pause  and  look  for  its  author;  even  a  glimpse  of  him 
is  worth  several  minutes'  waiting  and  watching.  There  is  no  mistaking 
his  black,  white,  and  rose  costume;  but  the  identity  of  his  more  modestly 
attired  mate  may  long  remain  an  open  question.  So  little  does  she 
resemble  him  that  she  might  pass  for  an  overgrown  Sparrow  with  a 
rather  conspicuous  whitish  stripe  over  her  eye. 

The  song  of  the  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak  is  generally  compared  to 
that  of  the  Robin,  and  musical  annotation  would  doubtless  show  that 
the  comparison  is  not  misleading.  But  the  similarity  is  largely  one  of 
form;  in  expression  there  is  no  more  resemblance  in  their  voices  than 
there  is  between  the  birds  themselves.  There  is  an  exquisite  purity  in 
the  joyous  carol  of  the  Grosbeak;  his  song  tells  of  all  the  gladness  of 
a  May  morning;  I  have  heard  few  happier  strains  of  bird  music.  With 
those  who  are  deaf  to  its  message  of  good  cheer  I  can  only  sympathize, 
pitying  the  man  whose  heart  does  not  leap  with  enthusiasm  at  the  sight 
of  rival  males  dashing  through  the  woods  like  winged  meteors,  leaving 
in  their  wake  a  train  of  sparkling  notes. 

The  BLACK-HEADED  GROSBEAK  (596.  Zamelodia  melanocephald) ,  a 
western  species,  has  been  recorded  from  Michigan. 

597.  Guiraca  caerulea  cserulea  (Linn.}.  BLUE  GROSBEAK.  Ad.  &. 
• — Deep  purplish  blue;  lores  and  chin  black;  back  blackish;  wings  and  tail 
black,  slightly  edged  with  blue;  middle  wing-coverts  widely,  and  greater 
coverts  narrowly  tipped  with  chestnut-rufous.  Ad.  &  in  winter. — Similar, 
but  widely  margined  with  rusty  brown,  particularly  on  back.  Im.  &  in 
winter. — Resembles  the  9 .  Im.  &  in  summer. — Plumage  mottled  brown  and 
blue.  The  ad.  winter  plumage  is  acquired  at  the  next  (first  postnuptial) 


410  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

molt,  and  the  ad.  summer  by  wearing  off  of  brown  margins  the  following 
spring.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  grayish  brown;  in  some  specimens  more  or  less 
blue  about  the  head  and  rump  and  lesser  wing-coverts;  rump  inclined  to 
ashy;  wings  fuscous,  the  greater  and  middle  coverts  tipped  with  ochraceous- 
buff;  tail  fuscous,  slightly  margined  with  bluish  gray;  underparts  brownish 
cream-buff,  the  feathers  of  the  breast  sometimes  blue  at  the  base.  L.,  7'00; 
W.,  3-50;  T.,  2'75;  B.,  '65. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas 
from  Mo.,  s.  Ills.,  and  Md.  s.  to  e.  Tex.,  and  n.  Fla.;  winters  in  Yucatan  and 
Honduras;  casual  in  s.  Ind.  and  s.  Pa.;  accidental  in  Wise.,  New  England, 
the  Maritime  Provinces,  and  Cuba. 

Washington,  very  uncommon  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  20.  Cambridge,  A.  V., 
one  instance,  May. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  in  bushes  or  high  weedy  growths.  Eggs,  3-4,  pale  bluish 
white,  '84  x  "65.  Date,  Chatham  Co.,  Ga.,  May  14;  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  June  8. 

"Unless  seen  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  the  adult 
male  does  not  appear  to  be  blue,  but  of  an  ill-defined,  dusky  color,  and 
may  easily  be  mistaken  for  a  Cow  Blackbird  (Molothrus  ater),  unless 
most  carefully  watched;  besides,  they  usually  sit  motionless,  in  a 
watchful  attitude,  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  thus  easily 
escape  observation. 

"The  Blue  Grosbeak  frequents  much  the  same  localities  as  those 
selected  by  the  Indigo  Bird  and  Field  Sparrow,  viz.,  the  thickets  of 
shrubs,  briers,  and  tall  weeds  lining  a  stream  flowing  across  a  meadow 
or  bordering  a  field,  or  the  similar  growth  which  has  sprung  up  in  an 
old  clearing.  The  usual  note  is  a  strong,  harsh  ptchick,  and  the  song 
of  the  male  is  a  very  beautiful,  though  rather  feeble,  warble,  somewhat 
like  that  of  the  Purple  Finch,  but  bearing  a  slight  resemblance  also  to 
that  of  the  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak"  (Ridgway). 

598.  Passerina  oyanea  (Linn.).  INDIGO  BUNTING.  Ad.  <?  in  summer.— 
Rich  blue,  deeper  on  the  head,  brighter  on  the  back;  lores  blackish;  wings 
and  tail  black,  margined  with  blue.  Ad.  <?  in  winter. — Resembles  the  9 ,  but 
has  more  or  less  blue  in  the  plumage.  Ad.  9 . — Upperparts  uniform  grayish 
brown  without  streaks;  wings  and  tail  fuscous,  sometimes  lightly  margined 
with  bluish ;  wing-coverts  margined  with  grayish  brown ;  underparts  whitish, 
washed  with  grayish  brown  and  indistinctly  streaked  with  darker;  belly 
whiter.  Im. — Resembles  the  9,  but  is  darker.  L.,  5'59;  W.,  2*58;  T.,  2'11; 
B.,  -41. 

Remarks. — The  female  of  this  species  is  rather  a  puzzling  bird,  and  may 
be  mistaken  for  a  Sparrow.  Its  unstreaked  back  and  the  slight  tinge  of  blue 
generally  present  on  the  outer  web  of  the  wing-  and  tail-feathers  should 
serve  to  distinguish  it. 

Range-. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Alleghanian  and  Carolinian 
faunas  e.  of  the  Great  Plains  from  e.  cen.  N.  D.,  cen.  Minn.,  nw.  Mich., 
s.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  s.  N.  B.  s.  to  cen.  Tex.,  s.  La.,  cen.  Ala.,  and  cen.  Ga. ; 
winters  from  s.  Mex.,  and  Cuba  to  Panama;  casual  in  e.  Colo.,  s.  Sask.,  and 
s.  Man. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29-Oct.  9.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
May  4-Oct.  17.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  May  15-Oct.  1.  N.  Ohio,  com- 
mon S.  R.,  Apl.  26-Oct.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  May  1- 
Sept.  22.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  28-Oct.  2. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  bits  of  dead  leaves,  and  strips  of  bark,  lined  with  fine 
grasses,  rootlets,  and  long  hairs,  generally  in  the  crotch  of  a  bush.  Eggs, 
3-4,  pale  bluish  white,  '73  x  '57.  Date,  Richmond,  Va.,  May  28;  Chester 
Co.,  Pa.,  May  26;  Cambridge,  June  4;  Brooklyn,  Ind.,  May  21. 


FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC.  411 

In  walking  among  clumps  of  bushes  in  clearings  or  old  pastures, 
look  sharp  if  a  small  brown  bird  flies  before  you,  especially  if  she  calls 
cheep  and  twitches  her  tail  nervously  from  side  to  side.  Though  she 
be  a  sparrowy-looking  bird,  look  well  to  her  shoulders  and  tail.  If  you 
discover  a  glint  of  blue  and  her  cries  call  her  mate,  you  will  ever  after 
be  a  more  trustworthy  observer — for  his  brilliant  coat  is  unmistakable. 

Having  made  sure  of  your  birds,  watch  them  to  their  nest — a  com- 
pactly made  cup — too  cleverly  hidden  in  the  dense  green  thicket  to  be 
easily  discovered.  The  color  of  the  eggs  will  again  test  your  accuracy 
of  observation;  in  varying  lights  they  look  green,  blue,  and  white. 

The  female  Indigo  is  so  suspicious  that  it  is  not  hard  to  be  vexed 
with  her,  but  the  primary  virtues  of  an  observer  are  conscientiousness 
and  patience;  so  take  your  hard  cases  as  a  means  of  grace. 

However  distrustful  the  poor  mother  bird  is,  her  mate's  cheery  song 
makes  up  for  it  all.  After  most  birds  have  stopped  singing  for  the  year, 
his  merry  voice  still  gladdens  the  long  August  days. 

I  well  remember  watching  one  Indigo-bird,  who,  day  after  day,  used 
to  fly  to  the  lowest  limb  of  a  high  tree  and  sing  his  way  up  from  branch 
*  to  branch,  bursting  into  jubilant  song  when  he  reached  the  topmost 
bough.  I  watched  him  climb  as  high  into  the  air  as  he  could,  when, 
against  a  background  of  blue  sky  and  rolling  white  clouds,  the  blessed 
little  songster  broke  out  into  the  blithest  round  that  ever  bubbled  up 
from  a  glad  heart.  FLORENCE  MERRIAM  BAILEY. 

The  VARIED  BUNTING  (600.  Passerina  versicolor  versicolor),  a  species  of 
our  Mexican  border,  has  been  once  recorded  from  Michigan. 

601.  Passerina  ciris  (Linn.).  PAINTED  BUNTING;  NONPAREIL.  Ad.  d". 
— Head  and  sides  of  the  neck  indigo-blue ;  back  golden  green ;  rump  dull  red ; 
underparts  bright  red;  wings  and  tail  tinged  with  dull  red;  greater  wing- 
coverts  green.  Im.  cf . — Resembles  the  9 .  Ad.  9 . — Upperparts  bright  olive- 
green  ;  underparts  white,  washed  with  greenish  yellow ;  wings  and  tail  fuscous, 
margined  with  olive-green.  L.,  5'25;  W.,  2'70;  T.,  2'15;  B.,  '42. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  s.  Kans.,  cen. 
Ark.,  n.  Miss.,  and  se.  N.  C.  s.  to  se.  N.  M.,  Tex.,  and  the  Gulf  coast;  casual 
in  s.  Ariz.,  and  s.  Ills.;  winters  in  the  Bahamas,  Cuba,  and  from  cen.  Mex.  to 
Panama;  occasional  in  winter  in  s.  La.  and  cen.  Fla. 

Nest,  similar  to  that  of  P.  cyanea,  in  bushes  or  low  trees.  Eggs,  3-4, 
white  or  bluish  white,  with  numerous  chestnut  or  rufous-brown  markings, 
•78  x  '56.  Date,  Chatham  Co.,  Ga.,  May  16. 

Mr.  Maynard  found  this  species  in  southern  Florida  in  January,  but 
it  does  not  migrate  northward  until  about  May  1.  He  writes  that  it 
"is  always  shy  and  retiring,  seldom  appearing  in  the  open,  but  remain- 
ing in  the  dense,  thorny  undergrowth  which  covers  all  waste  places  in 
Florida,  especially  if  the  soil  has  been  cultivated.  Whenever  the  birds 
perceive  an  intruder  they  retire  into  the  depths  of  these  fastnesses,  and 
it  requires  considerable  beating  to  drive  them  out,  when  they  at  once 
dart  into  the  nearest  cover.  The  adult  males  are  especially  shy,  and 
seldom  show  themselves.  Even  while  singing  they  remained  concealed, 
and,  although  we  were  thus  furnished  with  a  clew  to  their  whereabouts, 
it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  we  caught  sight  of  the  authors 


412  FINCHES,  SPARROWS,  ETC. 

of  the  harmonious  strains  which  nearly  always  greeted  our  ears  when 
we  were  in  the  vicinity  of  their  homes"  (  Birds  of  Eastern  North 
America"). 

"Their  notes  very  much  resemble  those  of  the  Indigo-bird,  but 
lack  their  energy  and  are  more  feeble  and  concise"  (B.,  B.,  and  R.). 

The  GRASSQUIT  (608.  Tiaris  bicolor)  of  the  Bahamas  has  been  once 
recorded  from  Miami,  Florida. 

The  MELODIOUS  GRASSQUIT  (603.1.  Tiaris  canora)  of  Cuba,  has  been 
once  recorded  from  Sombrero  Key,  Florida. 

604.  Spiza  americana  (Gmel.).  DICKCISSEL.  Ad.  <?  in  summer. — Head 
and  sides  of  the  neck  ashy  gray;  forehead  tinged  with  yellow;  a  yellow  line 
over  the  eye  and  one  on  the  side  of  the  throat;  a  black  patch  on  the  throat; 
chin  white;  breast  yellow,  spreading  down  on  to  the  white  belly;  back 
streaked  with  black  and  pale  grayish  brown;  rump  brownish  ash;  lesser  wing- 
coverts  rufous;  wings  and  tail  fuscous.  Ad.  &  in  winter. — Has  less  yellow 
and  a  more  or  less  concealed  throat-patch.  Im.  <? — Resembles  9.  Ad.  9. — 
Similar,  but  the  head  grayish  brown,  streaked  with  blackish,  and  with  no 
black  patch  on  the  throat  and  less  yellow  on  the  breast,  which  is  sometimes 
lightly  streaked  with  black.  L.,  6'00;  W.,  3'20;  T.,  2'35;  B.,  '55. 

Range. — -E.  N.  Am.,  and  n.  S. 
Am.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Austral  zones 
from  ne.  Wyo.,  nw.  N.  D.,  nw. 
Minn.,  s.  Mich.,  and  s.  Ont.,  s.  to  s. 
Tex.,  and  s.  Miss.;  formerly  bred  on 
the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  from 
Mass,  (casually  wandering  to  Maine) , 
to  S.  C.,  but  now  extremely  rare  e. 
of  the  Alleghanies;  winters  in  n.  S. 
A.;  accidental  in  L.  Calif.,  Ariz., 
Man.,  N.  S.,  and  Jamaica. 

Washington,     formerly     "very 
abundant,"  now  seen  only  occasion- 
FIQ.  109.   Dickcissel.    (Natural  size.)        ally,  May-Aug.     Cambridge,  casual, 

found  nesting  at  Medford,  June  9, 

1877,  where  several  birds  were  observed;  not  uncommon  in  1833-34  (see 
Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  III,  1878,  45,  190).  N.  Ohio,  rare  S.  R.,  May  1. 
Glen  Ellyn,  rather  rare  and  local  S.  R.,  formerly  common,  May  3-Sept.  5. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  11-Aug.  20. 

Nest,  bulky,  of  coarse  grasses  and  leaves,  lined  with  finer  grasses  and 
sometimes  long  hairs,  on  the  ground  or  in  low  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  4-5, 
pale  blue,  '80  x  '60.  Date,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  May  23;  Avondale,  Ohio,  May 
14;  Powesheik  Co.,  Iowa,  May  28. 

Prior  to  1880  these  birds  were  more  or  less  common  in  the  middle 
Atlantic  States,  but  they  are  now  of  rare  occurrence  east  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies. In  Texas  I  have  seen  them  migrating  in  closely  massed  flocks 
of  several  hundred  individuals,  all  silent,  except  for  an  occasional 
cack.  They  alight  on  the  prairie  to  feed;  birds  in  the  rear  are  constantly 
arising  -and  passing  to  the  front ;  there  is  ceaseless  motion. 

In  the  summer  Dickcissel  makes  his  home  in  grassy  fields  and 
pastures,  and  from  a  weed  stalk  or  bordering  fence,  with  uplifted  head, 
he  announces  his  presence  as  though  life  itself  depended  on  his  vocal 
exertions.  It  is  a  poor  song  from  a  musical  standpoint,  but  pleasing 
because  of  the  singer's  earnestness. 


TANAGERS  413 

1903.  RHOADS,  S.  N.,  Cassinia,  17-28  (historical). — 1904.  MILLER, 
W.  DE  W.,  Auk,  XXI,  487  (nesting  in  N.  J.). 

The  LARK  BUNTING  (605.  Calamospiza  melanocorys} ,  a  western  species, 
has  been  recorded  from  Massachusetts,  Long  Island,  and  South  Carolina. 

53.  FAMILY  TANGAKID^E.    TANAGERS.  (Fig.  65.) 

Although  a  distinctively  American  family,  the  Tanagers  are  so 
closely  related  to  the  Finches  that  it  is  not  clear  to  which  family  certain 
genera  should  be  referred.  About  three  hundred  and  fifty  species  are 
known,  most  of  them  being  confined  to  the  tropics,  and  only  four  species, 
all  migratory,  reach  the  United  States.  They  are  remarkable,  as  a 
whole,  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  plumage,  as  well  as  for  their  marked 
sexual  differences  in  color,  and  our  Scarlet  Tanager  is,  therefore,  no 
exception  to  the  rule. 

They  are  arboreal  and  for  the  most  part  forest-inhabiting  birds, 
feeding  on  flowers,  fruit,  and  insects.  The  tropical  species  are  of  a 
roving  disposition,  and  wander  through  the  forests  in  search  of  certain 
trees  bearing  ripe  fruit,  near  which  they  may  always  be  found  in  num- 
bers. As  a  rule,  they  are  not  musical.  A  few  species,  including  ours, 
have  more  or  less  pleasing  songs,  but  the  voices  of  the  majority  are 
weak  and  squeaky. 

KEY   TO   THE   SPECIES 

A.  With  red  in  the  plumage. 

a.  Wings  and  tail  black 608.  SCARLET  TANAGER  cf. 

b.  Wings  and  tail  like  the  body 610.  SUMMER  TANAGER  & . 

B.  Without  red  in  the  plumage. 

a.  Underparts,  including  under  wing-coverts,  dull  buffy  yellow. 

610.  SUMMER  TANAGER  ? 
6.  Underparts  greenish  yellow,  under  wing-coverts  white. 

608.  SCARLET  TANAGER  ;• 

608.  Piranga  erythromelas  Vieill.  SCARLET  TANAGER.  (Fig.  65.) 
Ad.  <?  in  summer. — Bright  scarlet,  wings  and  tail  black,  under  wing-cov- 
erts white.  Ad.  &  in  winter. — Similar  to  the  9 ,  but  wings  and  tail  black. 
Im.  <?  in  winter. — Similar  to  9 ,  but  wing-coverts  black.  Im.  •<?  in  summer. 
— Similar  to  ad.  cf  in  summer,  but  primaries  and  secondaries  as  in  winter. 
The  adult  summer  plumage  is  acquired  at  the  second  spring  (prenuptial)  molt. 
Ad.  9. — Upperparts  light  olive-green;  wings  and  tail  fuscous,  lightly  mar- 
gined with  olive-green;  underparts  greenish  yellow.  L.,  7'25;  W.,  3*75; 
T.,  2-09;  B.  from  N.,  "46. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  and  n.  S.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  Alleghanian  and 
Carolinian  faunas  from  se.  Sask.,  cen.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  N.  B.,  and 
N.  S.  s.  to  s.  Kans.,  n.  Ark.,  Tenn.,  n.  Ga.,  and  mts.  of  Va.  and  S.  C.;  winters 
from  Colombia  to  Peru;  migrates  through  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  Yucatan, 
and  along  the  e.  coast  of  Cen.  Am.;  casual  in  migration  in  Wyo.,  Colo.,  the 
Bahamas,  and  Lesser  Antilles. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  less  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  17-Oct.  15.  Ossin- 
ing,  common  S.  R.,  May  4-Oct.  9.  Cambridge,  rather  common  S.  R.,  May 
12-Oct.  1.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  28-Oct.  2.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  com- 
mon S.  R.,  Apl.  30-Sept.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29-Sept.  11. 

'Nest,  of  fine  twigs  and  weed-stalks,  lined  with  vine  tendrils  and  blossom 
stems,  generally  near  the  end  of  a  horizontal  limb,  7-20  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4, 


414  TANAGERS 

pale  bluish  white  or  greenish  blue,  with  numerous  rufous  or  rufous-brown 
markings,  '88  x  '68.  Date,  Delaware  Co.,  Pa.,  May  28;  New  London,  Conn., 
May  31;  Cambridge,  June  7;  Black  Hawk  Co.,  Iowa,  May  23;  se.  Minn., 
May  21. 

In  watching  birds,  there  are  certain  sights  and  sounds  that  make  a 
day  memorable  much  as  a  beautiful  sunset  does.  I  say  to  myself,  "I 
have  seen  a  Scarlet  Tanager  today!"  or,  "I  have  listened  to  a  Hermit 
Thrush  this  evening." 

High  among  the  tree- tops  of  the  cool  green  woods  the  Tanager  sings 
through 'the  summer  days.  Hidden  by  the  network  of  leaves  above 
us,  we  often  pass  him  by;  but  once  discovered  he  seems  to  illuminate 
the  forest.  We  marvel  at  his  color.  He  is  like  a  Bird  of  Paradise  in 
our  northern  landscape. 

We  are  first  guided  to  him  by  his  call  and  song.  They  are  peculiar, 
and  both  have  a  rare  woods  flavor.  The  call  is  a  distinctly  uttered 
chip-chirr.  The  song  is  a  loud,  cheery,  rhythmical  carol,  suggesting 
the  song  of  the  Robin. 

Inside  the  green  woods  the  Tanager  spends  the  summer,  flying 
down  to  visit  his  nest  in  the  fresh  young  undergrowth  or  to  bathe  in 
the  still  forest  pools,  and  hunting  and  singing  in  the  tree-tops  high 
overhead.  FLORENCE  MERRIAM  BAILEY. 

610.  Piranga  rubra  rubra  (Linn.).  SUMMER  TANAGER.  Ad.  9. — Rose- 
red,  brighter  below;  wings  fuscous,  margined  with  rose-red.  Im.  <?  in  winter. 
• — Similar  to  the  9 ,  but  with  more  or  less  of  a  reddish  tinge  throughout  the 
plumage.  Im.  <?  in  summer. — Variable;  sometimes  a  mixture  of  ad.  <?  and  9 
plumages,  at  others  like  the  ad.  cf,  but  wing-quills  as  in  9.  The  ad.  d"  plumage 
is  acquired  at  the  first  postnuptial  molt  and  retained  thereafter  at  all  seasons. 
Ad.  9 .  —  Upperparts  orange  olive-green ;  underparts  yellowish  orange. 
L.,  7'50;  W.,  375;  T.,  2'90;  B.  from  N.,  '55. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  and  n.  S.  Am.  Breeds  in  Carolinian  and  Austroripa- 
rian  faunas  from  se.  Nebr.,  s.  Iowa,  se.  Wise.,  cen.  Ind.,-s.  Ohio,  Md.  (for- 
merly N.  J.),  and  Del.  s.  to  ne.  Mex.  and  cen.  Fla. ;  winters  from  cen. 
Mex.  to  Peru  and  Guiana;  straggles  n.  to  N.  B.,  Que.,  N.  S.,  Maine,  and 
Ont. ;  migrant  in  w.  Cuba. 

Washington,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  18-Sept.  19.  Cambridge,  one 
record. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  strips  of  bark,  etc.,  generally  near  the  extremity  of  a 
limb,  about  20  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  bluish  white  or  greenish  blue,  with  nu- 
merous cinnamon-  or  olive-brown  markings,  '96  x  '68.  Date,  San  Mateo, 
Fla.,  May  9;  Mt.  Pleasant,  S.  C.,  May  12;  Mt.  Carmel,  Ills.,  May  28. 

This  is  a  common  summer  resident  of  our  Southern  States,  arriving 
in  Florida  early  in  April.  It  frequents  open,  rather  than  dense  woods, 
and  is  particularly  numerous  in  pineries  having  an  undergrowth  of 
oaks.  It  may  be  easily  identified,  not  alone  by  its  color  but  by  its 
unique  call-note — a  clearly  enunciated  chicky-tucky-tuck.  Its  song 
bears  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Scarlet  Tanager,  but  to 
my  ear  is  much  sweeter  and  less  forced. 

The  WESTERN  TANAGER  (607.  Piranga  ludoviciana),  a  species  of  our 
Western  States,  has  been  recorded  from  Wisconsin,  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  Louisiana  and  Wisconsin. 


SWALLOWS 


415 


54.  FAMILY  HIRUNDINID^E.   SWALLOWS.    (Fig.  66.) 

The  some  one  hundred  known  species  of  Swallows  are  distributed 
throughout  the  world,  but  are  most  poorly  represented  in  the  Australian 
region,  where  only  three  species  occur.  About  thirty-five  species  are 
American,  and  nine  of  these  are  found  north  of  Mexico.  In  their  long, 
powerful  wings  and  small,  weak  feet,  Swallows  present  an  excellent 
illustration  of  the  effects  of  use  and  disuse.  The  greater  part  of  their 
day  is  passed  on  the  wing,  and  in  alighting  they  select  a  perch  which 
they  can  grasp  with  ease.  Swallows  live  almost  exclusively  upon  insects, 
which  they  capture  on  the  wing,  their  large  mouths,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Swifts  and  Goatsuckers,  being  especially  adapted  to  this  mode  of 
feeding. 

They  nest  both  in  pairs  and  colonies,  and  during  their  migrations, 
associate,  in  countless  numbers,  at  regularly  frequented  roosting-places 


FIG.  110.    Barn  Swallow.         Cliff  Swallow. 


Tree  Swallow. 
Bank  Swallow. 


or  migration  stations.  These  are  sometimes  in  trees,  but  more  often 
in  marshes,  and  to  them  the  Swallows  regularly  return  each  night.  They 
migrate,  as  far  as  known,  entirely  by  day,  their  wonderful  power  of 
flight  enabling  them  to  escape  the  dangers  which  beset  less  rapid  fliers, 
and  to  make  journeys  of  great  extent.  Swallows'  nests  are  remarkable 
for  their  wide  diversity  of  architecture,  as  well  as  for  the  skill  shown  by 
these  small-billed,  weak-footed  birds  in  their  construction,  and  compar- 
ison of  the  mud  dwelling  of  the  Cliff  Swallow  with  the  tunnelled  home 
of  the  Bank  Swallow,  illustrates  how  small  the  relation  may  be  between 
the  structure  of  the  bird  and  the  character  of  its  nest. 


416  SWALLOWS 

KEY    TO    THE    SPECIES  » 

1.  Upperparts  with  metallic  reflections. 

A.  Underparts  steel-blue. 

a.  Feathers  on  the  belly  fuscous  at  the  base     611.  PURPLE  MARTIN  <?. 

b.  Feathers  on  the  belly  white  at  the  base  .     611.1.  CUBAN  MARTIN  rf1. 

B.  Underparts  not  steel-blue. 

a.  Throat  chestnut,  rufous,  or  brownish. 

a1.  Upper  tail-coverts  the  same  as  the  back;  tail  with  white  spots. 

613.  BARN  SWALLOW. 
a2.  Upper  tail-coverts  rufous  or  buffy;  no  white  in  the  tail. 

612.  CLIFF  SWALLOW. 
6.  Throat  gray  or  white. 

b1.  Entire  underparts  white 614.  TREE  SWALLOW. 

62.  Throat  and  breast  brownish  gray    .     .    611.  PURPLE  MARTIN  9. 

63.  Throat,  breast,  and  sides  sooty  brownish  gray. 

611.1  CUBAN  MARTIN  9. 

2.  Upperparts  without  metallic  reflections. 

a.  Underparts  entirely  white 614.  TREE  SWALLOW. 

b.  Throat  and  breast  brownish  gray   .     617.  ROUGH-WINGED  SWALLOW. 

c.  Throat  and  belly  white;  a  brownish  gray  band  across  the  breast. 

616.  BANK  SWALLOW. 

611.  Progne  subis  subis  (Linn.}.  PURPLE  MARTIN.  Ad.  <?. — Shining 
blue-black;  wings  and  tail  duller.  Im.  &  in  winter. — Resembles  the  9.  1m.  <? 
in  summer. — Similar  to  9 ,  but  bluer  above  and  with  a  number  of  adult  blue 
feathers  scattered  through  underparts.  The  ad.  cf  plumage  is  acquired  at 
the  first  postnuptial  molt.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  glossy  bluish  black,  duller 
than  in  the  <? ;  wings  and  tail  black ;  throat,  breast,  and  sides  brownish  gray, 
more  or  less  tipped  with  white;  belly  white.  L.,  8'00;  W.,  5'80;  T.,  2'90; 
B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  A.,  except  the  Pacific  coast  region.  Breeds  from  w. 
cen.  Alberta,  s.  Sask.,  cen.  Man.,  nw.  Ont.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.,  w.  to  Mont, 
and  Idaho,  and  s.  to  the  Gulf  coast,  Fla.,  Vera  Cruz  and  Jalisco;  win- 
ters in  Brazil;  accidental  in  Bermuda  and  the  British  Isles. 

Washington,  rather  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  1-Sept.  14.  Ossining,  tolerably 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Sept.  11.  Cambridge,  formerly  locally  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  20- Aug.  25.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  1-Sept.  5.  Glen  Ellyn,  local 
S.  R.,  Mch.  23-Sept.  10.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  1-Sept.  9. 

Nest,  of  straws,  twigs,  etc.,  in  houses  or  gourds  erected  for  the  purpose. 
Eggs,  4-5,  white,  I'OO  x  "73.  Date,  Tarboro,  N.  C.,  May  19;  Cambridge, 
May  30;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  May  21. 

The  Purple  Martin  is  very  common  throughout  the  south,  and 
breeds  wherever  gourds  or  boxes  are  erected  for  its  occupation.  In 
the  Northern  States  it  is  a  comparatively  rare  bird  of  local  distribution. 

In  Forest  and  Stream,  Vol.  XXII,  1884,  p.  484,  Mr.  Otto  Widmann,  of 
Old  Orchard,  Missouri,  presents  an  interesting  table  showing  how  often 
young  Martins  are  fed.  He  watched  a  colony  of  sixteen  pairs  of  birds 
from  4  A.M.  to  8  P.M.,  during  which  time  the  parents  visited  their  off- 
spring 3,277  times,  or  an  average  of  205  times  for  each  pair.  The  males 
made  1,454,  the  females  1,823  visits. 

1903.  JACOBS,  J.  W.  (Waynesburg,  Pa.),  The  Story  of  a  Martin  Colony 
(methods  of  attracting,  etc.). — 1906.  TAVERNER,  P.  A.,  Wilson  Bull., 
XVIII,  87-92  (roost). 

611.1.  Progne  cryptoleuca  Baird.  CUBAN  MARTIN.  Ad.  c?. — "Similar 
to  P.  subis,  but  feathers  of  ventral  region  marked  beneath  surface,  with 


SWALLOWS  '  417 

a  broad  spot  or  bar  of  white."  Ad.  9  and  im.  d". — Similar  to  those  of  P. 
subis,  but  "whole  under  portion  and  sides  of  head  and  neck,  chest,  sides 
and  flanks  uniform  sooty  grayish  brown,  in  marked  contrast  with  pure 
white  of  belly,  anal  region,  and  under  tail-coverts.  L.,  7'60;  W.,  5'50; 
T.,  3-10"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Cuba;  occasional  or  accidental  in  s.  Florida. 

612.  Petrochelidon   lunifrons   lunifrons    (Say).    CLIFF  SWALLOW. 
(Fig.  110.)    Ads. — Forehead  whitish,  crown  steel-blue,  throat  and  sides  of 
the  head  chestnut;  a  brownish  gray  ring  around  the  neck;  breast  brownish 
gray,  tinged  with  rufous  and  with  a  steel-blue  patch  in  its  center;  belly 
white;   back  steel-blue,   lightly  streaked   with   white;   shorter  upper  tail- 
coverts  pale  rufous;  tail  fuscous,  the  feathers  of  nearly  equal  length.    Im. — 
Similar,  but  upperparts  duller;  throat  black,  sometimes  mottled  with  white. 
L.,  6-01;  W.,  4-34;  T.,  2'01;  B.  from  N.,  '20. 

Remarks. — The  Cliff  Swallow  may  be  known  from  our  other  Swallows 
by  its  rufous  upper  tail-coverts. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  lower  edge  of  the  Arctic  to  Lower  Austral 
Zone  from  cen.  Alaska,  n.  cen.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  n.  Ont.,  cen.  Que., 
Anticosti  Island,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  s.  over  nearly  all  of  the  U.  S.  except 
Fla.  and  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  (casual  as  a  breeder  s.  of  lat.  38°,  e.  of  long. 
97°);  probably  winters  in  Brazil  and  Argentina. 

Washington,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Sept.-?  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
May  1-Sept.  12.  Cambridge,  S.  R.,  much  less  common  than  formerly,  Apl. 
28- Aug.  25.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  6-Sept.  25.  Glen 
Ellyn,  not  common,  local,  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Sept.  16.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  13-Sept.  12. 

Nest,  of  mud,  generally  retort-  or  pocket-shaped,  beneath  cliffs  or  the 
eaves  of  a  barn  or  other  building.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  with  numerous  spots 
of  cinnamon-,  olive-,  or  rufous-brown,  '81  x  '55.  Date,  Shelter  Is.,  N.  Y., 
May  29;  Cambridge,  June  5;  se.  Minn.,  May  19. 

During  the  nesting  season  these  Swallows  are  of  very  local  distri- 
bution. They  will  return  year  after  year  to  their  rows  of  mud  tene- 
ments beneath  the  eaves  of  some  barn  or  outbuilding,  and,  although 
familiar  birds  to  residents  of  the  immediate  vicinity,  they  may  be 
entire  strangers  to  those  who  have  never  had  a  colony  of  these  birds 
settled  near  them.  Like  Barn  Swallows,  they  are  masons,  and  they  may 
be  seen -on  muddy  shores  rolling  the  little  pellets  of  clay  which  enter 
into  the  construction  of  their  nest.  In  the  fall  they  are  found  in  flocks 
with  other  Swallows,  but  at  all  times  they  may  be  readily  identified 
by  their  pale  rufous  upper  tail-coverts,  which  make  a  conspicuous 
field-mark. 

The  CUBAN  CLIFF  SWALLOW  (612.1.  Petrochelidon  fulva)  has  been  once 
recorded  from  the  Dry  Tortugas,  Florida  (Scott,  Auk,  VII,  1890,  265).  It 
resembles  lunifrons  but  has  the  forehead  and  rump  chestnut  and  no  black  on 
the  throat. 

613.  Hirundo  erythrogaster  (Bodd.).    BABN  SWALLOW.    (Fig.  110.) 
Ad.  c? — Forehead,  throat,  and  upper  breast  chestnut-rufous;  rest  of  the  under- 
parts  washed  with  the  same  color;  upperparts  steel-blue;  tail  deeply  forked, 
all  but  the  middle  feathers  with  white  spots  on  their  inner  webs.  Ad.  9 — Simi- 
lar, but  underparts  usually  paler  and  outer  tail-feathers  shorter.  Im. — Upper- 
parts  mixed  with  dusky,   forehead   and   throat  paler;   outer  tail-feathers 
shorter.    L.,  6'95;  W.,  4'67;  T.,  3'30;  B.  from  N.,  '24. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  s.  Man.,  and  s. 
Ungava  s.  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  Tex.  (w.  of  long.  97°),  n.  Ark.,  and  N.  C.,  and  in 


418  SWALLOWS 

Mex.  s.'to  Tepic;  winters  from  s.  Mex.  to  n.  Argentina,  and  cen.  Chile; 
accidental  in  the  Galapagos,  Bermuda,  and  Greenland. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  more  abundant  T.  V.,  Mch.  30-Sept.  17. 
Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  15-Sept.  22.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  but 
fast  decreasing,  Apl.  20-Sept.  10.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Mch.  30-Sept. 
22.  Glen  Ellyn,  S.  R.,  fairly  common  and  increasing,  Apl.  7-Sept.  1 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  28- Aug.  31. 

Nest,  of  mud  and  grasses,  lined  with  grasses  and  feathers,  generally  on 
the  rafter  of  a  barn  or  other  building.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  with  numerous  spots 
of  cinnamon-,  olive-,  or  rufous-brown,  generally  smaller  than  those  on  the 
eggs  of  P.  lunifrons,  '77  x  *54.  Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  19;  Portsmouth, 
R.  I.,  May  18;  Cambridge,  May  25. 

Barn  Swallows  nest  both  in  pairs  and  colonies,  and  during  the  breed- 
ing season  are  more  generally  distributed  than  any  other  of  our 
Swallows.  Almost  every  old-fashioned  barn  with  its  great  doors  hos- 
pitably opened  is  cheered  by  their  sweet  call-notes  and  happy  twitter- 
ing song  as  they  dart  in  and  out  on  their  errands  of  love. 

Barn  Swallows  take  first  rank  among  a  family  of  birds  famous  for 
their  power  of  flight.  While  their  relatives  are  circling  about  feeding 
on  insects  in  the  air  above,  they  capture  their  prey  nearer  the  ground, 
skimming  low  over  the  fields,  turning  quickly  to  right  or  left,  up  or 
down,  and  pursuing  their  erratic  course  with  marvelous  ease  and  grace. 

The  EUROPEAN  SWALLOW  (613.1.  Hirundo  rustica)  is  of  accidental 
occurrence  in  Greenland. 

614.  Iridoprocne  bicolor  (VieilL).  TREE  SWALLOW.  (Figs.  13,  110.) 
Ads. — Upperparts  steel-blue  or  steel-green;  underparts  pure  white;  outer 
tail-feathers  somewhat  longer  than  the  middle  ones.  Nestling. — Upperparts 
dull  brownish  gray;  underparts  pure  white,  with  sometimes  a  dusky  breast- 
band.  L.,  5'90;  W.,  4-70;  T.,  2'35;  B.  from  N.,  '22. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Upper  Austral 
zones  from  nw.  Alaska,  s.  and  w.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  and  n.  Ungava  to 
s.  Calif.,  Colo.,  Kans.,  Mo.,  and  Va.;  winters  from  cen.  Calif.,  s.  Tex.,  s. 
parts  of  the  Gulf  States,  and  se.  N.  C.  (casually  N.  J.)  s.  over  the  greater 
part  of  Mex.  to  Guatemala  and  Cuba;  occasional  in  Bermuda  in  migration; 
accidental  in  the  British  Isles. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  26-May  26;  July  8-Oct.  14.  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  4-May  26;  Aug.  4-Oct.  16.  Cambridge,  S.  R.,  formerly 
common,  now  common  only  as  a  migrant,  Apl.  5-Oct.  8.  N.  Ohio,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl. 
21-Sept.  8.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  30-Aug.  31. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses  and  feathers,  in  a  hollow  tree  or  bird-box.  Eggs, 
4-7,  white,  *74  x  '55.  Date,  Saybrook,  Conn.,  May  13;  Cambridge,  May 
20;  Jackson  Co.,  Mich.,  May  15;  se.  Minn.,  May  26. 

While  our  eastern  Barn  and  Cliff  Swallows  have  abandoned  their 
primitive  methods  of  nesting  in  caves  or  beneath  cliffs,  and  the  Bank 
Swallows  still  adhere  to  the  customs  of  their  ancestors,  Tree  Swallows 
are  passing  through  a  transition  period  in  their  history.  Some  accept 
the  houses  or  boxes  erected  by  man  as  substitutes  for  the  holes  in  trees 
or  stumps  which  others  still  use. 

Near  New  York  City  they  are  the  first  birds  to  flock  after  the  nest- 
ing season,  and  they  begin  to  gather  in  our  marshes  as  early  as  July 
1.  Their  numbers  rapidly  increase,  and  the  maximum  of  abundance 


SWALLOWS  419 

is  reached  about  August  15,  when  they  outnumber  all  other  Swallows 
together  by  at  least  three  to  one.  They  return  to  their  roosts  in  the 
reeds  with  great  regularity  every  night,  and  early  in  the  morning  fly 
out  over  the  country  to  feed.  Their  flight  in  the  evening  is  compara- 
tively low,  at  an  average  height  of  thirty  to  forty  feet.  They  sail  about 
in  circles  more  than  other  Swallows,  and  many  pause  to  rest  on  tele- 
graph wires,  where  their  pure  white  breasts  easily  distinguish  them  from 
the  Swallows  v/hich  may  be  associated  with  them.  In  the  morning 
their  flight  is  much  higher  and  more  direct.  They  migrate  by  day, 
leaving  their  roosting-ground  in  flocks,  which  sometimes  contain  myriads, 
and,  after  attaining  a  great  height,  pursue  their  journey  to  the  south. 
When  migrating  along  the  coast  they  sometimes  collect  in  large 
numbers  in  bayberry  bushes  (Myrica)  and  feed  on  their  fruit. 

1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  89-105  (roosting). 

The  BAHAMA  SWALLOW  (615.1.  Callichelidon  cyaneoviridis)  has  been  once 
recorded  from  the  Dry  Tortugas  and  Tarpon  Springs,  Florida,  and  may 
occur  more  or  less  regularly  in  the  Keys  off  southeastern  Florida  (Scott, 
Auk,  VII,  1890,  265).  It  is  satiny  white  below,  dull  bottle-green  above; 
wings  and  tail  bluer,  the  outer  tail-feathers  an  inch  longer  than  the 
middle  ones. 

The  EUROPEAN  MARTIN  (615.2.  Chelidonaria  urbica)  is  of  accidental 
occurrence  in  Greenland. 

616.  Riparia  riparia  (Linn.}.    BANK  SWALLOW.     (Fig.  110.)    Ads. — 
Upperparts   brownish   gray;   throat  white;   a  brownish  gray  band  on  the 
breast;  outer  vane  of  first  primary  without  recurved  booklets ;  a  small  tuft  of 
feathers  above  the  hind-toe.     L.,  5'20;  W.,  3'95;  T.,  2'00;  B.  from  N.,  '18. 

Range. — N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.  breeds  in  Boreal,  Transition,  and 
Austral  zones  from  near  limit  of  trees  in  n.  Alaska  and  n.  Ungava  s.  to  s. 
Calif.,  Ariz.,  Tex.,  La.,  and  Va.;  migrates  through  Mex.  and  Cen.  Am.  (cas- 
ually West  Indies),  and  probably  winters  in  S.  A.  to  Brazil  and  Peru. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  more  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  13-Sept.  19. 
Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  18-Oct.  1.  Cambridge,  formerly  common  S. 
R.,  Apl.  28-Sept.  1;  common  T.  V.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  6-Sept.  20. 
Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  T.  V.;  a  few  S.  R.,  Apl.  22-Sept.  3.  SE.  Minn., 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Sept.  25. 

Nest,  of  grasses  and  feathers,  in  a  hole  in  a  sand-bank,  2-3  feet  from  the 
entrance.  Eggs,  4-6,  white,  '68  x  "48.  Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  10; 
Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  20;  Cambridge,  May  28;  se.  Minn.,  June  1. 

This  is  a  locally  distributed  species,  breeding  in  colonies  only  where 
sand-banks  offer  it  a  favorable  nesting-site.  Probably  for  the  reason 
that  such  banks  are  more  frequently  found  bordering  streams  than 
inland,  the  birds  are  more  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  water. 

Bank  Swallows  may  be  readily  known  from  other  Swallows,  except- 
ing the  Rough-winged,  by  their  nesting  habits,  small  size,  and  absence 
of  metallic  coloring. 

From  the  Rough-wing  they  differ  in  having  the  underparts  white, 
with  a  conspicuous  band  across  the  breast,  and  in  their  somewhat 
quicker  movements. 

617.  Stelgidopteryx    serripennis     (Aud.).      ROUGH-WINGED    SWAL- 
LOW.   Ads. — Upperparts  brownish  gray;  throat  and  breast  pale  brownish 

29 


420  WAXWINGS 

gray;  belly  white;  outer  web  of  first  primary  with  a  series  of  recurved  hooklets 
(sometimes  absent  in  9) ;  no  tuft  of  feathers  above  the  hind-toe.  Im. — Simi- 
lar, but  without  recurved  hooklets  on  the  first  primary;  throat  and  breast 
more  or  less  washed  and  wing-coverts  edged  with  rufous.  L.,  5*75;  W., 
4'35;  T.,  2-10;  B.  from  N.,  '19. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Transition,  Austral,  and  Tropical  zones  from 
s.  B.  C.,  Mont.,  N.  D.,  Minn.,  s.  Wise.,  Ont.,  s.  N.  Y.,  cen.  w.  Mass.,  and 

Conn.  s.  to  s.  U.  S.  from  s.  Calif.,  to  n.  Fla., 
and  to  Vera  Cruz  and  Jalisco;  winters  from 
cen.  Mex.  s.  to  Costa  Rica;  casual  in  Man. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  2-Sept. 
3.    Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  17- Aug.  12. 
FIG.  111.  Section  of  outer pri-     N.  Ohio,  common   S.  R.,   Apl.    15-Sept.  20. 
mary    of    adult    Rough-winged      SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  14-Aug.  26. 
Swallow.    (Enlarged.)  Nest,  of  coarse  grasses  and  feathers,  under 

bridges,  in  stone  walls,  or  in  a  hole  in  a  bank. 
Eggs,  4-8,  white,  '72  x  '51.  Date,  D.  C.,  May  17;  se.  Minn.,  May  21. 

Rough-winged  Swallows  resemble  Bank  Swallows  both  in  habits 
and  appearance.  They  do  not,  however,  always  nest  in  holes  in  banks, 
but  are  sometimes  found  nesting  about  bridges,  railway  trestles  and 
their  abutments. 

With  the  Bank  Swallow  this  bird  differs  from  our  other  Swallows 
in  the  absence  of  metallic  colors,  while  from  the  Bank  Swallow  it  is  to 
be  distinguished  by  its  plain,  pale  brownish  gray,  uniformly  colored 
throat  and  breast,  and  somewhat  slower,  less  erratic  flight. 

55.  FAMILY  BOMBYCILLIMJ.   WAXWINGS.    (Fig.  67.) 

Of  the  three  known  species  of  Waxwings,  one  (Bombycilla  garrula)  is 
common  to  the  northern  parts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds;  one 
(B.  cedrorum)  is  found  only  in  America,  and  one  (B.  japonica)  is 
restricted  to  eastern  Asia.  Our  Waxwings  are  notable  for  the  irregu- 
larity of  their  migrations  or  wanderings,  and  B.  cedrorum  for  the  lateness 
of  its  nesting  season.  Their  voice  is  doubtless  the  least  developed  in  the 
group  of  so-called  singing-birds. 

618.  Bombycilla  garrula  (Linn.}.  BOHEMIAN  WAXWING.  Ads. — • 
Forehead,  chin,  and  line  through  the  eye  velvety  black;  a  conspicuous  crest; 
front  of  crown  chestnut-rufous;  upperparts  rich  grayish  brown;  upper  tail- 
coverts,  wings,  and  tail  grayish ;  primary  coverts  and  secondaries  tipped  with 
white,  the  latter  with  small,  red,  seed-shaped  sealing-wax-like  tips;  all  but 
the  outer  primaries  tipped  with  yellow  or  white  on  the  outer  web ;  end  of  tail 
with  a  yellow  band;  breast  like  the  back,  grayer  on  the  belly;  under  tail- 
coverts  chestnut-rufous.  L.,  8'00;  W.,  4'60;  T.,  2'60;  B.  from  N.,  '29. 

Range. — Boreal  zones  of  N.  Hemisphere.  In  N.  A.  breeds  from  n.  Alaska, 
n.  Mackenzie,  and  cen.  Keewatin  s.  to  s.  B.  C.  and  s.  Alberta;  winters  e. 
to  N.  S.  and  s.  irregularly  to  e.  Calif.,  Colo.,  Kans.,  s.  Ills.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  Pa., 
and  Conn. ;  casual  in  Ariz. 

Glen  Ellyn,  one  record,  Jan.  22,  1908.  SE.  Minn.,  irregular  W.  V., 
until  Apl.  1. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  roots,  moss,  etcM  in  trees.  Eggs,  similar  in  color  to  those 
of  B.  cedrorum,  '92  x  '65.  Date,  Cariboo,  B.  C.,  June  15. 

The  distribution  of  this  bird  in  the  United  States  is  not  unlike  that 
of  the  Evening  Grosbeak.  It  is  exceedingly  rare  and  irregular  in  the 


WAXWINGS  421 

Atlantic  States,  but  occurs  with  some  frequency  in  the  northern  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.  In  notes  and  habits  it  is  said  to  resemble  its  small 
cousin,  the  Cedar  Waxwing. 

1909.  ANDERSON,  R.  M.,  Auk,  XXVI,  10-12  (nesting). 

619.  Bombycilla  cedrorum  Vieill.  CEDAR  WAXWING.  (Fig.  67.) 
Ads. — Forehead,  chin,  and  a  line  through  the  eye  velvety  black;  a  conspicu- 
ous crest;  upperparts  rich  grayish  brown;  upper  tail-coverts,  wings,  and  tail 
gray;  secondaries  often,  tail  rarely,  with  small,  red,  seed-shaped,  sealing- 
wax-like  tips ;  tail  with  a  yellow  band  at  its  end ;  breast  like  the  back,  chang- 
ing gradually  into  yellowish  on  the  belly;  under  tail-coverts  white.  The 
absence  of  the  red  tips  is  doubtless  an  indication  of  immaturity.  The  nest- 
ling is  streaked  below.  L.,  7'19;  W.,  370;  T.,  2'37;  B.  from  N.,  "26. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Upper  Austral 
zones  from  cen.  B.  C.,  cen.  Alberta,  s.  Keewatin,  n.  Ont.,  nw.  Que.,  and 
Cape  Breton  Is.  s.  to  s.  Ore.,  n.  N.  M.,  Kans.,  n.  Ark.,  and  N.  C.;  winters 
throughout  nearly  all  of  the  U.  S.  and  s.  to  Cuba,  Mex.,  and  Panama;  acci- 
dental in  the  Bahamas,  Bermuda,  Jamaica,  and  British  Isles. 

Washington,  very  common  P.  R.,  less  so  in  winter.  Ossining,  common 
P.  R.  Cambridge,  not  common  P.  R.,  common  S.  R.,  abundant  T.  V.  in 
spring,  Feb.  1-Apl.  25.  N.  Ohio,  irregularly  common  in  summer.  Glen 
Ellyn,  S.  R.,  Jan.  21-Sept.  24;  occasional  W.  V.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
Feb.  25-Sept.  28. 

Nest,  bulky,  of  strips  of  bark,  leaves,  grasses,  twigs,  rootlets,  moss  and 
sometimes  mud,  lined  with  finer  materials  of  the  same  nature,  often  in  fruit 
or  shade  trees,  5-20  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  pale  bluish  gray  or  putty  color,  dis- 
tinctly and  obscurely  spotted  with  black  or  umber,  "88  x  "62.  Date,  Weaver- 
ville,  N.  C.,  May  30;  Cambridge,  June  6;  se.  Minn.,  June  10. 

When  the  spring  migration  is  over  and  the  home  birds  have  gone 
to  nest-building,  small  flocks  of  Goldfinches  and  Waxwings — two 
peculiarly  gentle,  attractive  birds — may  still  be  "seen  wandering  about 
the  country.  The  squads  of  Cedar-birds  fly  evenly,  on  a  level  with  the 
fcrco-tops,  in  close  ranks,  often  of  five,  seven,  or  nine.  Frequently, 
when  under  full  headway,  they  suddenly  wheel  and  dive  down  to  an 
apple  tree  for  a  meal  of  canker-worms. 

In  following  the  beautiful  Waxwings  about  one  listens  in  vain  for 
a  song,  but  soon  comes  to  relish  their  two  peculiar  calls — a  hushed 
whistle  and  the  subdued  call  Thoreau  describes  as  their  "beady  note," 
a  succession  of  short  notes  strung  together — for  they  both  seem  to 
harmonize  with  the  quiet  reserve  of  the  delicately  tinted  birds. 

In  July,  when  the  wandering  flocks  are  no  longer  seen,  a  walk 
through  the  neighboring  orchards  may  show  where  both  tardy  build- 
ers have  at  last  gone  to  nesting,  and  few  bird  homes  afford  pictures  of 
such  human  tenderness  and  devotion.  If  there  is  an  evergreen  in  the 
vicinity,  the  Cedar-bird  mounts  guard  upon  its  tip,  but  occasionally 
relieves  the  monotony  of  his  watch  by  flying  up  in  the  air  for  light 
luncheons  of  passing  insects. 

The  strong  individuality  of  the  Waxwings  makes  them  interesting 
birds  to  the  field  student.  The  use  of  their  crests  in  expressing  emotion, 
and  the  protective  attitudes  they  assume  when  watched  at  their  nests, 
throw  much  light  upon  bird  psychology. 

To  the  bird-lover,  however,  the  Cedar-birds  have  their  own  attrac- 


422  SHRIKES 

tion;  their  proverbially  gentle,  refined  ways  make  them  seem  superior 
creatures  of  the  air  to  whom  he  can  but  yield  his  affection. 

I  shall  never  forget  a  pair  that  I  once  found  by  a  clear  mountain 
lake.  They  were  perched  upon  two  evergreen  spires  that  guarded  a 
silent  bay,  whose  dark  water  was  gilded  by  the  lingering  light  of  the 
setting  sun.  FLORENCE  MERRIAM  BAILEY. 

1905.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Home  Life  of  Wild  Birds,  36-38;  85-102.— 1911. 
SAUNDERS,  A.  A.,  Auk,  XXVIII,  323-329  (nesting). 


56.  FAMILY  LANIID^E    SHRIKES.    (Fig.  68.) 

The  number  of  species  ascribed  to  this  family  by  different  authors 
varies  widely,  few  agreeing  as  to  exactly  what  subfamilies  should  be 
admitted.  The  true  Shrikes,  however,  of  the  subfamily  Laniince,  num- 
bering seventy-seven  species,  are  a  well-defined  group,  of  which  only 
two  occur  in  the  New  World.  Their  habits,  in  the  main,  conform  to 
those  of  our  species. 

621.  Lanius  borealis  Vieill  NORTHERN  SHRIKE.  Ads. — Upperparts 
gray;  wings  and  tail  black;  primaries  white  at  the  base,  secondaries  tipped 
with  white  or  grayish;  outer,  sometimes  all,  the  tail-feathers  tipped  with 
white,  the  outer  feather  mostly  white;  forehead  whitish;  lores  grayish  black; 
ear-coverts  black;  underparts  white,  generally  finely  barred  with  black;  bill 
hooked  and  hawklike.  Im. — Similar,  but  entire  plumage  more  or  less 
heavily  barred  or  washed  with  grayish  brown.  L.,  10*32;  W.,  4*55;  T.,  4'00: 
B.  from  N.t  '55. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  the  Hudsonian  zone  and  locally  in  the 
Canadian  from  NW.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  and  n.  Ungava  to  the 
base  of  the  Alaska  Peninsula,  cen.  Sask.,  s.  Ont.,  and  s.  Que.;  winters  s.  to 
cen.  Calif.,  Ariz.,  N.  M.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  and  Va. 

Washington,  rare  and  irregular  W.  V.,  Oct.-Feb.  Ossining,  tolerably 
common  W.  V.,  Oct.  26-Apl.  17.  Cambridge,  common  W.  V.,  Nov.  1-Apl. 
1.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  W.  V.,  Nov.  6-Apl.  3.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common 
W.  V.,  Oct.  24.-June  5.  SE.  Minn.,  common  W.  V.,  Oct.  17-Mch.  28. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  grasses,  etc.,  in  low  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  similar  in  color 
to  those  of  L.  ludovicianus,  1'05  x  *76.  Date,  Ft.  Anderson,  Mack.,  June  11. 

This  bird  may  be  known  at  once  by  his  colors — gray,  black,  and 
white, — by  the  consternation  his  appearance  causes  among  the  Spar- 
rows, and  by  his  peculiar  flight,  which  is  steady  and  straightforward, 
with  much  flapping,  and  close  to  the  ground  till  he  nears  his  intended 
perch,  which  is  reached  at  the  last  moment  by  a  sudden  upward 
turn. 

He  is  so  well  known  as  a  bird  of  hawklike,  sanguinary  character 
that  most  students  are  astonished  when  they  find  out  that  toward 
springtime  he  develops  into  a  vocalist  of  no  mean  powers.  Often  in 
the  warm  days  of  March  he  may  be  heard  singing  on  the  top  of  some 
tall  tree,  a  song  that  would  do  credit  to  a  Catbird — indeed,  it  recalls 
strongly  that  loquacious  songster.  He  is,  I  think,  a  better  singer  than 
his  southern  cousin,  but  resembles  him  in  habitually  impaling  his  prey 
on  a  thorn,  a  fence  barb,  or  a  forked  twig.  His  food  consists  chiefly 


SHRIKES  423 

of  mice,  noxious  insects,  and  the  equally  noxious  English  Sparrow,  so 
that  the  Shrike  is  a  bird  worthy  of  all  protection. 

ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

622.  Lanius  ludovicianus  ludovicianus  Linn.  LOGGERHEAD  SHRIKE. 
(Fig.  68.)  Ads. — Upperparts  gray,  wings  and  tail  black,  primaries  white  at 
the  base,  secondaries  tipped  with  white;  outer,  sometimes  all,  the  tail- 
feathers  tipped  with  white;  the  outer  feather  mostly  white;  lores  black, 
connected  by  a  narrow  black  line  on  the  forehead  at  the  base  of  the  bill; 
ear-coverts  black;  underparts  white,  sometimes  tinged  with  gray.  L.,  9'00; 
W.,  3-82;  T.,  3'87;  B.  from  N.,  '48;  depth  of  B.  at  N.,  '35  (average  of  nine 
Florida  specimens). 

Range. — Austroriparian  fauna  from  s.  N.  C.  to  s.  Fla.,  and  w.  to  La. 

Nest:  of  strips  of  bark,  small  twigs,  and  vegetable  fibers,  lined  with 
grasses,  in  thorny  hedges  or  low  trees,  about  7  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  dull  white 
or  creamy  white,  thickly  marked  with  cinnamon-brown  and  lavender, 
'98  x  *78.  Date,  Archer,  Fla.,  Mch.  10. 

Like  some  of  the  Hawks  and  Flycatchers,  the  Loggerhead  does 
not  search  for  his  prey,  but  waits  for  it  to  come  within  striking  dis- 
tance. It  is  of  importance,  therefore,  that  his  perch  should  command 
an  uninterrupted  view  of  his  surroundings.  For  this  reason  one  rarely 
or  never  sees  a  Shrike  in  a  tree,  but  always  on  its  outermost  or  highest 
branches.  He  will  fly  directly  toward  its  center,  but  just  as  he  reaches 
it  swing  up  and  light  on  its  top.  He  also  selects  telegraph  wires,  peaks 
of  houses,  and  especially  the  apex  of  a  lightning-rod  or  weather-vane. 

From  his  point  of  vantage  he  maintains  a  constant  outlook  for  any 
unsuspecting  grasshopper,  small  snake,  or  lizard  which  may  appear 
below.  The  distance  at  which  he  can  detect  these  gives  evidence  of 
his  power  of  sight.  I  have  seen  Shrikes  fly  fifty  yards  with  the  evi- 
dent object  of  capturing  a  grasshopper  which  they  undoubtedly  saw 
before  starting. 

Like  the  Butcher-bird,  the  Loggerhead  frequently  impales  its  prey 
on  a  convenient  thorn  or  spike.  Doubtless  this  habit  aids  him  in  dis- 
secting his  food,  but  I  do  not  think  that  he  does  it  for  this  reason  alone. 
The  bird's  vigilance,  like  that  of  the  waiting  Hawk,  is  probably  attended 
by  varying  results.  One  hour  may  yield  excellent  returns,  the  next 
may  be  fruitless.  But  under  any  circumstances  he  cannot  resist  taking 
advantage  of  an  opportunity  to  secure  food.  Sometimes  the  opportun- 
ities exceed  the  demands  of  his  stomach,  and  then,  after  capturing  his 
unfortunate  victim,  he  simply  impales  and  leaves  it. 

If  perservance  deserved  success,  the  Loggerhead  would  take  high 
rank  as  a  songster.  But  his  notes  are  harsh  and  unmusical.  They  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  guttural  gurgles,  squeaky  whistles,  and  shrill  pipes, 
some  of  which  might  be  attributed  to  the  creaking  weather-vanes  he 
so  often  chooses  as  a  perch. 

622e.  L.  1.  migrans  Palmer.  MIGRANT  SHRIKE.  Similar  to  L.  I. 
ludovicianus  but  paler  above  and  scrnewhat  grayer  below;  the  bill  smaller, 
the  wing  longer,  3 '90. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Transition  and  Upper  Austral 
sones  from  n.  Minn.,  Wise.,  Mich.,  s.  Ont.?  s.  Que.?  Maine,  and  N,  13.  s,  tQ 


424  VIREOS 

e.  Kans.,  s.  Ills.,  Ky.,  w.  N.  C.,  and  interior  of  Va.  (locally  in  the  East); 
winters  from  the  Middle  States  and  s.  New  England  to  Tex.,  La.,  and  Miss. 

Washington,  rare  W.  V.,  Aug.  11-Api.  6;  may  summer.  Ossining,  casual. 
Cambridge,  one  record,  (Nov.  9,  1892).  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  S.  R., 
Mch.  10-Nov.  1.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  2-Sept.  29.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  S.  R.  Mch.  15-Oct.  28. 

Nesting  date,  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  May  11;  se.  Minn.,  Apl.  7. 

57.  FAMILY  VIREONID^.    VIREOS.    (Fig.  69.) 

The  Vireos,  numbering  about  one  hundred  species  and  subspecies, 
are  peculiar  to  America.  Most  of  them  are  confined  to  tropical  America, 
only  eleven  species  reaching  the  United  States  where,  except  along  our 
southern  boundaries,  they  are  migratory. 

Vireos  are  for  the  most  part  arboreal,  though  several  species  haunt 
the  lower,  rather  than  the  higher  growth.  For  small,  insect-eating  birds 
they  are  rather  slow  in  their  movements.  We  do  not  see  them  darting 
out  after  insects  as  do  the  Flycatchers,  nor  do  they  flit  through  the 
foliage  after  the  manner  of  many  Warblers,  but  patiently  glean  their 
food  from  the  under  surfaces  of  leaves,  crevices  in  the  bark,  etc.  They 
are  more  musical  than  the  small  Warblers ;  all  our  species  have  pleasing 
songs,  and  some  of  them  are  especially  gifted.  Their  nests  are  neatly 
constructed  cups  suspended  from  the  arms  of  a  forked  branch. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  With  distinct  white  or  yellowish  white  wing-bars. 

a.  Eye-ring,  or  line  from  eye  to  bill,  yellow. 

a1.  Throat  and  breast  bright  yellow;  rump  gray. 

628.  YELLOW-THROATED  VIREO. 

a2.  Underparts  white  or  whitish;  sides  and  sometimes  breast  washed 
with  greenish  yellow;  rump  olive-green. 

631.  WHITE-EYED  VIREO.     631a.  KEY  WEST  VIREO. 

b.  Eye-ring  and  line  from  eye  to  bill  white. 
61.  Head  lead-blue;  wing  over  2'50. 

629.  BLUE-HEADED  VIREO.     629a.  MOUNTAIN  VIREO 
b2.  Head  grayish,  nearly  like  back;  wing  under  2*50. 

633.  BELL'S  VIREO  (Illinois) 

B.  Without  white  wing-bars. 

a.  Underparts  yellowish;  first  primary  as  long  as  fifth. 

626.  PHILADELPHIA  VIREO 

b.  Underparts  white;  sides  washed  with  yellowish;  first  primary  "75  Ion?/. 

627.  WARBLING  VIREO 

c.  Underparts  white,  with  little  if  any  yellowish  on  sides;  head  with  a 

lead-gray  cap,  bordered  by  narrow  black  lines  over  the  eye. 

624.  RED-EYED  VIREO.     623.  BLACK-WHISKERED  VIREO. 

623.  Vireosylya  calidris  barbatula  (Cab.).  BLACK-WHISKERED 
VIREO.  Ads. — Similar  to  the  next  species,  but  somewhat  duller  above  and 
with  a  fuscous  streak  on  either  side  of  the  throat. 

Range. — S.  Fla.  (as  far  n.  as  Anclote  Keys),  Key  West,  Dry  Tortugas, 
Cuba,  Little  Cayman,  arid  the  Bahamas. 

Nest,  pensile,  of  dry  grasses  shreds  of  bark,  cotton,  lichens,  and  spiders' 
webs,  lined  with  soft,  cottonlike  fibers,  suspended  from  a  forked  branch, 
5-20  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  white,  with  a  pinkish  hue,  speckled  and  spotted, 


VIREOS  425 

chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  reddish  brown,  '78  x  "55.  Date,  British 
Honduras,  Apl.  23  (Thayer  Coll.). 

This  is  a  not  uncommon  summer  resident  in  southern  Florida, 
arriving  from  its  winter  home  in  Central  America  early  in  May.  Its 
song  resembles  that  of  the  Red-eyed  Vireo,  but  is  somewhat  more  hesi- 
tating and  emphatic. 

624.  Vireosylva  olivacea  (Linn.}.  RED-EYED  VIREO.  Ads.— Crown 
slaty  gray,  bordered  on  either  side  by  blackish;  a  conspicuous  white  line  over 
the  eye;  rest  of  the  upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  light  olive-green;  no  wing- 
bars;  underparts  pure  white.  Iris  red  in  ad.,  brown  in  im.  L.,  6*23;  W.,  3'20; 
T.,  2-20;  B.  from  N.,  '40. 

Remarks. — The  well-defined  slaty  gray  cap,  bordered  by  narrow  black 
lines,  are  the  best  distinguishing  marks  of  this  species. 

Range. — N.  and  S.  Am.    Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Austral 
zones  from  cen.  B.  C.,  s.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  n.  Ont.,  Anticosti  Is.,  and 
Cape   Breton  Is.   s.  to  se.   Wash.,  s. 
Mont.,  e.  Wyo.,  e.  Colo.,  w.  Tex.,  n. 
Coahuila,    and  cen.  Fla.;  winters   in 
S.  A. 

Washington,  very  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  21-Oct.  17.  Ossining,  common  S 
R.,  Apl.  29-Oct.  19.  Cambridge, 
abundant  S.  R.,  May  10-Sept.  10.  N. 
Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Oct.  1. 
Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  May  5- 
Oct.  5.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
May  5-Sept.  15.  

Nest,  pensile,  of  strips  of  bark,  bits  FlQ  112    Red.eyed  Vireo. 

of  dead  wood,  paper,  and  plant-down,  (Natural  size.) 

firmly  and  smoothly  interwoven,  lined 

with  finer  strips  of  bark  and  vine  tendrils,  suspended  from  a  forked  branch, 
5-40  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  white,  with  a  few  black  or  umber  specks  or  spots 
about  the  larger  end,  *85  x  '55.  Date,  D.  C.,  May  26;  Cambridge,  May  28; 
Mt.  Carmel,  Ills.,  May  23;  se.  Minn.,  May  29. 

This,  the  most  common  and  generally  distributed  of  our  Vireos,  is 
found  alike  in  the  shade  trees  of  our  lawns,  in  orchards,  or  woodlands. 
The  conspicuous  white  line  over  the  eye,  with  its  black  border,  and  the 
bird's  red  eye,  and  its  frequently  uttered,  complaining  note,  a  nasal 
whang,  are  good  characters  by  which  to  distinguish  it  from  its  relatives. 

Wilson  Flagg's  description  of  the  Red-eye  to  my  mind  exactly 
reflects  the  character  of  the  bird  and  its  song:  "The  Preacher  is  more 
generally  known  by  his  note,  because  he  is  incessant  in  his  song,  and 
particularly  vocal  during  the  heat  of  our  long  summer  days,  when  only 
a  few  birds  are  singing.  His  style  of  preaching  is  not  declamation. 
Though  constantly  talking,  he  takes  the  part  of  a  deliberative  orator, 
who  explains  his  subject  in  a  few  words  and  then  makes  a  pause  for 
his  hearers  to  reflect  upon  it.  We  might  suppose  him  to  be  repeating 
moderately,  with  a  pause  between  each  sentence,  'You  see  it — you 
know  it — do  you  hear  me? — do  you  believe  it?'  All  these  strains  are 
delivered  with  a  rising  inflection  at  the  close,  and  with  a  pause,  as  if 
waiting  for  an  answer." 

1905.   HEBBICK,  F.  H.,  Home-Life  of  Wild  Birds,.  103-114. 


426  VIREOS 

The  YELLOW-GREEN  VIREO  (625.  Vireosylva  flavoviridis  flavoviridis) ,  a 
Mexican  and  Central  American  species,  has  been  once  recorded  from  God- 
bout,  Province  of  Quebec. 

626.  Vireosylva  philadelphica   Cass.    PHILADELPHIA  VIREO.    Ads. — 
Upperparts  light  olive-green;  the  crown  sometimes  grayish;  a  whitish  line 
over  the  eye;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  olive-green;  no  wing-bars;  first 
primary  nearly  as  long  as  second;  entire  underparts  nearly  uniform  pale, 
greenish  yellow.   L.,  4'75;  W.,  2'60;  T.,  1'95;  B.  from  N.,  '26. 

Remarks. — The  pale,  greenish  yellow  color  spread  almost  uniformly  over 
the  entire  underparts  distinguishes  this  bird  from  our  other  Vireos. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  n.  and  cen.  Alberta, 
n.  Man.,  n.  Ont.,  N.  B.,  and  Maine,  to  n.  Mich,  and  N.  H.;  winters  from 
Cozumel  Is.  and  Guatemala  to  Veragua. 

Washington,  very  rare  T.  V.,  May;  Sept.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Sept. 
20-Oct.  20.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  rather  rare  T.  V.,  May  14, 
15;  Aug.  21-Sept.  30.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  9. 

Nest,  pensile,  of  fine  grass  and  birch  bark,  suspended  from  a  forked  branch 
about  eight  feet  from  the  ground.  Eggs,  4,  similar  in  color  to  those  of  V. 
olivacea  (Seton).  Date,  Duck  Mt.,  Man.,  June  4. 

This  species  resembles  the  Red-eyed  Vireo  in  habits,  and  Mr.  Brew- 
ster  writes  that  its  song  is  so  nearly  identical  with  the  song  of  that  spe- 
cies "that  the  most  critical  ear  will,  in  many  cases,  find  great  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  between  the  two.  The  notes  of  philadelphicus  are 
generally  pitched  a  little  higher  in  the  scale,  while  many  of  the  utter- 
ances are  feebler  and  the  whole  strain  is  a  trifle  more  disconnected. 
But  these  differences  are  of  a  very  subtile  character,  and,  like  most 
comparative  ones,  they  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  unless  the  two 
species  can  be  heard  together.  The  Philadelphia  Vireo  has,  however, 
one  note  which  seems  to  be  peculiarly  its  own,  a  very  abrupt,  double- 
syllabled  utterance  with  a  rising  inflection,  which  comes  in  with  the 
general  song  at  irregular  but  not  infrequent  intervals.  I  have  also  on 
one  or  two  occasions  heard  the  male  when  in  pursuit  of  his  mate  utter 
a  soft  pseuo,  similar  to  that  sometimes  used  by  Vireo  olivaceus,  and 
both  sexes  when  excited  or  angry  have  a  harsh,  petulant  note  exactly 
like  that  of  V.  gilvus"  (Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club.,  V,  1880,  p.  5). 

1897.   DWIGHT,  J.  D.,  JR.,  Auk,  XIV,  259-272  (biography). 

627.  Vireosylva  gilva  gilva  (Vieill.}.  WARBLING  VIREO.  Ads. — Upper- 
parts  ashy  olive-green ;  no  wing-bars ;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  the  color  of  the 
back;  first  primary  very  short,  not  more  than  I'OO  in  length;  underparts  white 
slightly  washed  with  yellowish.    L.,  5*80;  W.,  2*85;  T.,  2'14;  B.  from  N.,  '30. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Transition  and  Austral  zones  from  se. 
Alberta,  n.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  and  N.  S.  s.  to  nw.  Tex.,  s.  La.,  N.  C.,  and  Va.; 
winter  home  unknown,  but  s.  of  the  U.  S. 

Washington,  rather  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  21-Sept.  12.   Ossining,  tolerably 

common,  S.  R.,  May  3- 
Sept.  18.  Cambridge,  lo- 
cally common  S.  R.,  May 
5-Sept.  15.  N.  Ohio,  abun- 
dant S.  R.,  Apl.  17-Oct.  10. 
Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S. 
R.,  May  1-Sept.  15.  SE. 

FIG.  113.    Wing  of  Warbling  Vireo,  to  show  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May 

short  first  primary.  3— Sept.  15, 


VIREOS  427 

Nest,  pensile,  of  grasses  and  plant  fibers,  firmly  and  smoothly  inter- 
woven, lined  with  fine  grasses,  suspended  from  a  forked  branch  8-40  feet  up. 
Eggs,  3-4,  white,  with  a  few  specks  or  spots  of  black,  umber,  or  rufous- 
brown,  chiefly  about  the  larger  end,  76  x  *55.  Date,  Cambridge,  May  30; 
Holland  Patent,  N.  Y.,  May  27;  se.  Minn.,  May  24. 

Unlike  its  cousin,  the  Preacher,  the  Warbling  Vireo  is  not  gen- 
erally distributed,  but  shows  a  decided  preference  for  rows  of  shade 
trees,  particularly  rows  of  elms.  It  passes  the  greater  part  of  its  time 
in  the  upper  branches,  and  is  more  often  heard  than  seen. 

Although  resembling  the  Red-eye  in  general  appearance,  its  song 
is  so  different  that  singing  birds  need  never  be  mistaken  for  that  species. 
Instead  of  the  Red-eye's  broken,  rambling  recitative,  the  song  of  the 
Warbling  Vireo  is  a  firm,  rich,  continuous  warble  with  a  singular  alto 
undertone. 

628.  Laniyireo  flavifroii  (VieilL).    YELLOW-THROATED  VIREO.  Ads. — 
Upperparts  bright  olive-green,  changing  to  gray  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail- 
coverts;  greater  and  middle  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white,  forming  two 
distinct  wing-bars;  outer  web  of  tertials  edged  with  white;  eye-ring,  throat 
and  breast  bright  yellow;  belly  white.    L.,  5'95;  W.,  3'05;  T.,  2'10;  B.  from 
N.,  '36. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Transition  and  Austral  zones  from  se. 
Sask.,  s.  Man.,  s.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  Maine  s.  to  cen.  Tex.,  cen.  La.,  and  cen. 
Fla.;  winters  from  Yucatan  and  s.  Mex.  to  Colombia;  casual  in  winter  in 
Cuba  and  the  Bahamas. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  19-Sept.  29.  Ossining,  tolerably 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  30-Sept.  7.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  May  6-Sept. 
10.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Sept.  25.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R., 
May  2-Sept.  26.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Sept.  15. 

Nest,  pensile,  of  strips  of  bark,  plant  fibers,  etc.,  interwoven,  lined  with 
fine  grasses  and  covered  externally  with  lichens,  suspended  from  a  forked 
branch  10-30  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  white,  with  a  few  specks  or  spots  of  black, 
umber,  or  rufous-brown,  chiefly  about  the  larger  ends,  '80  x  '60.  Date, 
New  London,  Conn.,  May  21;  Cambridge,  May  26;  Holland  Patent,  N.  Y., 
May  24. 

The  Yellow-throated  Vireo  is  a  dweller  in  tree  tops,  and  whether 
in  woodland,  orchard,  or  lawn,  he  seldom  comes  below  the  upper  story 
of  his  home.  But  even  at  a  distance  his  bright  yellow  breast  is  a  con- 
spicuous mark,  at  once  distinguishing  him  from  other  members  of  his 
family. 

If  the  Red-eyed  Vireo  is  a  soprano,  the  Yellow-throat  is  a  con- 
tralto. He  sings  much  the  same  tune,  but  his  notes  are  deeper  and 
richer,  while  they  are  uttered  more  deliberately  and  with  greater  expres- 
sion than  those  of  his  somewhat  too  voluble  cousin.  "See  me;  I'm 
here;  where  are  you?"  he  calls,  and  at  intervals  repeats  his  question 
in  varying  forms.  Sometimes  he  astonishes  us  by  an  intricate  liquid 
trill  which  suggests  the  wonderful  song  of  the  Ruby  Kinglet,  but  which 
unfortunately  is  sometimes  marred  by  the  scolding  notes  that  precede 
or  follow  it. 

629.  Lanivireo  solitarius  solitarius   (Wils.).    BLUE-HEADED  VIREO. 
Ads. — Top  and  sides  of  the  head  bluish  gray;  eye-ring  and  lores  white;  back 
olive-green;  greater  and  middle  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white,  forming 


428  VIREOS 

two  distinct  wing-bars;  outer  web  of  tertials  edged  with  whitish;  underparts 
white;  sides  washed  with  greenish  yellow.  L.,  5*61;  W.,  2'96;  T.,  2"  15; 
B.  from  N.,  '28. 

Remarks. — This  species  may  be  known  by  its  white  lores  and  eye-ring, 
and  bluish  gray  cheeks  and  crown. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones  from  cen. 
Alberta,  s.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin,  cen.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton 
Is.  s.  to  n.  N.  D.,  cen.  Minn.,  Mich.,  mts.  of  s.  Pa.  and  R.  L;  winters  from 
Gulf  States  to  Guatemala. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  6-May  18;  Sept.  6-Nov.  3.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  23-May  14;  Sept.  8-Oct.  20.  Cambridge,  com- 
mon T.  V.,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-May  8;  Sept.  15-Oct.  5.  N.  Ohio,  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  17-May  20;  Sept.  1-30.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  May  9- 
19;  Aug.  11-Oct.  9.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  3-Sept.  28. 

Nest,  pensile,  of  pine  needles,  plant-down,  etc.,  firmly  interwoven,  sus- 
pended from  a  forked  branch  5-10  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  white,  with  a  few 
specks  or  spots  of  black,  umber,  or  rufous-brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end, 
•80  x  *53.  Date,  Taunton,  Mass.,  May  21;  Cambridge,  May  28;  Webster, 
N.  H.,  May  29. 

This  large  and  handsome  Vireo — a  bird  of  the  woods — is  the  first 
of  its  family  to  reach  the  Northern  States  in  the  spring  and  the  last 
to  depart  in  the  autumn.  Like  its  congeners,  but  unlike  birds  in  gen- 
eral, it  sings  at  its  work.  In  form  its  music  resembles  the  Red-eye's, 
the  Philadelphia's,  and  the  Yellow-throat's;  but  to  me  it  is  more  varied 
and  beautiful  than  any  of  these,  though  some  listeners  may  prefer  the 
Yellow-throat  for  the  richness  and  fullness  of  its  "organ  tone."  The 
Solitary's  song  is  matchless  for  the  tenderness  of  its  cadence,  while  in 
peculiarly  happy  moments  the  bird  indulges  in  a  continuous  warble 
that  is  really  enchanting.  It  has,  too,  in  common  with  the  Yellow- 
throat,  a  musical  chatter — suggestive  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole's — and  a 
pretty  trilled  whistle.  Its  most  winning  trait  is  its  tameness.  Wood 
bird  as  it  is,  it  will  sometimes  permit  the  greatest  familiarities.  Two 
birds  I  have  seen  which  allowed  themselves  to  be  stroked  in  the  freest 
manner  while  sitting  on  the  eggs,  and  which  ate  from  my  hand  as 
readily  as  any  pet  canary;  but  I  have  seen  others  that  complained 
loudly  whenever  I  approached  their  tree.  Perhaps  they  had  had  sad 
experiences.  BRADFORD  TORREY. 

629c.  L.  s.  alticola  Brewst.  MOUNTAIN  SOLITARY  VIREO.  Similar  to 
the  preceding,  but  with  a  much  larger  bill,  and  the  back  generally  with 
more  or  less  slaty  blue.  W.,  3'15;  T.,  2*25;  B.  from  N.,  '35;  depth  of  B.  at 
N.,  -20. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Alleghanian  faunas  in  the  Alleghanies 
from  w.  Md.  to  e.  Tenn.  and  n.  Ga.;  winters  in  lowlands  from  S.  Car.  to  Fla. 

Nesting  date,  Iredell  Co.,  N.  C.,  Apl.  9. 

This  race  of  the  Blue-headed  Vireo  is  a  common  summer  resident 
in  the  southern  Alleghanies  (see  Loomis,  Aukt  1891,  p.  329). 

A  single  specimen  of  the  PLUMBEOUS  VIREO  (629b.  L.  s.  plumbeus),  a 
western  species,  has  been  taken  nt  Peterboro,  N.  Y.  (Miller,  Auk,  XI,  1894, 
79). 

631.  Vireo  griseus  griseus  (Bodd.).  WHITE-EYED  VIREO.  Ads. — 
Upperparts,  including  upper  tail-coverts,  bright  olive-green,  more  or  less 


VIREOS  429 

washed  with  grayish;  greater  and  middle  wing-coverts  tipped  with  yellowish 
white,  forming  two  distinct  wing-bars;  outer  web  of  tertials  edged  with 
whitish;  lores  and  eye-ring  yellow;  throat  white  or  whitish;  belly  white; 
breast  and  sides  washed  with  greenish  yellow;  iris  white,  hazel  in  the  young. 
L.f  5-27;  W.,  2'37;  T.f  1'95;  B.  from  N.,  '29. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Austral  zones  from  se.  Nebr.,  s.  Wise., 
N.  Y.,  and  Mass,  to  cen.  Tex.  and  cen.  Fla.;  winters  from  Tex.,  Ga.,  Fla., 
and  S.  C.  through  e.  Mex.  to  Yucatan  and  Guatemala;  casual  n.  to  Vt., 
Ont.,  N.  B.,  and  in  Cuba. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  18-Oct.  19.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  29-Oct.  3.  Cambridge,  rare  S.  R.,  May  8-Sept.  20;  formerly  common. 
Glen  Ellyn,  rare,  spring  only,  May  24- June  5. 

Nest,  generally  similar  to  that  of  V.  olivaceus,  suspended  from  a  forked 
branch  in  thickets.  Eggs,  3-4,  white,  with  a  few  specks  of  black,  umber, 
or  rufous-brown  at  the  larger  end,  '75  x  '55.  Date,  Chatham  Co.,  Ga., 
Apl.  22;  Ossining,  N.  Y.,  May  27;  Cambridge,  June  1;  Mt.  Carmel,  Ills., 
May  11. 

If  birds  are  ever  impertinent,  I  believe  this  term  might  with  truth 
be  applied  to  that  most  original,  independent  dweller  in  thickety  under- 
growths,  the  White-eyed  Vireo.  Both  his  voice  and  manner  say  that 
he  doesn't  in  the  least  care  what  you  think  of  him;  and,  if  attracted 
by  his  peculiar  notes  or  actions,  you  pause  near  his  haunts,  he  jerks 
out  an  abrupt  "Who  are  you,  eh?"  in  a  way  which  plainly  indicates 
that  your  presence  can  be  dispensed  with.  If  this  hint  is  insufficient, 
he  follows  it  by  a  harsh  scolding,  and  one  can  fancy  that  in  his  singular 
white  eye  there  is  an  unmistakable  gleam  of  disapproval. 

I  have  always  regretted  that  the  manners  of  this  Vireo  have  been  a 
bar  to  our  better  acquaintance,  for  he  is  a  bird  of  marked  character  and 
with  unusual  vocal  talents.  He  is  a  capital  mimic,  and  in  the  retire- 
ment of  his  home  sometimes  amuses  himself  by  combining  the  songs 
of  other  birds  in  an  intricate  potpourri. 

631a.  V.  g.  maynardi  Brewst.  KEY  WEST  VIREO.  Scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable in  color  from  the  preceding,  but  averaging  somewhat  Daler  and 
less  yellow  below,  and  with  a  larger  bill.  L.,  5' 12;  W.,  2'40;  ^T.,  2'12; 
B,.  from  N.,  '35. 

Range. — Fla.,  from  Tarpon  Springs  and  Anastasia  Is.  s.  on  the  coast  and 
keys  to  Key  West. 

631b.  V.  g.  bermudianus  (Bangs  and  Bradlee).  BERMUDA  WHITE- 
EYED  VIREO.  Similar  to  V.  g.  griseus  but  wing  averaging  shorter,  tarsus 
longer,  general  coloration  grayer,  less  yellow  and  olivaceous.  (The  Auk, 
1901,  252). 

Range. — Bermuda. 

"Not  a  very  satisfactory  subspecies"  (Ridgway). 

633.  Vireo  belli  belli  And.  BELL'S  VIREO.  Ads. — Crown  ashy  gray, 
changing  to  olive-green  on  the  rump;  greater  and  middle  wing-coverts  nar- 
rowly tipped  with  white;  lores  and  eye-ring  whitish;  underparts  white, 
breast  and  sides  washed  with  greenish  yellow.  L.,  4'75;  W.,  2'20;  T.,  1*80; 
B.  from  N.,  '28. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Austral  zones  from  ne.  Colo.,  s.  S.  D.,  n.  Ills.,  and  nw. 
Ind.  to  e.  Tex.  and  Tamaulipas;  winters  in  Mex.  and  Guatemala;  accidental 
in  N.  H. 

Nest,f  pensile,  of  strips  of  bark  and  plant  fibers  firmly  and  smoothly  inter- 
woven, lined  with  finer  grasses,  etc.,  in  bushes  or  low  trees.  Eggs,  4-6,  white, 


430  WOOD  WARBLERS 

with  a  few  specks  of  black,  umber,  or  rufous-brown  at  the  larger  end,  '66  x 
•50.   Date,  Corpus  Christi,  Tex.,  Apl.  24;  Mercer  Co.,  Ills.,  May  25. 

This  is  a  common  bird  in  its  range,  and  is  locally  not  uncommon 
as  far  east  as  Illinois.  "In  their  food,  habits,  and  actions  they  are  very 
similar  to  the  White-eyed.  Their  call-  and  alarm-notes  are  not  quite 
so  harsh,  and  their  song  is  delivered  in  a  less  emphatic  manner;  an 
indescribable  sputtering,  that  does  not  rank  it  high  in  the  musical 
scale"  (Goss). 

1901.   CABY,  M.,  Proc.  Neb.  Orn.  Un.,  46-48  (habits). 

The  BAHAMA  HONEY  CREEPER  (635.  Ccereba  bahamensis)  was  found  by 
Dr.  Wiirdemann  in  January,  1858,  on  Indian  Key,  southeastern  Florida,  but 
has  not,  to  my  knowledge,  been  taken  by  subsequent  observers.  The  upper 
parts  are  sooty  black,  the  rump  and  middle  of  the  underparts  yellow,  and  a 
line  over  the  eye,  the  throat,  and  the  lower  belly  are  white  or  whitish ;  length 
about  4'50. 

58.  FAMILY  MNIOTILTID^E.  WOOD  WAKBLERS.   (Fig.  70.) 

The  Wood  Warblers  are  found  only  in  America.  About  one  hundred 
and  fifty-five  species  are  known,  of  which  fifty-five  visit  the  United 
States,  there  being  nearly  twice  as  many  in  the  Eastern  as  in  the  Western 
States.  With  three  or  four  exceptions,  they  are  inhabitants  of  wood- 
land, but,  during  their  migrations,  may  be  found  in  the  trees  of  lawns 
or  orchards.  They  feed  almost  exclusively  upon  insects,  and  are  thus 
highly  migratory,  thousands  of  miles  frequently  separating  their  sum- 
mer and  winter  homes. 

The  majority  are  among  the  last  of  the  spring  arrivals;  their  coming 
caps  the  climax  of  the  migration,  and  the  first  severe  frost  leaves  but 
few  with  us.  They  migrate  by  night,  and  are  chief  among  the  victims 
of  lighthouses  and  electric-light  towers.  When  migrating,  they  are 
generally  found  in  straggling  companies  composed  of  a  number  of  species, 
which  during  the  day  travel  slowly  through  the  woods  from  tree  to  tree. 

They  capture  their  insect  food  in  a  variety  of  ways.  Some  species 
flit  actively  from  branch  to  branch,  taking  their  prey  from  the  more 
exposed  parts  of  the  twigs  and  leaves;  others  are  gleaners,  and  care- 
fully explore  the  under  surfaces  of  leaves  or  crevices  in  the  bark;  while 
several,  like  Flycatchers,  capture  a  large  part  of  their  food  on  the  wing. 
As  a  rule,  they  are  arboreal,  but  many  are  thicket-haunting,  and  some 
are  terrestrial. 

Several  species  have  remarkable  vocal  ability,  but,  generally  speak- 
ing, they  have  rather  weak  voices,  and  take  low  rank  as  songsters. 

Warblers  are  at  once  the  delight  and  the  despair  of  field  students. 
To  the  uninitiated,  their  existence  is  unknown,  and  when  search  reveals 
the  before  unsuspected  fact  that  our  woods  are  thronged  with  birds  as 
exquisitely  colored  as  the  daintiest  tropical  forms,  we  feel  as  though  a 
new  world  were  opened  to  us.  Entering  an  apparently  deserted  bit  of 
woods,  we  hear  faint  voices,  lisping  tseeps,  and  soon  discover  that  the 
tree  tops  are  animated  with  flitting  forms.  What  limitless  possibilities 


WOOD  WARBLERS  431 

there  are  in  a  flock  of  Warblers!  Who  can  say  what  rare  species  may  be 
among  them? — perhaps  the  bird  we  have  long  vainly  looked  for;  per- 
haps a  stranger  from  another  clime! 

1907.    CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  and  others.    The  Warblers  of  North  America, 
8vo.,  col.  plls.  24;  pp.  306  (Appleton). 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

First  Group. — Throat  yellow,  yellowish,  or  orange. 

I.  Underparts  without  streaks  or  spots. 

II.  With  black  or  brown  streaks  on  the  breast  or  sides,  or  (in  one  species)  a 
blackish  brown  band  across  the  throat,  or  (in  one  species)  a  black 
patch  on  the  breast. 

Second  Group. — Throat  black,  gray,  ashy,  white,  whitish,  brown, 
or  bun*y. 

I.  Throat  and  upper  breast  one  color,  black,  gray,  ashy,  or  brown,  very 

different  from  the  white  or  yellow  belly. 
II.  Throat  white  or  whitish,  with  or  without  streaks  or  spots;  rest  of  under- 

parts  streaked  or  spotted  with  black,  bluish,  chestnut,  or  yellow. 
III.  Underparts  white,  whitish,  or  buffy,  without  streaks,  spots,  or  patches. 

FIRST  GROUP 
I.  Underparts  without  streaks  or  spots. 

1.  Tail  with  conspicuous  white  spots  or  patches. 

A.  Wings  with  white  wing-bars. 

a.  Underparts  entirely  pure  yellow. 

a1.  Forehead  yellow;  a  black  line  through  the  eye;  rump  same  as 

back 641.  BLUE-WINGED   WARBLER. 

a2.  Crown  ashy;  rump  yellow  .     657.  MAGNOLIA  WARBLER  (Im.). 

b.  Underparts  not  entirely  pure  yellow. 

b1.  Throat  bright  yellow;  belly  white  or  whitish. 

b2.  Back  olive-greenish 671.  PINE  WARBLER. 

b3.  Back  bluish,  with  a  yellowish  patch  in  the  middle. 

648.  PARULA  WARBLER  (Im.). 
c1.  Underparts  pale  yellowish  white  or  buffy;  throat  not  brighter 

than  belly. 
c2.  Back  olive-green,  slightly  streaked  with  black. 

c3.  Underparts  pale  cream-buff,  stronger  on  the  flanks. 

660.  BAY-BREASTED  WARBLER  (Im.). 
c4.  Underparts  pale  yellowish  white. 

661.  BLACK-POLL  WARBLER  (Im.). 
d2.  Back  not  streaked. 

d3.  Back  olive-green,  without  streaks  .  671.  PINE  WARBLER  9. 
d4.  Ba«k  with  a  bluish  tinge  and  without  streaks. 

658.  CERULEAN  WARBLER   (Im.). 

B.  Without  white  wing-bars. 

o.  Underparts  bright  orange  or  orange-yellow;  wings,  tail-coverts, 
and  tail  bluish  gray  ....     637.  PROTHONOTARY  WARBLER. 

b.  Underparts  pure  yellow;  wings,   rump,   and  tail  greenish;  head 

sometimes  blackish;  inner  web  of  outer  tail-feathers  white. 

684.  HOODED  WARBLER  (9  and  im.). 

c.  Underparts  pale  yellowish;  head  ashy;  rump  olive-green;  small 

white  tail-spots,  not  reaching  to  ends  of  feathers. 

640.  BACHMAN'S  WARBLER  (9  and  im.). 

d.  Underparts    pale    yellowish;    entire    upperparts    olive-green;    a 

white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries. 

654.  BLACK-THROATED  BLUE  WARBLER  9. 


432  WOOD  WARBLERS 

2.  Tail  without  white  spots  or  patches;  wings  without  white  wing-bars. 

A.  Cap,  or  forehead,  or  cheeks  black  or  blackish. 

a.  Cap  black;  forehead  and  cheeks  yellow. 

685.  WILSON'S    WARBLER. 

b.  Band  on  the  forehead  and  cheeks  black  or  blackish;  no  yellow 

line  over  the  eye   .     .  681.  MARYLAND   YELLOW-THROAT  d". 
6816.  FLORIDA  YELLOW-THROAT  d". 

c.  Forehead  or  crown  and  cheeks  black  or  blackish;  a  clear  yel- 

low line  over  the  eye 677.  KENTUCKY  WARBLER. 

B.  No  black  on  forehead. 

a.  Crown  ashy,  of  a  very  different  color  from  the  olive-green  back,  or 
with  the  bases  of  the  crown  feathers  rufous-brown  or  chocolate. 
a1.  Crown  plain  ashy;  under  tail-coverts  white.    • 

640.  BACHMAN'S  WARBLER. 

a2.  Crown  ashy;   bases  of  feathers  chestnut;   eye-ring  distinctly 
white;  most    of    underparts    and    under  tail-coverts    bright 

yellow 645.  NASHVILLE  WARBLER. 

a3.  Crown  of  nearly  the  same  color  as  the  back;  the  feathers  with 
rufous-brown  bases;  underparts  dull  greenish  yellow. 

646.  ORANGE-CROWNED  WARBLER. 

6.  Crown  of  the  same  color  as  the  back;  forehead  the  same,  or  yellow- 
ish, or  brownish. 

b1.  Underparts  uniform  yellow  or  yellowish. 
62.  Underparts  bright  yellow. 

63.  Upperparts  bright  olive-green;  forehead  yellowish;  short 

bristles  at  base  of  bill;  tail  greenish  brown. 

685.  WILSON'S  WARBLER  (Im.). 

64.  Upperparts    bright    greenish    yellow;    inner    web    of   tail- 

feathers  yellow      .     .     ...     652.  YELLOW  WARBLER  9. 

65.  Upperparts  ashy  greenish;  eye-ring  white. 

645.  NASHVILLE  WARBLER  (Im.). 
c2.  Underparts  dull  yellow  or  yellowish. 

c3.  Underparts  dull  greenish  yellow,  obscurely  streaked  with 
dusky;  back  ashy  greenish. 

646.  ORANGE-CROWNED  WARBLER  (Im.). 

c4.  Underparts  yellowish  or  buffy  yellowish;  outer  tail-feathers 
decidedly  shortest;  legs  flesh-color. 

681.  MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT  9. 
6816.  FLORIDA  YELLOW-THROAT  9. 

c5.  Breast  somewhat  yellower  than  rest  of  underparts;  flanks 
brownish;    legs    blackish;    tail-feathers    of    same    length. 
645.  NASHVILLE  WARBLER  (Im.). 
c6.  Inner  margins  of  tail-feathers  yellow. 

652.  YELLOW  WARBLER  9. 
c7.  Back  bright  olive-green;  under  tail-coverts  white. 

647.  TENNESSEE  WARBLER  (Im.). 
c8.  A  small  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries. 

654.  BLACK-THROATED  BLUE  WARBLER  9. 
c1.  Throat  and  breast  yellow;  belly  white  or  whitish. 

c2.  A  black  spot  before  the  eye  and  a  white  line  over  it;  wing  3 '00. 

683.  YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT. 

c3.  Legs  flesh-color;  outer  tail-feathers  shortest;  forehead  some- 
times brownish    .     .     681.  MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT  9. 
6816.  FLORIDA   YELLOW-THROAT  9. 
c4.  Legs  blackish;  tail-feathers  even;  wing  under  3*00. 

645.  NASHVILLE  WARBLER  (Im.). 


WOOD  WARBLERS  433 

II.  With  black  or  brown  streaks  on  the  breast  or  sides,  or  (in  one 
species)  a  blackish  brown  band  across  the  throat,  or  (in  one 
species)  a  black  patch  on  the  breast. 

I.  Underparts  streaked  or  spotted. 

1.  Underparts  streaked  with  rufous-brown. 

A.  Crown  chestnut. 

a.  Entire  underparts  rich  yellow    672a.  YELLOW  PALM  WARBLER. 

b.  Throat  and  breast  bright  yellow;  belly  yellowish  white. 

672.  PALM  WARBLER. 

B.  No  chestnut  crown-cap. 

a.  Underparts  yellowish  white    aye-ring  yellowish. 

672.  PALM  WARBLER  (Im.). 

b.  Underparts  yellow,  washed  with  brownish;  eye-ring  yellowish. 

672a.  YELLOW   PALM  WARBLER    (Im.). 

c.  Underparts  bright  yellow;  forehead  yellow;  inner  webs  of  tail- 

feathers  yellow        ....     652.  YELLOW  WARBLER  (Ad.). 

2.  Underparts  streaked  or  spotted  with  black. 

a.  Back  unspotted,  the  same  as  the  head,  olive-green  or  olive-brown. 
a1.  Underparts  pale  sulphur-yellow,  streaked  with  black;  no  wing- 
bars;  wing  3 '00  or  over. 

675.  WATER-THRUSH.    675a.  GRINNELL'S  WATER-THRUSH. 
a2.  Underparts  bright  yellow;  no  black  streaks  on  the  flanks;  wing 

nearly  3'00 671.  PINE  WARBLER. 

a3.  Underparts   bright   yellow;   sides   streaked   with   black;    wing 

about  2'00     ....     673.  PRAIRIE  WARBLER  (9  and  im.). 

a4.  Throat   pale   yellow,    indistinctly   spotted   or   streaked;    belly 

whitish;  cheeks  bright  yellow;  outer  web  of  outer  tail-feather 

white  at  the  base. 

667.  BLACK-THROATED  GREEN  WARBLER   (Im.). 
a5.  Throat  and  breast  yellow,   distinctly  spotted;   median  wing- 
coverts  white    .     .     .     650.  CAPE  MAY  WARBLER  (9  and  im.). 
6.  Head  not  olive-green  or  olive-brown. 

ft1.  Back  black  or  streaked  with  black,  or  center  of  crown  orange. 

b2.  Underparts  pale  yellow;  black  spots  confined  to  sides;   no 

white  wing-bars       ....     670.  KIRTLAND'S  WARBLER. 

63.  Underparts  pale  yellow,  indistinctly  streaked  with  blackish; 

two  white  or  whitish  wing-bars. 

661.  BLACK-POLL  WARBLER  (Im.). 

64.  Throat  orange  or  yellow,  without  streaks;  ear-coverts  gray  or 

black;  center  of  crown  yellowish  or  orange. 

662.  BLACKBURNIAN  WARBLER. 

b5.  Underparts  streaked  with  black;  ear-coverts  rufous ;  cap  black. 

650.  CAPE  MAY  WARBLER. 

66.  Head  bluish  gray  or  ashy;  rump  bright  yellow;  eye-ring  white; 
white  tail-spots  not  reaching  to  ends  of  feathers. 

657.  MAGNOLIA  WARBLER. 
c1.  Back  not  black. 
c2.  Back  ashy  gray. 

c3.  Throat  yellow;  belly  white;  wing-bars  and  tail-spots  white. 
c4.  A  yellow  line  from  the  bill  to  the  eye. 

663.  YELLOW-THROATED  WARBLER. 
c5.  A  white  line  from  the  bill  to  and  over  the  eye. 

663a.  SYCAMORE  WARBLER. 

d3.  Entire  underparts  yellow;  breast  with  a  necklace  of  black 
spots ;  no  wing-bars  or  tail-spots 

686.  CANADIAN  WARBLER. 

d2.  Center  of  back  brick-red;  underparts   yellow;  sides   streaked 
with  black 673.  PRAIRIE  WARBLER. 


434  WOOD  WARBLERS 

II.  Underparts  not  streaked. 

A.  Throat  yellow;  breast  with  a  band  of  copper  or  blackish  chestnut; 

upperparts  blue;  center  of  back  greenish  yellow. 

648.  PARULA  WARBLER. 

B.  Throat  and  forehead  yellow;  breast  and  crown-cap  black. 

640.  BACHMAN'S  WARBLER. 

SECOND  GROUP 

I.  Throat  and  upper  breast  one  color,  black,  gray,  ashy,  or  brown, 
very  different  from  the  white  or  yellow  belly. 

A.  Belly  white  or  whitish. 

a.  Back  gray  or  greenish  gray,  crown  yellow,  cheeks  black  or  gray, 

wing-bars  yellow 642.  GOLDEN-WINGED  WARBLER. 

b.  Back    and    crown    bright    olive-green,    cheeks    yellow,    wing-bars 

white 667.  BLACK-THROATED  GREEN  WARBLER. 

c.  Back  and  crown  dark  blue,  a  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries. 

654.  BLACK-THROATED  BLUE  WARBLER  d*. 

d.  Back  streaked  with  gray  and  black;  cap,  throat,  and  sides  chestnut. 

660.  BAY-BREASTED  WARBLER  cf. 

e.  Back  streaked  with  black  and  white,  a  white  line  through  the  cen- 

ter of  the  crown      .     .     .     636.  BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER  «?. 
/.  Back  black;  sides,  center  of  wings,  and  base  of  tail  salmon-red. 

687.  REDSTART  <?. 

B.  Belly  yellow. 

a.  Throat  black.  m 

a1.  Cheeks  bright  yellow,  black  crown-cap  connected  with  black 
throat  by  a  black  line,  end  half  of  inner  web  of  outer  tail-feathers 
white 684.  HOODED  WARBLER. 

a2.  Cheeks  dull  greenish  yellow,  black  crown-cap  not  connected 
with  black  throat,  white  tail-spots  not  reaching  to  the  ends  of 
feathers 640.  BACHMAN'S  WARBLER. 

a3.  A  black  streak  through  the  eye,  wing-bars  white. 

641  +642.  LAWRENCE'S  WARBLER.  " 

b.  Throat  bluish  gray,  ashy,  or  brownish. 

61.  A  white  eye-ring 678.  CONNECTICUT  WARBLER. 

62.  No  white  eye-ring 679.  MOURNING  WARBLER. 

II.  Throat  white  or  whitish,  with  or  without  streaks  or  spots;  rest  of 
the  underparts  spotted  or  streaked  with  black,  bluish,  chestnut, 
or  yellow. 

A.  Back  streaked  with  black. 

a.  With  chestnut  streaks  on  the  sides,  under  tail-coverts  white. 

a1.  Wing  over  2'50,  head  with  chestnut  or  black  streaks  or  spots, 
wing-bars  white        ....     660.  BAY-BREASTED   WARBLER   9. 
a2.  Wing  under  2'50,  crown  and  wing-bars  yellow  or  yellowish. 

659.  CHESTNUT-SIDED  WARBLER. 

b.  With  black  or   bluish  streaks  on   the  sides   or  entire  underparts. 

b1.  Cap  solid  black 661.  BLACK-POLL  WARBLER  <?. 

62.  Crown,  rump,  and  sides  of  the  breast  with  a  yellow  patch  or  spot. 

655.  MYRTLE  WARBLER. 
b3.  Cap  black,  with  a  white  streak  through  the  center. 

636.  BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER  9. 

64.  Crown  olive-green,  with  small  black  streaks. 

661.  BLACK-POLL  WARBLER  9. 

65.  Crown  blue,  a  bluish  black  band  across  the  breast. 

658.  CERULEAN  WARBLER  d\ 

66.  Crown  brownish,  urder  tail-coverts  yellow. 

672.  PALM  WARBLER  (Im.), 


WOOD  WARBLERS  435 

B.  Back  without  streaks  or  spots. 

a.  With  white  or  yellow  spots  in  the  tail. 

a1.  Wing-bars  white,  cheeks  yellow,  back  greenish. 

667.  BLACK-THROATED  GREEN  WARBLER  (Im.). 

a2.  Wing-bars,  cheeks,  and  back  grayish,  under  tail-coverts  white. 
650.  CAPE  MAY  WARBLER  (9   and  im.). 
a3.  Back  brownish,  under  tail-coverts  yellow. 

672.  PALM  WARBLER  (Im.). 
a4.  Sides  of  breast,  band  in  wings,  and  base  of  tail  yellow. 

687.  REDSTART  (9   and  im.). 

b.  Without  white  or  yellow  spots  in  the  tail. 

ft1.  A  pale  rufous  streak  bordered  by  black  through  the  center  of 
the  crown 674.  OVEN-BIRD. 

62.  A  white  line  over  the  eye,  throat  generally  without  spots,  wing 
over  3 '00,  bill  over  '50    .     .     .     676.  LOUISIANA  WATER-THRUSH. 

63.  A  buffy  line  over  the  eye,  throat  with  small  black  spots,  wing 
under  3*00,  bill  under  *50 675.  WATER-THRUSH. 

675a.  GRINNELL'S  WATER-THRUSH. 

III.  Underparts  white,  whitish,  or  buffy,  without  streaks,  spots,  or 
patches. 

A.  Tail  with  white  or  yellow  spots  or  patches 

a.  Wing-bars  white  or  grayish. 

a1.  Underparts  pure  white,  back  greenish  yellow,  cheeks  gray,  wing 
under  2'50        .     .     .     659.  CHESTNUT-SIDED   WARBLER   (Im.). 
a2.  Underparts  tinged  with  buffy,  back  and  cheeks  olive-green,  with 
generally  distinct  black  streaks,  wing  over  2'50. 

660.  BAY-BREASTED  WARBLER  (Im.). 

a3.  Underparts  soiled  whitish,  back  brownish  or  grayish  green,  eye- 
ring  white,  wing-bars  grayish,  wing  over  2*50. 

671.  PINE  WARBLER  (9  and  im.). 

a4.  Underparts  white,   back  streaked  with  pure  black  and  white. 
636.  BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER  9. 

b.  Wing-bars  yellowish,  greenish,  or  absent. 

61.  Back  and  head  bright  greenish  yellow,  cheeks  gray,  underparts 

pure  white        .     .     .     659.  CHESTNUT-SIDED   WARBLER    (Im.). 

62.  Back,  head,  and  cheeks  yellowish  green,  underparts  yellowish,  inner 

margins  of  tail-feathers  yellow  .    652.  YELLOW  WARBLER  (Im.). 

63.  Back  gray  or  grayish,  a  black  line  through  the  eye. 

641  +  642.  BREWSTER'S  WARBLER. 

64.  Back  and  head  brownish,  wings  and  base  of  tail  with  a  yellow 

band 687.  REDSTART   (9  and  im.). 

65.  Back  bright  green,  head  and  cheeks  grayish,  a  small  black  spot 

in  front  of  the  eye 647.  TENNESSEE  WARBLER  <?. 

B.  Tail  without  white  or  yellow  spots  or  patches. 

a.  Under  tail-coverts  yellow. 

a1.  Back   olive-green,    outer   tail-feathers   shortest,    legs   flesh-color. 

681.  MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT  (9  and  im.). 

6816.  FLORIDA  YELLOW-THROAT. 

a2.  Back    grayish    olive-green,    tail-feathers    of    equal    length,    legs 
blackish 646.  ORANGE-CROWNED  WARBLER. 

b.  Under  tail-coverts  white  or  whitish. 

b1.  Head  plain  brown,  a  whitish  line  from  the  bill  over  the  eye. 

638.  SWAINSON'S  WARBLER. 

62.  Center  of  crown  and  line  from  the  bill  over  the  eye  buffy,  bor- 

dered by  black  stripes     .     .     .     639.  WORM-EATING  WARBLER. 

63.  Crown  greenish,  a  small  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries 

almost  concealed  by  wing-coverts. 

654.  BLACK-THROATED  BLUE  WARBLER  (9  and  im.). 

64.  Crown  grayish,  bend  of  the  wing  yellow. 

640.  BACHMAN'S  WARBLER  9. 
30 


436  WOOD   WARBLERS 


A  FIELD  KEY  TO  THE 

ADULT  MALE  WARBLERS  OF  EASTERN  NORTH  AMERICA  IN 
SPRING  AND  SUMMER  PLUMAGE. 

I.  Throat  yellow,  white,  or  whitish;  underparts  without  streaks  or  patches. 
II.  Throat  black,  brown,  or  slate-color. 

III.  Throat  yellow  or  orange,  underparts  with  streaks.     (In  one  species  a 

blackish  brown  band  across  the  breast.) 

IV.  Throat  white  or  whitish,  with  streaks  or  spots  on  the  underparts.    (In 

two  species  a  yellow  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  breast.) 

I.  Throat  yellow,  white,  or  whitish;    underparts  without  streaks 
or  patches. 

1,  Throat  yellow. 

A.  Length  over  6*00,  the  largest  of  the  Warblers;  haunts  dense  thick- 

ets in  second  growth;  song,  a  peculiar  mixture  of  whistles,  chucks, 
and  crow-calls,  delivered  from  the  undergrowth,  from  the  trees 
above,  or  on  the  wing,  when  the  bird  resembles  a  bunch  of  falling 
leaves 683.  YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT. 

B.  Length  under  6'00. 

a.  Head  and  neck  bright  golden  yellow  like  the  breast;  tail-feathers 

white,  except  at  the  tip;  haunts  near  the  water;  especially  low 
bushes  and  willows  hanging  over  streams  and  ponds;  call,  a 
sharp  peek;  range,  from  Virginia  and  s.  Minnesota  southward. 

637.  PROTHONOTARY  WARBLER. 

b.  Forehead  and  cheeks  black,  a  yellow  line  over  the  eye;  song,  a 

loud  whistled  call  of  five  to  seven  notes;  haunts  near  the  ground; 
range  from  lower  Hudson  valley  southward. 

677.  KENTUCKY  WARBLER. 

c.  Forehead  and  cheeks  black,   bordered  by  grayish;  no  line  over 

the  eye;  haunts  undergrowth;  call,  a  frequently  repeated  chack; 
song,  a  loud,  rapid  I  beseech  you,  I  beseech  you,  I  beseech  you,  or 
witch-e-wee-o,  witch-e-wee-o,  witch-e-wce-o;  movements  restless; 

abundant 681.  MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT. 

6816.  FLORIDA  YELLOW-THROAT. 

d.  Head  and  back  olive-green;  wings  with  two  white  bars;  outer 

tail-feathers  with  white;  haunts  pine  woods;  song,  a  musical  trill. 

671.  PINE  WARBLER. 

e.  Crown  bluish  ash,   eye-ring  white;  call-note  sometimes  like  the 

sound  produced  by  striking  two  pebbles  together. 

645.  NASHVILLE  WARBLER. 

/.  Forehead  yellow,  a  small  black  mark  in  front  of  the  eye;  wings 
with  two  white  bars ;  outer  tail-feathers  with  white ;  song,  swee-chee, 
the  first  note  higher,  and  also  wee,  chl-chl-chl-chl,  chur,  chee-chur. 

641.  BLUE-WINGED  WARBLER. 

g.  Forehead  yellow;  crown-cap  black;  cheeks  yellow;  wings  and 
tail  unmarked;  rather  rare  .  .  .  685.  WILSON'S  WARBLER. 

2.  Throat  white  or  whitish. 

A.  Length   5'00;    crown   brown   or  with   blackish   and   buffy   stripes. 

a.  A  conspicuous  whitish  line  through  the  center  of  the  crown,  bor- 

dered by  black  lines;  not  common. 

639.  WORM-EATING  WARBLER. 

b.  Crown  plain  brown;  range,  Virginia  and  southward. 

638.  SWAINSON'S  WARBLER. 

B.  Length  4'50;  crown  ashy  or  forehead  yellow. 
a.  Forehead  yellow. 

a1.  Breast  white,  with  a  barely  perceptible  tinge  of  yellow;  wing- 
bars  white  or  yellow,  a  black  mark  in  front  of  the  eye;  rare. 
641  x 642.  BREWSTER'S  WARBLER. 


WOOD  WARBLERS  437 

6.  Forehead  not  yellow. 

ft1.  Breast  white,  crown  plain  bluish  ashy,  clearly  defined  from 
the  bright  olive-green  back  .  .  647.  TENNESSEE  WARBLER. 
b2.  Breast  whitish,  tinged  with  yellow  and  indistinctly  streaked 
with  dusky ;  crown  dull  ashy,  not  clearly  defined  from  the  back 
and  with  a  partly  concealed  patch  of  rufous-brown ;  rare  in  the 
Atlantic  States  north  of  South  Carolina. 

646.  ORANGE-CROWNED  WARBLER. 
II.  Throat  black,  brown,  or  slate- color. 

1.  Belly  white. 

a.  Back  blue,  a  white  spot  near  the  outer  edge  of  the  wing;  common. 

654.  BLACK-THROATED  BLUE  WARBLER. 

b.  Back  green,  cheeks  yellow;  song,  a  buzzlike  zee  repeated  five  or  six 

times,  the  next  to  last  note  the  highest;  common. 

667.  BLACK-THROATED  GREEN  WARBLER. 

c.  Back  grayish,  forehead  yellow,  a  black  mark  through  the  eye  and 

a  white  line  below  it;  a  large  patch  of  yellow  on  the  wings;  song, 
zee-zee-zee-zee,  all  on  the  same  note;  not  common. 

642.  GOLDEN-WINGED  WARBLER. 

d.  Back  black;  sides  of  the  breast,  middle  of  the  wing,  and  base  of  the 

tail-feathers   reddish   orange;   movements   active,   tail   frequently 
spread,  the  reddish  color  showing  conspicuously;  abundant. 

687.  REDSTART. 

e.  Back  streaked  with  black  and  white;  song  fine  and  wiry;  movements 

like  those  of  a  Creeper;  common. 

636.  BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER. 

/.  Back  streaked  with  buffy  and  black;  forehead  and  cheeks  black; 
crown-cap,  throat,  upper  part  of  the  breast,  and  sides  chestnut; 
rather  rare  660.  BAY-BREASTED  WARBLER. 

2.  Belly  yellow. 

A.  Throat  slate-color;  haunts  near  the  ground. 

a.  Breast  showing  traces  of  black,  no  white  eye-ring;  rare  in  most 

places        679.  MOURNING  WARBLER. 

b.  Breast  with  no  traces  of  black,  a  white  eye-ring;  call  a  sharp  peck; 

very  rare  in  the  spring     .     .     .     678.  CONNECTICUT  WARBLER. 

B.  Throat  black. 

a.  forehead  and  crown  yellow,  wings  with  white  bars,  a  black  line 

through  the  eye;  very  rare. 

641x642.  LAWRENCE'S  WARBLER. 

b.  Forehead  and  cheeks  yellow,  rest  of  the  head  and  sides  of  the 

neck  black;  outer  tail-feathers  almost  entirely  white;  haunts  near 
the  ground,  generally  in  wet  woods;  movements  active,  the  white 
tail-feathers  showing  conspicuously  in  flight;  lower  Hudson  val- 
ley southward ;  common  684.  HOODED  WARBLER. 

c.  Forehead  yellow,  a  small  black  patch  on  the  crown,  white  patches 

on  the  tail  not  reaching  to  the  ends  of  the  feathers;  range,  South 
Carolina  southward 640.  BACHMAN'S  WARBLER. 

IH.  Throat  yellow  or  orange,   underparts  with  streaks.     (In  one 
species  a  blackish  brown  band  across  the  breast.) 

1.  Belly  white,  with  or  without  black  streaks. 

a.  Throat   rich   orange;   back   black,    streaked   with  white;   tolerably 

common 662.  BLACKBURNIAN  WARBLER. 

b.  Throat  bright  yellow,  back  grayish;  range,  Virginia  and  southern 

Wisconsin  southward;  abundant. 

663.  YELLOW-THROATED  WARBLER. 
663a.  SYCAMORE  WARBLER. 

c.  Throat  yellow,  with  a  blackish  band  crossing  the  upperpart  of  the 

breast;    abundant 648-648a.  PARULA  WARBLERS 

2.  Belly  yellow,  with  streaks  or  spots  GT>  the  breast  or  sides. 


438  WOOD  WARBLERS 

A.  With  black  streaks  or  spots  on  the  underparts. 

a.  Back  grayish,  unstreaked;  a  necklace  of  black  spots  on  the  breast; 

no  streaks  on  the  sides  nor  white  on  the  wings  or  tail;  common! 

686.  CANADIAN  WARBLER. 

b.  Back  black,  crown  grayish,  a  black  stripe  through  the  eye;  breast 

and  sides  streaked  with  black;  end  of  tail  black,  a  white  band 
across  its  middle;  common  .  .  .  657.  MAGNOLIA  WARBLER. 

c.  Back  streaked  with  white,  center  of  the  crown  and  line  over  the 

eye  orange 662.  BLACKBURNIAN  WARBLER. 

d.  Back  greenish,  streaked  with  black;  crown  black,  a  rufous  ear- 

patch,  a  white  patch  on  the  wings,  rump  yellow;  rather  rare. 

650.  CAPE  MAY  WARBLER. 

e.  Back   greenish,    with   a   patch   of   rufous-brown;   haunts   second 

growths  and  old  bush-grown  pastures;  common  in  some  places. 

673.  PRAIRIE  WARBLER. 

/.  Back  grayish,  streaked  with  black;  crown  bluish;  no  conspicuous 
white  marking  on  the  wings;  very  rare. 

670.  KIRTLAND'S  WARBLER. 

B.  Underparts  with  rufous-brown  streaks. 

a.  Crown  yellow,  back  greenish,  inner  border  of  tail-feathers  yellow; 
general  appearance  that  of  a  yellow  bird;  haunts  lawns,  orchards, 
and  second  growths;  rarely  seen  in  deep  woods;  abundant. 

652.  YELLOW  WARBLER. 

6.  Crown  chestnut,  back  brownish,  outer  tail-feathers  tipped  with 
white;  haunts  near  the  ground,  frequently  seen  along  roadsides 
and  in  old  fields;  movements  leisurely,  constantly  wags  its  tail; 
common.  672.  PALM  WARBLER.  672a.  YELLOW  PALM  WARBLER. 

IV.  Throat  white  or  whitish,  with  streaks  or  spots  on  the  underparts. 
(In  two  species  a  yellow  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  breast.) 

1.  A  patch  of  yellow  on  the  sides  of  the  breast. 

a.  Back  grayish,  streaked  with  black;  rump  and  a  partly  concealed 

crown-patch  yellow;  note,  a  loud  tchip,   generally  uttered  during 
flight;  abundant 655.  MYRTLE  WARBLER. 

b.  Back  brown,  breast  more  or  less  spotted  with  black;  a  yellow  band 

across  the  middle  of  wings  and  tail;  movements  active,  tail  fre- 
quently spread,  the  yellow  band  showing  conspicuously;  abundant. 

687.  REDSTART  (Im.). 

2.  No  yellow  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  breast. 

A.  With  wing-bars;  back  streaked  with  black;  haunts  in  trees, 
a.  Back  bright  blue;  very  rare  near  the  Atlantic  coast. 

658.  CERULEAN  WARBLER. 
6.  Back  grayish,  crown  black;  movements  slow;  abundant. 

661.  BLACK-POLL  WARBLER. 

c.  Back  greenish  yellow,  crown  bright  yellow,  sides  chestnut;  com- 
mon   659.  CHESTNUT-SIDED  WARBLER. 

B.  Without  wing-bars;   back  not   streaked;   haunts   on   or   near   the 

ground;  walkers,  not  hoppers. 

a.  Crown  pale  rufous,  bordered  by  black  streaks ;  song,  a  loud  teacher, 

repeated  eight  or  nine  times  and  increasing  in  volume;  common. 

674.  OVENBIRD. 

b.  Crown  like  the  back,  breast  with  a  tinge  of  sulphur-yellow,  an 

inconspicuous  buffy  line  over  the  eye;  bill  less  than  *50  in  length; 
common  675.  WATER-THRUSH. 

c.  Crown  like  the  back,  breast  and  particularly  flanks  tinged  with 

buffy,  a  conspicuous  white  line  over  the  eye;  bill  nearly  '75  in 
length;  a  far  shyer  bird  than  the  preceding;  song  loud  and  ring- 
ing   676.  LOUISIANA  WATER-THRUSH. 

636.    Mniotilta  varia  (Linn.).    BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER.     (Fig. 
114.)    Ad.  o". — No  yellow  anywhere;  upperparts  streaked  with  black  and 


WOOD  WARBLERS  439 

white ;  ear-coverts  black ;  inner  webs  of  outer  tail-feathers  with  white  patches ; 
wing-coverts  black,  tipped  with  white;  throat  and  upper  breast  black  or 
black  and  white;  sides  streaked  with  black  and  white;  middle  of  the  belly 
white.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  the  underparts  with  fewer  black  streaks;  sides 
washed  with  brownish.  Im.  <?. — Similar  to  the  9 ,  but  with  more  streaks  on 
the  underparts.  L.,  5'30;  W.,  273;  T.,  2'02;  B.  from  N.,  '37. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Austral 
zones  from  cen.  Mackenzie,  s.  Keewatin.  n.  Ont.,  N.  F.,  N.  S.,  and  N.  B.  to 
e.  Tex.,  La.,  cen.  Ala.,  and  n.  Ga.,  w.  to  S.  D.  and  casually  to  Wyo.,  and 
Colo. ;  winters  from  Florida  southward. 

Washington,  abundant  T.  V.,  less  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  8-Oct.  18.  Ossin- 
ing,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  18-Oct.  1.  Cambridge,  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
25-Sept.  5.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  a  few  S.  R.,  Apl.  22-Sept.  26.  Glen 
Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  28-May  28;  Aug.  11-Sept.  27.  SE.  Minn.,  com- 
mon T.  V.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  23-Oct.  12. 

Nest,  of  strips  of  bark,  grasses,  etc.,  lined  with  rootlets  or  long  hairs,  on 
the  ground  at  the  base  of  a  stump,  log,  or  rock.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  spotted 
and  speckled  with  cinnamon-brown  to  umber,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  at  the 
larger  end,  '66  x  *54.  Date,  Iredell  Co.,  N.  C.,  Apl.  18;  New  York  City, 
May  18;  Cambridge,  May  18. 

None  of  our  Warblers  can  be  more  readily  identified  than  this  con- 
spicuously marked  creeper.  It  is  generally  distributed  throughout  wood- 
land, and  climbs  with  even  more  agility  than  a  true  Creeper,  hanging 
from  the  the  under  surface  of  branches  and  twigs,  and  flitting  actively 
from  tree  to  tree  after  apparently  the  most  superficial  examination. 
Its  alarm  note  is  a  sharp  pit,  sometimes  rapidly  repeated.  The  usual 
song  is  a  thin,  wiry,  see-see-see-see. 

1910.   STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.,  XII,  61-66  (nesting). 

637.    Protonotaria   citrea    (Bodd.).    PROTHONOTARY  WARBLER.    Ad. 

d". — Whole  head,  neck,  and  underparts  rich  orange,  lighter  on  the  belly; 
back  greenish  yellow,  changing  to  bluish  gray  on  the  rump;  wings  and  tail 
ashy;  inner  webs  of  all  but  middle  tail-feathers  white,  except  at  tip;  no 
wing-bars.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  yellow  paler,  belly  with  more  white.  L., 
5'50;  W.,  2-90;  T.,  1'85;  B.  from  N.,  '42. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  and  along  river 
bottoms  of  Carolinian  fauna  from  ne.  Nebr.,  se.  Minn.,  s.  Wise.,  s.  Mich., 
Ohio,  cen.  Del.,  and  e.  Md.  s.  to  e.  Tex.,  and  n.  Fla.;  winters  from  Nicaragua 
to  Colombia;  casual  n.  to  N.  Y.,  New  England,  Ont.,  and  N.  B.,  arid  w. 
to  Ariz. 

Washington,  of  irregular  occurrence  in  May.  N.  Ohio,  one  record, 
May  9.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare,  spring  only,  May  13-15.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
S.  R.  of  Mississippi  bottoms,  May  7- Aug.  16. 

Nest,  of  rootlets,  fine  twigs,  and  moss,  plant-down  or  feathers,  in  a  hole  in 
a  stub  or  stump,  generally  of  a  willow  tree.  Eggs,  5-7,  white,  thickly  and 
rather  coarsely  marked  distinctly  and  obscurely  with  cinnamon-brown, 
chestnut,  or  rufous-brown,  '69  x  '56.  Date,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  May  3; 
Lewis  Co.,  Mo.,  May  20;  Mt.  Carmel,  Ills.,  May  8;  Pierce  Co.,  Wise.,  May 
31;  se.  Minn.,  June  1. 

This  exquisite  Warbler  frequents  bushes  and  low  trees — particu- 
larly willow  trees — hanging  over  the  water.  Its  call-note  so  closely 
resembles  that  of  a  Water-Thrush  (Seiurus),  I  have  sometimes  mis- 
taken it  for  that  species.  Its  usual  song,  as  Mr.  Brewster  remarks  in 
his  admirable  biography  of  this  species,  "sounds  at  a  distance  like 
the  call  of  the  Solitary  Sandpiper,  with  a  syllable  or  two  added — a 


440  WOOD   WARBLERS 

simple  peet,  tweet,  tweet,  tweet,  given  on  the  same  key  throughout.  .  .  . 
Nearer  at  hand,  however,  the  resemblance  is  lost,  and  a  ringing,  pene- 
trating quality  becomes  apparent  in  the  Warbler's  song."  (Bull.  Nutt. 
Orn.  Club,  III,  1878,  pp.  153-162.) 

Thoroughly  to  appreciate  the  Prothonotary's  radiant  beauty,  one 
should  float  quietly  in  a  canoe  past  its  haunts.  Its  color  shows  to  best 
advantage  against  the  dark  background  of  its  home,  and  its  every 
movement  is  a  delight  to  the  eye. 

638.  Helinaia   swainsoni    (Aud.).     SWAINSON'S    WARBLEK.     Ads. — 
Crown  cinnamon-brown;  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye;  back,  rump,  wings,  and 
tail  olive  grayish  brown  without  white;  underparts  soiled  yellowish  white, 
grayer  on  the  sides.    L.,  5'00;  W.,  275;  T.,  1'90;  B.  from  N.,  '46. 

Range. — S.  E.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  se.  Mo.,  s.  Ills., 
s.  Ind.,  and  se.  Va.  (Warwick  Co.),  s.  to  La.  and  n.  Fla.;  winters  in  Jamaica; 
migrates  through  Cuba  and  Bahamas;  casual  in  Nebr.,  Tex.,  and  Vera  Cruz. 

Nest,  externally  of  leaves,  lined  with  pine  needles  and  rootlets,  in  bushes, 
canes,  palmettos,  and  clumps  of  vines,  from  three  to  ten  feet  above  the 
ground  or  surface  of  the  water.  Eggs,  3-4,  white,  with  a  faint  bluish  tinge, 
•75X'54.  Date,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  May  7. 

The  history  of  Swainson's  Warbler  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Bach- 
man's  Warbler.  It  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Bachman  near  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  in  1832,  and  for  somewhat  over  fifty  years  was  prac- 
tically a  lost  species,  but  proves  now  to  be  a  common  bird  in  some 
parts  of  its  range.  Its  rediscovery  near  Charleston  by  Mr.  A.  T.  Wayne 
and  Mr.  Brewster  is  recounted  by  the  latter  in  an  article  which  ade- 
quately portrays  the  bird,  its  habits  and  haunts.  It  lives  on  and  near 
the  ground,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Brewstcr's  experience,  four  things 
seem  indispensable  to  its  existence — " water,  tangled  thickets,  patches 
of  cane,  and  a  rank  growth  of  semi-aquatic  plants."  Its  song,  which 
is  highly  ventriloquial,  is  described  by  the  same  author  as  "a  series  of 
clear,  ringing  whistles,  the  first  four  uttered  rather  slowly,  and  in  the 
same  key,  the  remaining  five  or  six  given  more  rapidly,  and  in  an 
evenly  descending  scale.  ...  In  general  effect  it  recalls  the  song  of 
the  Water  Thrush  (Seiurus  noveboracensis) .  It  is  very  loud,  very  rich, 
very  beautiful,  while  it  has  an  indescribable  tender  quality  that  thrills 
the  senses  after  the  sound  has  ceased."  The  Auk,  1885,  pp.  65-80;  see  also 
Ibid.,  pp.  346-348,  and  also  Perry,  Orn.  and  OoL,  1886,  p.188;  1887,  p.  141. 

639.  Helmitheros   vermivorus    (Gmd.).     WORM-EATING   WARBLER. 
(Fig.  115.)    Ads. — A  black  lino  from  the  eye  to  the  nape,  and  two  on  the 
crown  from  either  nostril;  an  olive-buffy  line  over  either  eye,  and  a  third 
through  tne  center  of  the  crown;  back,  wings,  and  tail  olive-green  without 
white;   underparts   whitish  cream-buff,    whiter  on    the   throat   and    belly. 
L.,  5-51;  W.,  2'78;  T.,  2'05;  B.  from  N.,  '39. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  the  Carolinian  fauna  from  s. 
Iowa,  n.  Ills.,  e.  and  w.  Penn.,  and  the  Hudson  and  Conn.  River  valleys 
s.  to  s.  Mo.,  Tenn.,  Va.,  and  mts.  of  S.  C.  (casually  further  south);  winters 
from  Chiapas  to  Panama,  in  Cuba  and  the  Bahamas,  and  casually  in  Fla.; 
in  migration  casually  to  Mass.,  Vt.,  w.  N.  Y.,  s.  Orit.,  and  s.  Wise. 

Washington,  quite  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  28-Sept.  15.  Ossining,  common 
S.  R.,  May  7-Aug.  23.  Cambridge,  A.  V.,  one  instance,  Sept. 


PLATE  XXIII 


1,  2,  3.  BACHMAN'S  WARBLER 

5.  SWAINSON'S  WARBLER  4.   WORM-EATING  WARBLER 

(From  "Warblers  of  North  America.") 


WOOD  WARBLERS  441 

Nest,  of  rootlets,  leaves,  and  bark,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-6,  white, 
speckled,  spotted,  or  blotched  with  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown,  '68  x  '54. 
Date,  Iredell  Co.,  N.  C.,  May  10;  Waynesburg,  Pa.,  May  16;  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  May  25. 

This  comparatively  rare,  retiring  Warbler  may  be  found  on  dry 
wooded  slopes,  hillsides,  and  ravines,  generally  where  there  is  a  rather 
dense  undergrowth,  but  occasionally  where  the  ground  is  quite  clear 
and  open.  It  lives  on  or  near  the  ground,  and  in  its  slow,  deliberate 
actions  resembles  a  Vireo  more  than  the  usually  active  Warblers.  Its 
call-note  is  a  sharp  chip,  while  its  song,  as  all  observers  agree,  closely 
resembles  that  of  the  Chipping  Sparrow,  but  is  somewhat  weaker. 

640.  Vermivora  bachmani  (Aud.).    BACHMAN'S  WARBLER.    Ad.  cf. — 
Forehead  yellow,  bordered  by  a  black  patch  on  the  crown ;  back  of  the  head 
bluish  gray;  back  arid  rump  bright  olive-green;  lesser  wing-coverts  yellow; 
tail  grayish,  all  but  the  middle  feathers  with  white  patches  on  their  inner 
web  near  the  tip ;  throat  and  belly  yellow,  a  large  black  patch  on  the  breast. 
Im.  <?. — Throat-patch  smaller  than  in  ad.  d" ;  less  black  or  none  on  head. 
Ad.  9. — Crown  grayish;  forehead  yellowish;  back,  wings,  and  tail  as  in  the 
<?;  underparts  whitish,  washed  with  yellow  on  the  throat  and  breast;  bend 
of  the  wing  yellow.    Im.   9. — Similar,  but  with  less  yellow;  back  grayer. 
L.,  4-25;  W.,  2'40;  T.,  1'80;  B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Range. — S.  E.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  in  se.  Mo.,  ne.  Ark., 
w.  Ky.,  and  near  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  probably  in  s.  Ind.  and  N.  C.; 
winters  in  Cuba;  in  migration  occurs  in  La.,  Miss.,  Ala.,  and  Fla.;  casual  in 
Va.  and  the  Bahamas. 

Nest,  chiefly  of  fine  grasses,  cane  leaves,  skeletonized  leaves  and  occa- 
sionally Tillandsia  (Wayne);  in  low  bushes,  1-3  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  pure, 
glossy  white,  '63  x  '49.  Date,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Apl.  17;  Dunklin  Co.,  Mo., 
May  13;  Logan  Co.,  Ky.,  May  14. 

Bachman's  Warbler  was  described  by  Audubon  from  a  pair  of  birds 
taken  by  Dr.  Bachman  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  July,  1833. 
Several  specimens  were  subsequently  taken  in  the  West  Indies  during 
the  winter,  but  over  fifty  years  passed  before  the  species  was  again 
found  in  the  United  States.  It  proves  now  to  be  a  common  bird  in 
parts  of  its  range,  and  has  been  found  in  large  numbers  near  New 
Orleans,  and  on  the  Suwanee  River  in  Florida  in  March  and  April, 
and  at  Key  West  in  late  July  and  August.  The  nest  remained  undis- 
covered until  1897,  when  it  was  found  by  Widmann  in  Missouri,  and 
it  has  since  been  found  by  Embody  in  Kentucky  and  Wayne  in  South 
Carolina. 

Mr.  Brewster  and  myself  had  excellent  opportunities  to  study  its 
habits  on  the  Suwanee  River,  and  in  The  Auk  for  1891,  pp.  149-157, 
will  be  found  a  detailed  account  of  our  observations  written  by  Mr. 
Brewster.  It  was  migrating  with  other  Warblers,  and  kept  to  the  tops 
of  the  highest  trees,  but  in  its  breeding  haunts  it  proves  to  be  a  low- 
ranging  bird  like  most  of  the  members  of  this  genus.  Its  movements 
are  rather  leisurely,  and  resemble  those  of  V.  pinus  or  V.  celata.  Its 
song  is  described  by  Brewster  as  resembling  that  of  the  Parula  Warbler. 

641.  Vermivora  pinus  (Linn.).    BLUE-WINGED  WARBLER.    (Fig.  116.) 
Ad.  <f . — Crown  and  entire  underparts  bright  yellow,  a  black  line  through  the 


442  WOOD  WARBLERS 

eye;  back  and  rump  bright  olive-green;  wings  and  tail  bluish  gray;  greater 
and  middle  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white  or  yellowish  white;  outer  three 
tail-feathers  with  large  white  patches  on  their  inner  webs,  fourth  feather  with 
a  much  smaller  patch.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  yellow  on  the  head  confined  to 
the  forehead;  underparts  duller.  L.,  4'80;  W.,  2'40;  T.,  1'80;  B.  from  N.,  '33. 

Remarks. — The  only  variation  of  note  in  the  plumage  of  otherwise  typical 
specimens  of  this  species  occurs  in  the  color  of  the  wing-bars,  which  in  some 
specimens  are  tinged  with  yellow.  A  specimen  in  Mr.  Brewster's  collection 
(No.  25,511,  Seymour,  Conn.,  June  11,  1889,  E.  A.  Eames)  shows  this  varia- 
tion carried  to  an  extreme,  and  has  the  wing-bars  as  broadly  yellow  as  in  F. 
chrysoptera,  though  in  every  other  respect  it  is  typical  pinus.  Between  this 
species  and  V.  chrysoptera  there  exists  a  complete  set  of  intergrades,  which  are 
variously  called  K .  leucobronchialis  and  V.  lawrencei.  They  are  generally 
considered  to  be  hybrids,  and  it  has  also  been  suggested  that  dichromatism 
may  aid  in  producing  their  coloration.  Their  relationships  will  be  found  dis- 
cussed under  the  following  references:  Brewster,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  1881, 
218;  Ridgway,  Auk,  1885,  359;  Manual  N.  A.  Birds,  486;  Chapman,  Warb- 
lers of  N.  A.,  74;  Faxon,  Memoirs  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  1911,  No.  2. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  se.  Minn.,  s.  Mich.,  w.  N.  Y.,  Mass. 
(rarely),  and  s.  Conn.  s.  to  ne.  Kans.,  cen.  Mo.,  Ky.  Md.,  and  Del.  (casually 
further  s.);  winters  from  s.  Mex.  casually  to  Colombia;  very  rare  migrant  in 
se.  U.  S.  s.  of  Va.  and  e.  of  La. ;  occasional  in  s.  Ont. 

Washington,  rather  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  26-May  22;  Aug.  13-Sept. 
2;  a  few  breed.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  May  4-Sept.  7.  N.  Ohio,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  irregular,  possibly  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept 
15.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  30-Sept.  1. 

Nest,  of  bark  and  leaves,  lined  with  fine  strips  of  bark  and  tendrils,  and 
firmly  wrapped  with  numerous  leaves,  whose  stems  point  upward,  on  the 
ground,  generally  in  or  at  the  border  of  second  growth.  Eggs,  4-6,  white, 
thinly  speckled  with  rufous,  cinnamon-brown,  or  rufous-brown,  *62  x  "50. 
Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  22;  New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  20;  Oberlin,  Ohio, 
May  10;  se.  Minn.,  May  16  (nest  finished). 

This  species  may  be  found  in  scrubby  second  growths,  woodland 
borders,  or  even  the  lower  trees  of  dense  woods.  Its  movements  are 
rather  slow  and  leisurely,  and,  like  a  Chickadee,  it  may  sometimes  be 
seen  hanging  head  downward  while  searching  for  food. 

It  is  at  times  a  rather  persistent  songster,  and  its  peculiar  song  is 
not  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  that  of  any  other  Warbler.  As  a  rule, 
it  consists  of  the  two  drawled,  wheezy  notes  swee-chee]  the  first  inhaled, 
the  second  exhaled.  A  less  common  song,  uttered  later  in  the  season, 
is  wee,  cht-cM-cht-chi,  chur,  chee-chur,  and  is  sometimes  accompanied 
by  peculiar  kik  notes. 

1909.   WRIGHT,  H.  W.,  Auk,  XXVI,  337-345  (nesting  in  Mass.). 

Vermivora  leucobronchialis  (Brewst.}.  BREWSTER'S  WARBLER. 
Ad.  cf . — Forehead  and  forepart  of  the  crown  yellow,  a  black  line  from  the 
bill  through  the  eye;  rest  of  the  upperparts  bluish  gray;  wing-bars  broadly 
yellow;  tail  like  the  back,  three  to  four  outer  feathers  marked  with  white; 
underparts  pure  white,  faintly  washed  with  yellow  on  the  breast.  Fall 
specimens  are  more  heavily  washed  with  yellow,  and  the  upperparts  are 
margined  with  olive-green.  Ad.  9 . — Similar,  but  wing-bars  white,  and  crown 
not  so  bright. 

Remarks. — The  descriptions  are  from  typical  specimens  of  the  puzzling 
bird  known  as  Vermivora  leucobronchialis.  Between  it  and  V.  pinus  there  are 
specimens  showing  every  degree  of  intergradation.  Typical  examples  are 
comparatively  rare,  and  the  most  common  form  has  the  breast  heavily 
washed  with  yellow,  the  back  tinged  with  olive-green,  and  the  white  wing- 


WOOD  WARBLERS  443 

bars  washed  with  yellow;  in  other  words,  about  intermediate  between  typi- 
cal leucobronchialis  and  typical  pinus. 

This  hybrid  between  pinus  and  chrysoptera  or  color  phase  of  pinus, 
has  been  found  in  Louisiana,  from  Virginia  northward  to  Connecticut, 
and  as  far  west  as  Michigan,  Its  breeding  range  apparently  coincides 
with  the  northern  portion  of  that  of  pinus.  Upward  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  specimens,  representing  typical  leucobronchialis  and  various 
phases  of  its  intergradation  with  pinus  are  known,  and  in  the  Connect- 
icut River  Valley  the  bird  is  stated  to  be  more  frequent  than  chrysoptera. 
In  general  habits  it  resembles  both  pinus  and  chrysoptera.  Some  in- 
dividuals sing  like  the  former,  some  like  the  latter,  while  others 
have  notes  of  their  own.  The  significant  facts  in  the  bird's  interest- 
ing and  puzzling  history  are  given  in  the  Warblers  of  North  America, 
pp.  72-77,  and  by  Faxon  in  the  Memoirs  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.}  1910,  XL, 
pp.  57-78. 

Vermivora  lawrencei  (Herrick).  LAWRENCE'S  WARBLER.  Ad.  <?. — 
Forehead  and  forepart  of  the  crown  yellow,  rest  of  the  upperparts  bright 
olive-green;  wing-bars  white;  tail  bluish  gray,  the  three  to  four  outer  feathers 
marked  with  white;  a  black  patch  on  the  cheek  divided  by  a  yellow  line 
from  the  black  patch  on  the  throat  and  upper  breast ;  lower  breast  and  belly 
yellow,  under  tail-coverts  white.  Ad.  9. — Forehead  dingy  yellow,  rest  of 
the  upperparts  bright  olive-green;  wing-bars  white,  tinged  with  yellow;  tail 
as  in  the  d",  black  patches  of  the  d*  replaced  by  dusky  olive-green. 

Remarks. — This  bird  combines  the  characters  of  pinus  and  chrysoptera; 
it  has  the  black  cheek-patches  and  breast-patch  of  the  latter,  but  in  other 
respects  resembles  the  former,  and  is  doubtless  a  hybrid  between  the  two. 
Its  history  and  a  discussion  of  its  relationships  will  be  found  under  the  refer- 
ences given  above.  It  is  a  much  rarer  bird  than  Brewster's  Warbler,  and 
less  than  a  score  of  specimens  have  been  recorded. 

The  bird  resembles  Brewster's  Warbler  in  haunts  and  habits,  and, 
like  that  puzzling  bird,  it  sings  like  both  pinus  and  chrysoptera. 

642.  Vermivora  chrysoptera  (Linn.}.  GOLDEN-WINGED  WARBLER. 
(Fig.  117.)  Ad.  cf. — Crown  bright  yellow;  rest  of  the  upperparts  bluish  gray, 
sometimes  washed  with  greenish ;  a  large  black  patch  about  the  eye,  sepa- 
rated from  another  on  the  throat  by  a  white  stripe ;  a  white  line  over  the  eye ; 
wings  and  tail  bluish  gray;  tips  of  middle  wing-coverts  and  outer  webs  of 
greater  ones  bright  yellow,  forming  a  large  yellow  patch  on  the  wing;  outer 
three  tail-feathers  with  large  white  patches  on  their  inner  webs  at  the  tip, 
fourth  feather  with  a  smaller  patch;  lower  breast  and  belly  white;  sides 
grayish.  Ad.  9 . — Similar,  but  the  crown  and  upperparts  duller,  the  patch 
on  the  sides  of  the  head  and  throat  grayish  instead  of  black.  L.,  5' 10;  W.. 
2-46;  T.,  1-94;  B.  from  N.,  '34. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Alleghanian  fauna  from  cen.  Minn.,  s. 
Ont.,  and  Mass.  s.  to  s.  Iowa,  n.  Ills.,  n.  Ind.,  n.  N.  J.,  and  n.  Ga.;  winters 
from  Guatemala  to  Colombia,  and  casually  in  s.  Mex.;  very  rare  in  Fla., 
and  s.  Ga. ;  accidental  in  Man. 

Washington,  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  1-30;  Aug.  8-21.  Ossining,  rare 
S.  R.,  May  8- Aug.  25.  Cambridge,  rather  common  S.  R.,  May  12- Aug.  25. 
N.  Ohio,  rare  T.  V.  Glen  Ellyn,  irregular,  not  common  T.  V.,  May  4-18; 
Aug.  16-Sept.  24.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  5-Sept.  9. 

Nest,  much  like  that  of  V.  pinus,  on  or  near  the  ground,  in  second 
growths  or  bushy  fields.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  speckled  and  spotted,  chiefly 
about  the  larger  end,  with  cinnamon-brown,  chestnut,  or  umber,  '62  x  '50. 


444  WOOD  WARBLERS 

Date,  Buncombe  Co.,  N.  C.,  May  16;  Bethel,  Conn.,  May  29;  Monroe  Co., 
Mich.,  May  17. 

In  their  actions  and  choice  of  haunts  the  Golden-winged  resemble 
the  Blue-winged  Warblers.  Their  song  is  of  much  the  same  quality, 
but  the  notes  are  all  of  the  same  kind  and  length,  and  the  bird  utters 
a  rather  lazy  zee-zee-zee-zee,  at  once  distinguishable  from  the  song  of 
pinus. 

645.  Vermivora  rubricapilla  rubricapilla  (Wils.).  NASHVILLE  WAR- 
BLER.    Ads. — Top  and  sides  of  the  head  bluish  gray,  a  partially  concealed 
chestnut  patch  in  the  center  of  the  crown;  back  and  rump  bright  olive-green; 
wings  and  tail  edged  with  the  same  and  without  white;  underparts  bright 
yellow,  whiter  on  the  belly.    Im. — Upperparts  dull  olive-green,  more  or  less 
washed  with  brownish;  crown-patch  often  absent;  rump  brighter;  wings  and 
tail  as  in  the  ad.;  sides  of  the  head  brownish  ashy,  eye-ring  white;  under- 
parts yellowish,  brighter  on  the  breast;  sides  brownish.    L.,  4*77;  W.,  2'33; 
T.,  1-81;  B.  from  N.,  '28. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones  from 
s.  Sask.,  n.  Ont.,  cen.  Que.,  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  s.  to  Nebr.,  n.  Ills.,  n.  Pa., 
n.  N.  J.,  and  Conn.;  winters  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Guatemala;  very  rare  on  the 
Atlantic  slope  s.  of  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Washington,  uncommon  T.  V.,  Apl.  28-May  19;  Sept.  5-Oct.  2.  Ossin- 
ing,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  7-27;  Aug.  11-Oct.  4;  may  breed.  Cam- 
bridge, rather  common  S.  R.,  May  5-Sept.  15;  abundant  T.  V.  N.  Ohio, 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  28-May  27;  Sept.  1-Oct.  16.  Glen  Ellyn,  regular  T.  V., 
Apl.  27-May  25;  Aug.  20-Oct.  19.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  1- 
Sept.  29. 

Nest,  of  grasses  and  moss,  lined  with  finer  grasses  and  fine,  hairlike  root- 
lets, on  the  ground,  in  partial  clearings  or  tree-grown  pastures.  Eggs,  4-5, 
white,  thickly  speckled,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  rufous  or  cinnamon- 
brown,  "61  x  '48.  Date,  Cambridge,  May  25;  Lancaster,  N.  H.,  May  25; 
Bangor,  Maine,  June  3;  Detroit,  Minn.,  May  30. 

This  Warbler  is  an  inhabitant  of  rather  open  woodland,  young 
second  growth,  or  tree-bordered  fields.  In  addition  to  the  usual  chip, 
it  has  a  sharp,  characteristic  call-note,  while  its  song  is  about  as  likely 
to  attract  attention  as  that  of  the  Chestnut-sided  Warbler.  Thayer 
(" Warblers  of  North  America")  writes:  "The  Nashville  has  at  least  two 
perch-songs  and  a  flight-song,  all  subject  to  a  good  deal  of  variation. 
.  .  .  Its  commoner  perch-song  consists  of  a  string  of  six  or  eight  or 
more,  lively,  rapid  notes  suddenly  congested  into  a  pleasant,  rolling 
twitter.  ...  In  the  other  perch-song,  the  notes  of  what  correspond 
to  the  rolling  twitter  are  separate  and  richer,  and  the  second  part  of  the 
song  is  longer  and  more  noticeable  than  the  first  whose  notes  are  few 
and  slurred,  while  the  whole  is  more  languidly  delivered.  .  .  .  The 
flight-song,  a  fairly  common  performance  in  late  summer,  is  sung  from 
the  height  of  five  to  forty  feet  above  the  (usually  low)  tree  tops.  It  is 
like  the  commoner  perch-songs,  but  more  hurried,  and  slightly  elabora- 
ated, — often  with  a  few  chippings  added  at  both  ends." 

1910.   STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Jour.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.  XII,  28-33  (nesting). 

646.  Vermivora   celata   celata  (Say).    ORANGE-CROWNED  WARBLER. 
Ads. — Upperparts  rather  ashy  olive-green;  feathers  of  the  crown  orange- 
rufous  at  the  base;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  olive-green  and  without  white; 


WOOD  WARBLERS 


445 


FIG.  114.    Black  and  White  Warbler. 


FIG.  115.    Worm-eating  Warbler. 


FIG.  118.    Parula  Warbler. 


FIG.  119.    Myrtle  Warbler. 


FIG.  116.    Blue-winged  Warbler. 


FIG.  120.    Magnolia  Warbler. 


FIG.  117.    Golden-winged  Waroier.  FIG.  121.    Chestnut-sided  Warbler. 

FIGS.  114-121.    Heads  of  Warblers.    (Natural  size.) 


446  WOOD  WARBLERS 

eye-ring  yellow;  underparts  greenish  yellow,  obscurely  streaked  with  dusky 
on  the  breast.  Im. — Similar,  but  without  orange-rufous  in  the  crown; 
upperparts  more  ashy;  underparts  duller;  eye-ring  white.  L.,  5*00;  W.,  2'50; 
T.,  1'95;  B.,  from  N.,  '31. 

Range. — Cen.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  lower  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones 
from  Kowak  River,  Alaska,  se.  to  cen.  Keewatin  and  Man.,  and  s.  locally 
in  the  Rocky  Mts.  to  N.  M.;  winters  in  the  Gulf  and  S.  Atlantic  States  to 
S.  C.,  and  s.  through  Mex.  to  Mt.  Orizaba;  rare  in  migration  along  the 
Atlantic  slope  from  New  Hampshire  southward. 

Washington,  casual  T.  V.,  two  records,  Oct.  Ossining,  A.  V.  Cam- 
bridge, rare  T.  V.,  in  fall,  Oct.  5-Nov.  15.  N.  Ohio,  rare  T.  V.,  Apl.  27- 
May  21.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  May  1-21;  July  28-Oct.  7.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  25-  ;  Aug.  18-Oct.  16. 

Nest,  of  leaves  and  fine  grasses,  on  or  near  the  ground.  •  Eggs,  4-5,  white, 
with  specks  or  spots  of  cinnamon-brown  or  rufous,  more  numerous  at  the 
larger  end,  "63  x  '49.  Date,  St.  John's,  N.  B.,  June  9  (Thayer  Coll.). 

Orange-crowned  Warblers  are  rare  in  the  Atlantic  States  north  of 
South  Carolina.  In  Florida,  where  they  are  common  in  the  winter,  they 
evidently  prefer  the  densely  foliaged  live  and  water  oaks.  Their  sharp 
chip  is  sufficiently  characteristic  to  be  recognized  after  one  has  become 
thoroughly  familiar  with  it.  Their  song,  which  I  have  never  heard,  is 
described  by  Colonel  Goss  as  consisting  of  "a  few  sweet  trills  uttered  in  a 
spirited  manner,  and  abruptly  ending  on  a  rising  scale." 

647.  Vermivora  peregrina  (Wils.).  TENNESSEE  WARBLER.  (Fig. 
70a.)  Ad.  <?. — Top  and  sides  of  the  head  bluish  gray,  sharply  defined  from 
the  bright  olive-green  back  and  rump;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  olive- 
green;  no  white  wing-bars;  inner  margin  of  inner  vane  of  outer  tail-feathers 
generally  white  at  the  tip;  underparts  white,  sometimes  tinged  with  yellow. 
Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  crown  tinged  with  greenish  and  underparts  washed 
with  yellowish.  Im. — Upperparts  uniform  olive-green;  underparts  washed 
with  yellowish;  under  tail-coverts  white.  L.,  5'00;  W.,  2'63;  T.,  1'69; 
B.  from  N.,  "32. 

Remarks. — The  adults  of  this  and  the  two  preceding  species  may  be  dis- 
tinguished with  ease;  immature  birds,  however,  are  frequently  confused. 
The  Nashville  is  distinctly  yellow  on  the  breast  and  under  tail-coverts;  the 
Orange-crowned  is  pale  greenish  yellow,  with  dusky  streaks  and  yellow 
under  tail-coverts;  the  Tennessee  is  pale  greenish  yellow,  without  streaks,  and 
with  the  under  tail-coverts  white. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  upper  Yukon  Valley, 
s.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  s.  Ungava,  and  Anticosti  Is.  s.  to  s.  B.  C.,  s. 
Alberta,  Man.,  n.  Minn.,  Ont.,  N.  Y.  (Adirondacks),  n.  Maine,  and  N.  H.; 
winters  from  Oaxaca  to  Venezuela;  in  migration  occurs  mainly  in  the  Miss. 
Valley,  rare  on  the  Atlantic  slope;  occasional  in  Fla.  and  Cuba. 

Washington,  T.  V.,  rare  in  May;  occasionally  common,  Aug.  31-Nov. 
30.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  May  22-27;  Aug.  22-Oct.  2.  Cambridge,  rare  T. 
V.,  May  15-25;  Sept.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  May  4-25;  Sept.  10-Oct.  10. 
Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  30-June  6;  July  29-Oct.  9.  SE.  Minn., 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  30-  ;  Sept.  30-  . 

Nest,  of  fine  hempen  fibers,  grasses,  and  moss,  lined  with  hair,  in  low 
bushes  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  pearly  white,  with  a  circle  of  brown  and  pur- 
p^sh  spots  about  the  larger  end,  "60  x  *50  (B.,  B.,  and  R.).  Date,  S.  Lewis- 
ton,  Maine,  June  4. 

"The  Tennessee  is  easily  discovered  and  identified  by  its  peculiar 
song — a  twittering,  semi-trilled,  rather  prolonged  utterance  of  three 
parts,  not  very  unlike  the  weaker  and  buzzier  strains  of  the  American 


WOOD  WARBLERS  447 

Goldfinch's  song"  (Thayer  in  "Warblers  of  North  America").  Bradford 
Torrey  says  the  Tennessee's  song  "is  more  suggestive  of  the  Nashville's 
than  of  any  other,  but  so  decidedly  different  as  never  for  a  moment  to 
be  confounded  with  it,"  and  adds  a  detailed  description  ("The  Foot- 
path Way,"  p.  8). 

648.  Compsothlypis  americana  americana  (Linn.}.  PARULA  WAR- 
BLER. Similar  to  C.  a.  usnece  but  with  less  black  about  the  lores,  throat  in 
&  with  more  yellow,  the  blackish  throat  band  very  narrow  or  poorly  defined. 
9  not  distinguishable  from  9  of  usnece.  Smaller  than  specimens  of  usnece  from 
the  northern  Atlantic  States;  larger  than  specimens  of  usnece  from  the  lower 
Mississippi  valley.  W.,  2'25;  T.,  1'60;  B.,  '38  ("Warblers  of  North 
America"). 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Austral  zones  from  the  Dist.  of  Col.  s.  to 
Ala.  and  Fla. ;  winters  probably  in  Fla.  and  n.  West  Indies. 

Washington,  T.  V.,  and  a  few  breed,  Apl.  19-Oct.  16. 

Nest,  generally  in  bunches  of  Tillandsia.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  with  rufous 
markings,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  about  the  larger  end,  *66  x  '47.  Date,  Mt. 
Pleasant,  S.  C.,  Apl.  15;  Iredell  Co.,  N.  C.,  May  11. 

In  Florida  the  Parula's  notes  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  ornith- 
ological year,  and  its  song  is  associated  in  my  mind  with  the  beauties 
of  a  southern  spring  when  the  cypresses  are  enveloped  in  a  haze  of  lace- 
like  blossoms,  and  the  woods  are  fragrant  with  the  delicious  odor  of 
yellow  jasmine.  Then  the  dreamy  softness  of  the  air  is  voiced  by  the 
Parula's  quaint,  drowsy,  little  gurgling  sizzle,  chip-er,  chip-er,  chip-er, 
ckee-ee-ee-ee.  The  abundance  of  the  Tillandsia  'moss'  furnishes  the 
Parula  with  unlimited  nesting-sites,  and  the  bird  is  proportionately 
common. 

648a.  C.  a.  usneae  Brewst.  NORTHERN  PARULA  WARBLER.  (Fig.  118.) 
Ad.  cf. — Upperparts  grayish  blue;  a  greenish  yellow  patch  in  the  middle  of 
the  back;  greater  and  lesser  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white;  outer  tail- 
feathers  with  a  white  patch  near  the  end ;  throat  and  breast  yellow,  more 
or  less  marked  with  pale  rufous,  a  black,  or  bluish  black,  or  rufous  band 
across  the  breast;  belly  white;  sides  sometimes  marked  with  rufous.  Ad.  9. — 
Similar,  but  the  rufous  color  and  band  on  the  breast  sometimes  absent. 
Int.— Resembling  the  9.  L.,  4'73;  W.,  2'40;  T.,  1'76;  B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  mainly  in  Transition  and  Austral  zones  from 
e.  Nebr.,  n.  Minn.,  cen.  Ont.,  Anticosti  Is.  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  s.  to  cen.  s. 
Tex.,  s.  La.,  Ala.,  Va.,  and  Md.;  winters  probably  in  the  Bahamas  and 
West  Indies,  and  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Nicaragua. 

Washington,  T.  V.,  but  dates  not  distinguishable  from  those  of  ameri- 
cana. Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  May  2-28;  Sept.  21-Oct.  7.  Cambridge, 
common  T.  V.,  May  1-28;  Sept.  10-30.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  T.  V.,  May 
1-18.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  May  3-28;  Aug.  25-Oct.  1.  SE.  Minn., 
common  T.  V.,  May  5-Sept.  9. 

Nest,  in  a  bunch  of  Usnea  'moss.'  Eggs,  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding. 
Date,  New  Haven,  May  18;  Lancaster,  N.  H.,  May  31;  Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
May  12. 

This  slightly  differentiated  form  of  the  Parula  Warbler  resembles 
the  southern  race  in  song  and  habits.  During  its  migrations  it  is  gener- 
ally distributed,  preferring,  however,  deciduous  to  coniferous  growths, 
but  when  nesting  it  selects  only  localities  where  is  found  the  Usnea  moss 
in  which  it  builds. 


448  WOOD  WARBLERS 

650.  Dendroica  tigrina  (Gmel.}.  CAPE  MAY  WARBLER.  (Fig.  4.) 
Ad.  d*. — Crown  black,  slightly  tipped  with  greenish;  ear-coverts  rufous, 
bounded  behind  by  a  large  yellow  patch  on  the  side  of  the  neck;  back  olive- 
green,  broadly  streaked  witrh  black;  rump  yellow  or  greenish  yellow;  a  large 
white  patch  on  the  wing-coverts;  outer  tail-feathers  with  a  large  white  patch 
on  their  inner  webs,  near  the  tip;  underparts  yellow,  heavily  streaked  with 
black;  lower  belly  and  under  tail-coverts  whitish.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts 
grayish  olive-green;  crown  with  more  or  less  concealed  black;  rump  yellowish; 
a  yellow  line  over  the  eye;  middle  wing-coverts  with  narrow  white  tips; 
outer  tail-feathers  with  a  white  patch  on  their  inner  webs  near  the  tip; 
underparts  yellow,  streaked  with  black;  belly  and  under  tail-coverts  whiter. 
Im.  d*. — Resembles  the  9,  but  the  wing-coverts  have  more  white.  Im.  9. — 
Similar  to  ad.  9,  but  with  little  or  no  yellow  on  the  underparts;  upperparts 
duller,  and  more  uniform  in  color.  L.,  5'00;  W.,  2'61;  T.,  1'88;  B.  from  N., 
•30. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  s.  Mackenzie,  n. 
Ont.,  N.  B.,  and  N.  S.  s.  to  Man.,  n.  Maine,  and  N.  H.,  and  in  Jamaica  (?); 
winters  in  the  Bahamas  and  the  West  Indies  to  Tobago. 

Washington,  sometimes  very  common,  usually  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  1- 
20;  Aug.  4-Oct.  17.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Aug.  20-Oct.  1. 
Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.,  May  15-25;  Aug.  25.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  T.  V., 
May  4-18.  Glen  Ellyn,  irregular  T.  V.,  Apl.  30-May  21;  Sept.  8-15.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  8. 

Nest,  partially  pensile,  of  twigs  and  grass  fastened  with  spiders'  webbing, 
lined  with  horsehair,  on  a  low  branch  of  a  small  tree  in  pasture  or  open 
woodland.  Eggs,  3-4,  dull  white  or  buffy,  slightly  speckled,  and  wreathed 
around  the  larger  end  with  spots  of  brown  and  lilac,  *70  x  '50  (Chamberlain). 
Date,  St.  John's,  N.  B.,  June  16. 

During  its  migrations  this  generally  rare  Warbler  may  be  found 
associated  with  its  wood-inhabiting  congeners  and  it  also  frequents  the 
coniferous  trees  of  our  lawns.  In  the  summer  it  haunts  the  higher 
branches  of  coniferous  trees.  Gerald  Thayer  (in  " Warblers  of  North 
America")  writes  of  its  song:  "The  whole  utterance,  in  tone  phrasing  and 
accentuation,  strongly  suggests  the  Black  and  White  Warbler's  shorter 
song.  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand,  the  Cape  May's  singing  is  near  akin 
to  the  Blackpoll's." 

652.  Dendroica  sestiva  aestiva  (Gmel.).  YELLOW  WARBLER.  Ad.  <?. — 
Upperparts  bright  greenish  yellow,  brighter  on  the  crown;  wings  edged  with 
yellow;  tail  fuscous,  the  inner  vanes  of  the  feathers  yellow;  underparts  bright 
yellow,  streaked  with  rufous.  Ad.  9 . — Upperparts  uniform  yellowish  olive- 
green;  tail  as  in  the  d";  wings  fuscous,  edged  with  yellow;  underparts  bright 
yellow,  slightly,  if  at  all,  streaked  with  rufous  on  the  breast  and  sides.  Im.  d" . 
- — Similar  to  the  9.  Im.  9. — Upperparts  light  olive-green;  tail  fuscous,  the 
inner  margins  of  the  inner  vanes  of  the  tail-feathers  yellow;  uriderparts  uni- 
form dusky  yellowish.  L.,  5'10;  W.,  2'40;  T.,  1'89;  B.  from  N.,  '33. 

Remarks. — In  any  plumage  this  bird  may  be  known  by  the  yellow  on  the 
inner  vanes  of  the  tail-feathers. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  Hudsonian  through  Upper  Austral  zone  in 
N.  A.  e.  of  Alaska  and  Pacific  slope  from  tree  limit  s.  to  Nev.,  n.  N.  M.,  s. 
Mo.,  and  n.  S.  C.;  winters  from  Yucatan  to  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Peru. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  4-Sept.  28.  Ossining, 
common  S.  R.,  Apl.  30-Sept.  27.  Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept. 
15.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  14-Sept.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  very  com- 
mon S.  R.,  Apl.  30-Sept.  6.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  28-Sept.  10. 

Nest,  of  fine  grasses  and  hempen  fibers,  with  a  conspicuous  amount  of 
plant-down,  lined  with  plant-down,  fine  grasses,  and  sometimes  long  hairs,  in 
the  shrubs  or  trees  of  lawns  or  orchards,  about  water,  etc.  Eggs,  4-5,  bluish 


WOOD  WARBLERS 


449 


white,  thickly  marked  with  cinnamon-  and  olive-brown,  with  frequently  a 
wreath  about  the  larger  end,  '70  x  "50.  Date,  Waynesburg,  Pa.,  May  14; 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  20;  Cambridge,  May  23;  Lancaster,  N.  H., 
June  7;  Black  Hawk  Co.,  Iowa,  May  19;  se.  Minn.,  May  24. 

When  any  one  tells  me  he  has  seen  a  "Wild  Canary,"  I  feel  reason- 
ably sure  he  refers  to  the  Yellow  Warbler,  for  the  casual  observer  at 
once  betrays  his  inexperience  by  entirely  overlooking  the  bird's  streaked 
breast  and  slender  bill.  It  has,  it  is  true,  the  general  appearance  of  a 
yellow  bird,  and  its  bright  colors  and  preference  for  gardens,  orchards, 
the  shrubbery  of  our  lawns  or  bushy  brooksides,  instead  of  the  woods, 
frequently  bring  it  to  the  attention  of  those  to  whom  most  birds  are 
strangers.  It  is  an  active  bird,  and  its  song — wee-chee,  chee,  chee,  cher- 
wee — though  simple,  has  a  pleasing,  happy  ring. 


FIG.  122.    Black-throated  Blue  Warbler.    (Reduced.) 

654.  Dendroica  cserulescens  cserulescens  (GmeL).  BLACK-THROATED 
BLUE  WARBLER.  Ad.  cf . — Upperparts  grayish  blue,  back  sometimes  black- 
ish; wings  and  tail  edged  with  blue;  base  of  the  primaries  white,  forming  a 
white  spot  on  the  win  ^  at  the  end  of  the  primary  coverts;  inner  vanes  of 
outer  tail-feathers  with  a  white  patch  near  their  tips;  sides  of  the  head  and 
throat  black;  sides  mixed  black  and  white;  breast  and  belly  white.  Ad.  9. — • 
Upperparts  uniform  olive-green;  tail  generally  with  a  faint  bluish  tinge,  the 
white  patch  on  the  outer  feathers  scarcely  distinguishable;  white  at  the 
base  of  the  primaries  much  reduced  and  sometimes  concealed  by  the  pri- 
mary coverts;  car-coverts  dusky  gray;  underparts  soiled  buffy  yellowish. 
Im.  <?. — Similar  to  ad.  d",  but  the  upperparts  washed  with  greenish,  the 
throat  tipped  with  white,  and  less  black  on  the  sides.  Im.  9. — Similar  to 
ad.  9,  but  somewhat  yellower.  L.,  5'28;  W.,  2'52;  T.,  2'06;  B.  from  N.,  '29. 


450  WOOD  WARBLERS 

Remarks. — The  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries  is  the  distinguish- 
ing mark  of  this  species. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones,  from  n. 
Minn.,  cen.  Ont.,  and  ne.  Que.  s.  to  cen.  Minn.,  s.  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  Pa.  (mts.), 
and  n.  Conn.;  winters  from  Key  West,  Fla.,  southward;  in  migration  casually 
to  N.  D.,  Nebr.,  Kans.,  Colo.,  and  N.  M.;  accidental  on  the  Farallon  Islands. 

Washington,  very  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  19-May  30;  Aug.  4-Oct.  9. 
Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  25-May  28;  Aug.  26-Oct.  10.  Cambridge, 
rather  common  T.  V.,  May  10-25;  Sept.  20-Oct.  10.  N.  Ohio,  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  27-May  29;  Sept.  5-Oct.  16.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl. 
29-May  29;  Aug.  25-Oct.  10.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  11. 

Nest,  of  strips  of  bark,  fine  grasses,  and  pine  needles,  lined  with  hairlike 
black  rootlets,  in  the  heavier  undergrowth  of  dense  woods,  usually  within 
two  feet  of  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-5,  grayish  white,  with  distinct  and  obscure 
olive-brown  markings,  chiefly  about  the  larger  ends,  '68  x  '50.  Date,  Litch- 
field,  Conn.,  June  8;  Lancaster,  N.  H.,  June  19;  Kalamazoo  Co.,  Mich., 
May  29. 

Where  the  range  of  this  species  reaches  the  Canadian  zone,  it  nests 
in  coniferous  forests,  but  southward  its  summer  home  is  in  deciduous 
woods,  always,  however,  with  a  dense  undergrowth.  Its  call-note  is  a 
sharp,  recognizable  chip,  its  common  song  may  be  written  zwee-zwee- 
zwee,  but  it  is  subject  to  much  variation,  indeed  Thayer  (in  " Warblers 
of  North  America")  describes  three  additional  songs. 

The  male  Black-throated  Blue  Warbler  can  be  identified  at  sight, 
but  his  obscurely  colored  mate  has  been  the  cause  of  many  a  field 
student's  neckache.  When  flitting  about  with  other  Warblers  it  is 
difficult  to  observe  any  positive  character  by  which  to  distinguish  her; 
but  the  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries  is  an  unmistakable 
mark,  if  one  can  see  it  clearly. 

65  la.  D.  c.  cairnsi  Coues.  CAIRN'S  WARBLER.  Similar  to  D.  c. 
ccerulescens  but  d1  with  the  back  always  more  or  less  spotted  with  black, 
sometimes  the  center  of  the  back  being  entirely  black.  Ad.  9  generally 
darker  than  9  of  c&rulescens.  While  specimens  of  true  cczrulescens  not  infre- 
quently show  more  or  less  black  in  the  back,  cairnsi  is  very  rarely  without 
this  character. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Alleghanian  faunas  in  the  Alleghanies 
from  Md.  to  Ga. ;  winters  in  the  W7est  Indies. 

655.  Dendroica  coronata  (Linn.}.  MYRTLE  WARBLER.  (Fig.  119.) 
Ad.  c? . — A  yellow  patch  on  the  crown,  rump,  and  each  side  of  the  breast; 
upperparts  bluish  gray,  streaked  with  black;  two  white  wing-bars;  outer 
tail-feathers  with  white  spots  on  their  inner  vanes  near  the  tip ;  throat  white ; 
breast  and  upper  belly  heavily  marked  with  black;  lower  belly  white.  Ad. 
9. — Similar,  but  with  less  black  below;  breast  simply  streaked  with  black; 
upperparts  browner.  Im.  and  ads.  in  winter. — Yellow  crown-patch  more  or 
less  concealed  by  brownish  tips  to  the  feathers;  rump  bright  yellow;  yellow  on 
the  sides  of  the  breast  much  reduced;  upperparts  grayish  brown,  streaked 
with  black;  wing-bars  grayish;  tail  with  white  patches;  underparts  soiled 
white,  streaked  with  black.  L.,  5'65;  W.,  2'85;  T.,  2'25;  B.  from  N.,  '29. 

Remarks. — The  yellow  patches  on  the  crown,  rump,  and  sides  of  the 
breast  are  characteristic  of  this  species. 

Range. — N.  A.  except  w.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  and  Canadian 
zones  from  tree  limit  in  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Mackenzie,  cen.  Keewatin,  and  cen. 
Ungava  s.  to  n.  B.  C.,  s.  Alberta,  n.  Minn.,  n.  Mich.,  cen.  Ont.,  N.  H.,  and 
Maine,  and  mts.  of  N.  Y.,  Vt.  and  Mass.;  winters  from  Kans.,  Ohio  Val- 


WOOD  WAEBLERS  451 

ley,  and  N.  J.  (locally  s.  New  England)  s.  to  the  Greater  Antilles,  Mex., 
and  Panama,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  cen.  Ore.  to  s.  Calif.;  acciden- 
tal in  Greenland  and  e.  Siberia. 

Washington,  abundant  W.  V.,  Aug.  7-May  23.  Ossining,  common  T. 
V.,  Apl.  13-May  28;  Aug.  16-Nov.  11;  a  few  winter.  Cambridge,  abundant 
T.  V.,  Apl.  12-May  20;  Sept.  1-Nov.  1;  a  few  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  12-May  20;  Sept.  15-Nov.  3.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl. 
8-May  28;  Sept.  25-Dec.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  6-  ;  Sept. 
9-Oct.  28. 

Nest,  of  vegetable  fibers  lined  with  grasses,  in  coniferous  trees  5-10  feet 
up.  Eggs,  4-5,  white  or  grayish  white,  distinctly  and  obscurely  spotted  and 
speckled  or  blotched  with  olive-brown  or  rufous-brown,  '70  x  *52.  Date, 
Bangor,  Maine,  May  30;  Kentville,  N.  S.,  May  29. 

These  strong,  hardy  Warblers  leave  their  cousins  of  the  woods  and 
in  loose  companies  forage  in  old  fields  and  scrubby  growths  among 
the  bayberry  or  myrtle  (Myrica)  bushes,  which  bear  their  favor- 
ite food.  So  fond  are  they  of  these  berries  that  their  movements 
are  largely  governed  by  the  success  or  failure  of  the  bayberry  crop. 
Near  my  home  at  Englewood,  N.  J.,  Myrtle  Warblers  are  always  com- 
mon during  the  winter  if  there  is  an  abundance  of  bayberries  and  always 
absent  when  the  berries  are  wanting. 

No  Warbler  is  more  easily  identified  than  this  bird  with  its  four 
distinct  patches  of  yellow.  The  yellow  rump  is  conspicuous  in  life, 
and,  in  connection  with  the  bird's  characteristic  tchep,  forms  an  excel- 
lent field-mark.  It  begins  to  sing  on  its  spring  migrations  a  bright, 
cheery  trill  suggesting  the  song  of  the  Junco. 

AUDUBON'S  WARBLER  (656.  Dendroica  auduboni  auduboni),  a  species  of 
the  Western  States,  has  been  recorded  once  from  Massachusetts  and  once 
from  Pennsylvania. 

657.  Dendroica  magnolia  (Wils.).  MAGNOLIA  WARBLER.  (Fig.  120.) 
Ad.  d". — Crown  bluish  gray,  cheeks  and  forehead  black,  a  white  line  behind 
the  eye;  back  black,  bordered  with  olive-green,  a  large  white  patch  on  the 
wing-coverts;  rump  yellow,  tail  black,  inner  vanes  of  all  but  the  central 
feathers  with  white  patches  on  their  middle,  the  end  third  of  the  feather 
being  entirely  black;  throat  yellow,  breast  and  sides  heavily  streaked  with 
black.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with  the  colors  duller  and  less  sharply  defined; 
back  greener.  Ads.  fall  and  im.  d" — Top  and  sides  of  the  head  ashy;  back 
olive-green,  with  nearly  concealed  black  spots;  two  narrow  wing-bars; 
rump  yellow,  tail  as  in  the  adults;  underparts  yellow;  whiter  on  the  belly; 
sides  with  black  streaks.  Im.  9 . — Similar,  but  no  black  streaks  above,  those 
on  sides  barely  evident.  L.,  5' 12;  W.,  2'30;  T.,  2'00;  B.  from  N.,  '30. 

Remarks. — In  any  plumage  this  bird  may  be  known  by  the  white  patches 
on  the  tail  being  near  the  middle  instead  of  at  the  tip  of  the  feathers. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  upper  Transition  zones 
from  sw.  Mackenzie  (casually  Great  Bear  Lake),  s.  Keewatin,  n.  Que.,  and 
N.  F.  s.  to  cen.  Alberta,  s.  Sask.,  Minn.,  n.  Mich.,  and  n.  Mass.,  and  in  the 
mts.  of  W.  Va.,  Md.,  Pa.,  and  N.  Y.;  winters  from  s.  Mex.  to  Panama. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  22-May  30;  Aug.  15-Oct.  6.  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  May  9-28;  Aug.  13-Oct.  11.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  rather 
common,  May  12-25;  not  uncommon,  Sept.  10-25.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V 
Apl.  28-May  27;  Sept.  1-Oct.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  May  3-June 
5;  Aug.  12-Oct.  9.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  6-  ;  Aug.  12-Sept.  9. 

Nest,  of  fine  twigs,  leaf  stems,  etc.,  lined  with  hairlike  rootlets,  in  conifer- 
ous trees,  usually  3-6  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  white,  marked  with  cinnamon-  and 

31 


452  WOOD  WARBLERS 

olive-brown,   chiefly  in  a  wreath  about  the  larger  end,   *66  x  *48.    Date, 
Branchport,  N.  Y.,  June  2;  Lancaster,  N.  H.,  May  24. 

Adult  Magnolia  Warblers  are  so  distinctly  marked  that  ordinarily 
they  may  be  identified  at  sight.  Immature  birds  are  less  strikingly 
colored,  but  in  any  plumage  the  species  may  be  known  by  having  the 
white  tail-spots  nearer  the  middle  than  the  ends  of  the  feathers.  Seen 
from  below,  the  birds  thus  appear  to  have  a  white  tail  broadly  banded 
with  black. 

The  Magnolia's  summer  home  is  among  the  spruces  and  hemlocks. 
Its  typical  song,  which  is  of  somewhat  the  same  character  as  that  of  the 
Yellow  Warbler,  is  described  by  Thayer  (in  " Warblers  of  North  Amer- 
ica") as  a  "peculiar  and  easily  remembered :  weeto  weeto  weeeetee-eet, — 
or  witchi,  witchi,  whichi  tit, — the  first  four  notes  deliberate  and  even  and 
comparatively  low  in  tone,  the  last  three  hurried  and  higher  pitched, 
with  decided  emphasis  on  the  antepenult  weet  or  witch." 

1910.  -STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Auk,  XXVII,  384-389  (nesting). 

658.  Dendroica  cerulea  (Wils.).  CERULEAN  WARBLER.  Ad.  &. — 
Upperparts  bright  cerulean  blue,  the  sides  of  head  and  back  streaked  with 
black;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  blue;  two  white  wing-bars;  inner  vanes 
of  all  but  the  central  tail-feathers  with  white  patches  at  their  tips;  under - 
parts  white,  a  bluish  black  band  across  the  breast;  sides  streaked  with  bluish 
black.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  bluish  olive-green;  wings  and  tail  much  as  in 
the  <?;  underparts  white,  generally  more  or  less  tinged  with  pale  yellow. 
Ira.— Similar  to  ad.  9,  but  yellower.  L.,  4'50;  W.,  2'65;  B.  from  N.,  '31. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  Austral  zones  from  se.  Nebr.,  se. 
Minn.,  s.  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  w.  N.  Y.,  w.  Pa.,  and  W.  Va.  s.  to  ne.  Tex.,  La., 
and  cen.  Ala.  and  locally  in  w.  N.  C.,  w.  Va.,  e.  Md.,  and  cen.  Del.;  winters 
from  Panama  to  Peru;  in  migration  straggles  to  N.  Mex.;  Colo.,  R.  I.,  Conn., 
N.  J.,  and  e.  Pa. 

Washington,  several  records  in  May,  one  in  fall.  N.  Ohio,  common  S. 
R.,  Apl.  29-Sept.  20.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common,  local  S.  R.,  May  8- Aug.  19. 
SE.  Minn.,  rare  S.  R. 

Nest,  of  fine  grasses  bound  with  spiders'  silk,  lined  with  strips  of  bark 
and  fine  grasses  and  with  a  few  lichens  attached  to  its  outer  surface,  in  a  tree, 
25-50  feet  from  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-4,  creamy  white,  thickly  covered  with 
rather  heavy  blotches  of  reddish  brown,  '60  x  '47  (Allen,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn. 
Club,  IV,  1879,  26).  Date,  Oberlin,  Ohio,  May  15;  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  May 
20. 

In  writing  of  this  species  as  observed  by  him  in  Ritchie  County, 
West  Virginia,  Mr.  Brewster  says : 

"Decidedly  the  most  abundant  of  the  genus  here.  The  first  speci- 
men taken  May  5.  They  inhabit  exclusively  the  tops  of  the  highest 
forest  trees,  in  this  respect  showing  an  affinity  with  D.  blackburnice. 
In  actions  they  most  resemble  D.  pensylvanica,  carrying  the  tail  rather 
high  and  having  the  same  'smart  bantamlike  appearance/  Were  it 
not  for  these  prominent  characteristics  they  would  be  very  difficult 
to  distinguish  in  the  tree  tops  from  Parula  [—  Compsothlypis]  ameri- 
cana,  the  songs  are  so  precisely  alike.  That  of  the  latter  bird  has,  how- 
ever, at  least  two  regular  variations:  in  one,  beginning  low  down,  he 
rolls  his  guttural  little  trill  quickly  and  evenly  up  the  scale,  ending 
apparently  only  when  he  can  get  no  higher;  in  the  other  the  commence- 


WOOD  WARBLERS  453 

ment  of  this  trill  is  broken  or  divided  into  syllables,  like  zee,  zee,  zee, 
ze-ee-ee-eep.  This  latter  variation  is  the  one  used  by  D.  ccerulea,  and  1 
could  detect  little  or  no  difference  in  the  songs  of  dozens  of  individuals. 
At  best  it  is  a  modest  little  strain  and  far  from  deserving  the  encomium 
bestowed  upon  it  by  Audubon,  who  describes  it  as  'extremely  sweet  and 
mellow;'  decidedly  it  is  neither  of  these,  and  he  must  have  confounded 
with  it  some  other  species.  In  addition  to  the  song  they  utter  the  almost 
universal  Dendroicine  lisp  and  also  the  characteristic  tchep  of  D.  cor- 
onata,  which  I  had  previously  supposed  entirely  peculiar  to  that  bird." 

659.  Dendroica     pensylvanica     (Linn.).      CHESTHUT-SIDED    WAR- 
BLER.    (Fig.  121.)    Ad.  <?. — Crown  bright  yellow,  a  black  line  behind  the 
eye;  front  part  of  the  cheeks  black;  ear-coverts  white;  back  streaked  with 
black  and  margined  with  bright  olive-green;  wing-bars  yellowish  white; 
tail  black,  the  outer  feathers  with  white  patches  on  their  inner  vanes  at  the 
tip;  underparts  white,  the  sides  chestnut.    Ad.   9. — Similar,  but  somewhat 
duller  in  color.   Ad.  in  fall  and  im. — Very  different;  upperparts  bright  yellow- 
ish olive-green,  back  sometimes  streaked  with  black;  wing-bars  yellowish 
white;  underparts  pure,  silky  white,  the  sides  in  ads.  with  spots  or  patches  of 
chestnut.    L.,  5'14;  W.,  2'45;  T.,  2'00;  B.  from  N.,  '29. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  the  Transition  zone  from  cen. 
Sask.,  nw.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  e.  Nebr.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  n.  Ohio, 
n.  N.  J.,  and  R.  I.,  and  s.  in  the  Alleghanies  to  Tenn.,  and  S.  C.,  and  cas- 
ually in  s.  Mo.  and  the  Wabash  Valley;  winters  from  Guatemala  to  Panama; 
in  migration  casual  in  Fla.,  the  Bahamas,  and  s.  Mex. 

Washington,  abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  19-May  30;  Aug.  10-Oct.  14.  Ossin- 
ng,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  May  2-Sept.  24.  Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R., 
May  5-Sept.  10.  N.  Ohio,  T.  V.,  May  2-25.  Glen  Ellyn,  rare  S.  R.,  com- 
mon T.  V.,  May  1-Sept.  26.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  3-Sept.  15. 

Nest,  of  strips  of  bark,  leaf  stems,  etc.,  lined  with  tendrils  and  rootlets,  in 
mshes,  about  3  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  with  numerous  distinct  and 
obscure  cinnamon-  and  olive-brown  markings,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  about 
;he  larger  end,  '69  x  '50.  Date,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  23;  Cambridge, 
May  26;  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  May  20;  se.  Minn.,  May  29. 

When  settled  for  the  summer,  Chestnut-sided  Warblers  may  be 
'ound  in  second  growths,  scrubby  clearings,  or  the  bushy  borders  of 
woodlands.  There  is  a  suggestion  in  their  movements  of  the  restless 
activity  of  the  Redstart,  as  with  drooped  wings  and  slightly  raised 
bail  they  flit  among  the  lower  growth.  They  have  two  songs,  both  of 
which  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Yellow  Warbler,  though  a  practiced 
ear  can  at  once  recognize  the  song  of  either. 

Adults  of  this  species  are  too  conspicuously  marked  to  be  mistaken 
*or  any  other  Warbler,  but  in  the  fall  have  a  care  in  identifying  the 
very  differently  colored  young. 

660.  Dendroica  castanea  (Wils.).    BAY-BREASTED  WARBLER.    Ad.  d1. 
— Forehead  and  cheeks  black,  a  cream-buff  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  neck; 
crown  chestnut;  throat,  upper  breast,  and  sides  chestnut-rufous;  back  brownish 
ashy,  streaked  with  black;  two  white  wing-bars,  inner  vanes  of  outer  tail- 
feathers  with  white  patches  at  their  tips ;  lower  breast  and  belly  buffy  white. 
Ad.   9. — Crown  olive-green,  streaked  with  black  and  with  generally  some 
chestnut;  rest  of  upperparts  as  in  the  c?;  underparts  buffy  white;  breast  and 
sides  more  or  less  stained  with  rufous.     Ad.  in  fall  and  im. — Upperparts 
bright  olive-green,  indistinctly  streaked  with  black;  wings  and  tail  much  as 


454  WOOD  WARBLERS 

in  the  ads. ;  underparts  white,  tinged  with  cream-buff,  especially  on  the  flanks; 
ads.  usually  have  some  concealed  chestnut  in  crown  and  traces  of  chestnut 
on  sides.  L.,  5'63;  W.,  2'95;  T.,  2'12;  B.  from  N.,  '30. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  nw.  Alberta,  s. 
Keewatin,  s.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  s.  Man.,  n.  Maine,  and  mts.  of  N.  H. ; 
winters  in  Panama  and  Colombia;  casual  in  migrations  to  Mont.,  S.  D.,  and 
Tex. ;  irregular  on  the  Atlantic  slope  and  rare  s.  of  Va. 

Washington,  sometimes  abundant,  usually  uncommon  T.  V.,  May  2- 
27;  Aug.  29-Nov.  Ossining,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  14-28;  Aug.  5- 
Sept.  26.  Cambridge,  rather  rare  T.  V.,  May  15-25;  Sept.  12-28.  N.  Ohio, 
common  T.  V.,  May  4-23;  Sept.  7-Oct.  10.  Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common 
T.  V.,  May  8- June  5;  Aug.  13-Oct.  4.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  May 
13-  ;  Aug.  18-Sept.  15. 

Nest,  of  grasses  and  plant  fibers,  lined  with  plant-down  and  long  hairs, 
in  coniferous  trees,  5-20  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  finely  marked,  chiefly  at 
the  larger  end,  distinctly  and  obscurely  with  cinnamon-,  olive-,  or  rufous- 
brown,  '72  x  '52.  Date,  Bangor,  Maine,  June  15. 

During  its  migrations  this  tastefully  marked  Warbler  is  generally 
uncommon  enough  to  be  considered  somewhat  of  a  prize,  though  at 
irregular  intervals  it  becomes  comparatively  common.  It  is  said  to  be 
much  rarer  in  fall  than  in  spring,  but  at  this  season  Bay-breasts  so 
closely  resemble  Black-polls,  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine 
specimens,  while,  in  immature  plumage,  many  birds  cannot  possibly 
be  distinguished  in  nature. 

In  the  summer  the  Bay-breasts  inhabit  the  northern  coniferous 
forests,  living,  it  is  said,  in  the  tree  tops.  "In  a  grouping  based  on  songs, 
the  Bay-breast  should  stand  in  a  quintette  with  the  Blackburnian,  the 
Black-poll,  the  Black  and  White,  and  the  Cape  May.  .  ,  .  The  Bay- 
breast's  singing,  in  the  spring  at  least,  is  the  most  liquid  and  inarticulate 
of  the  lot  and  sometimes  the  loudest"  (Thayer  in  " Warblers  of  North 
America''). 

1900.  STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.,  103-110  (nesting). 

G61.  Dendroica  striata  (Forst.).  BLACK-POLL  WARBLER.  (Fig.  123.) 
Ad.  cf. — Crown  black;  ear-coverts  white;  nape  streaked,  black  and  white; 
back  and  rump  ashy,  streaked  with  black;  two  white  wing-bars;  inner  vanes 
of  outer  tail-feathers  with  white  patches  at  their  tips;  underparts  white 
streaked  with  black,  the  streaks  most  numerous  on  the  sides,  and  wanting 
on  the  middle  of  the  breast  and  belly.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts  olive-green, 
distinctly  streaked  with  black;  wings  and  tail  as  in  the  d";  underparts  white, 
tinged  with  yellow,  the  breast  and  sides  distinctly  streaked  with  black. 
Ads.  fall  and  im. — Similar  to  9,  but  the  upperparts  are  brighter  and  not 
distinctly  streaked,  the  underparts  yellower  and  not  distinctly  streaked. 
L.,  5-56;  W.,  2'92-  T.,  2'05;  B.  from  N.,  '30. 

Remarks. — No  two  of  our  Warblers  more  closely  resemble  each  other  than 
do  immature  and  fall  examples  of  this  and  the  preceding  species.  There  is 
no  difference  in  the  color  of  the  upperparts,  but  castanea  has  the  underparts 
tinged  with  delicate  cream-buff,  strongest  on  the  flanks,  while  striata  is  dis- 
tinctly yellowish  below. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones  from  limit 
of  trees  in  nw.  Alaska,  to  N.  F.,  s.  to  cen.  B.  C.,  Man.,  Mich.,  n.  Maine, 
and  mts.  of  Vt.  and  N.  H.;  winters  from  Venezuela  to  Brazil;  migrates 
through  the  Bahamas  and  West  Indies.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

Washington,  abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  28- June  16;  Aug.  31-Oct.  20.  Ossin- 
ing, common  T.  V.,  May  7-June  6;  Aug.  30-Oct.  16.  Cambridge,  abundant 


WOOD  WARBLERS  455 

T.'V.,  May  12-June  5;  Sept.  8-Oct.  20.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  May  6- 
June  2;  Sept.  1-Oct.  16.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  May  2-June  8;  Aug. 
23-Sept.  27.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  8-  ;  Aug.  27-  . 

Nest,  of  twigs,  moss,  rootlets,  etc.,  lined  with  fine  grasses  and  tendrils, 
generally  in  spruce  trees,  about  6  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  more  or  less 
speckled  and  spotted,  and  generally  heavily  blotched  at  the  larger  end  with 
cinnamon-,  olive-,  or  rufous-brown,  '70  x  '54.  Date,  Grand  Menan,  N.  B., 
June  11. 

The  Black-poll  is  not  the  last  Warbler  to  reach  us  in  the  spring,  but 
it  is  usually  the  last  of  the  transients  to  leave  us,  the  length  of  its  stay 
and  its  abundance  making  its  passage  one  of  the  features  of  the  spring 
migration.  In  the  fall  it  is  even  more  abundant.  Adults  and  young  are 
now  alike  in  plumage,  but  they  are  to  be  confused  only  with  the  much 
rarer  Bay-breasts. 

Gerald  Thayer  (in  " Warblers  of  North  America")  describes  the 
Black-poll's  main  song,  from  which  there  are  many  variations,  as  "a 
string  of  six  to  twelve  or  more,  short,  equal  and  equally  -  divided  sibi- 
lant notes,  cobweb-thin  and  glassy-clear, — uttered  rather  fast;  the  whole 
song  smoothly  swelling  in  volume  to  the  middle,  or  the  second  third, 
and  then  smoothly  falling  off." 

662.  Dendroica  fusca  (Mull.}.  BLACKBURNIAN  WARBLER.  Ad.  <?. — 
Center  of  the  black  crown,  a  line  over  the  eye,  patch  behind  the  black 
ear-coverts,  throat,  and  breast  beautiful  rich  orange;  back  black,  streaked 
with  whitish;  wing-coverts  white,  forming  a  large  white  patch  on  the  wing; 
inner  vane  of  most  of  the  tail-feathers  almost  entirely  white,  except  at  the 
tip;  the  outer  vane  of  the  outer  feather  white  at  the  base;  belly  tinged  with 
orange,  sides  streaked  with  black.  Ad.  9 . — Resembles  the  d",  but  the  orange 
markings  are  paler,  the  upperparts  are  ashy  olive-green  streaked  with 
black  and  whitish;  the  white  on  the  wings  arid  tail  is  less  extensive.  Im.  d". — 
Resembles  the  9,  but  has  the  orange  markings  dull  yellow,  the  crown-patch 
nearly  absent.  Im.  9 . — Similar  to  the  im.  cf ,  but  the  yellow,  markings  much 
paler,  nearly  buffy,  the  back  browner.  L.,  5'25;  W.,  2'71;  T.,  1'96;  B.  from 
N.,  -31. 

Remarks. — In  connection  with  other  markings,  the  large  amount  of 
white  in  the  tail,  appearing  on  even  the  outer  vane  of  the  outer  feather,  is 
characteristic  of  this  species. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  lower  Canadian  and  upper  Transition 
zones  from  Man.  and  Cape  Breton  Is.  to  cen.  Minn.,  Wise.,  n.  Mich.,  Mass., 
and  Conn.,  and  in  the  Alleghanies  from  Pa.  to  Ga. ;  winters  from  Colombia 
to  cen.  Peru. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  30- June  3;  Aug.  14-Oct.  7.  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  May  10-29;  Aug.  15-Oct.  15.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  uncommon, 
May  12-22;  rare,  Sept.  15-30.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  27-May  25; 
Sept.  1-25.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  T.  V.,  May  4-June  8;  Aug.  12-Sept. 
22.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  3-  ;  Sept.  4. 

Nest,  of  fine  twigs  and  grasses,  lined  with  grasses  and  tendrils,  in  conifer- 
ous trees,  10-40  feet  up.  Eggs,  4,  grayish  white  or  bluish  white,  distinctly 
and  obscurely  spotted,  speckled,  and  blotched  with  cinnamon-brown  or 
olive-brown,  "68  X  '50.  Date,  Branchport,  N.  Y.,  May  24;  Lancaster,  N.  H., 
June  4;  Kalamazoo  Co.,  Mich.,  June  2. 

The  Blackburnian  is  uncommon  enough  to  make  us  appreciate  his 
unusual  beauty.  Coming  in  May,  before  the  woods  are  fully  clad,  he 
seems  like  some  bright-plumaged  tropical  bird  who  has  lost  his  way 
d  wandered  to  northern  climes.  The  summer  is  passed  among  the 


456  WOOD  WARBLERS 

higher  branches  in  coniferous  forests,  and  in  the  early  fall  the  bird 
returns  to  surroundings  which  seem  more  in  keeping  with  its  attire. 
Mr.  Minot  describes  its  summer  song  as  resembling  the  syllables 
wee-see-wee-see-wee-see  (wee-see-ick) ,  while  in  the  spring  its  notes  may 
be  likened  to  wee-see-wee-see,  tsee-tsee,  tsee,  tsee}  tsee-tsee,  tsee,  tsee, 
the  latter  syllables  being  on  ascending  scale,  the  very  last  shrill  and  fine. 

663.  Dendroica  dominica  dominica  (Linn.).  YELLOW-THROATED 
WARBLER.  Ad.  <?. — A  yellow  line  in  front  of  the  eye  and  a  white  line  over  it; 
upperparts  gray,  forehead  blackish;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  grayish,  two 
white  wing-bars;  outer  tail-feathers  with  white  patches  near  their  tips; 
cheeks  and  sides  of  the  throat  black;  a  white  patch  on  the  side  of  the  neck; 
throat  and  breast  yellow,  belly  white,  sides  streaked  with  black.  Ad.  9. — 
Similar,  but  with  less  black  on  the  head,  throat  and  neck.  L.,  5'25;  W.,  2*60; 
T.,  2'01;  B.,  '49. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  s.  Md. 
and  cen.  Del.  to  middle  Fla.;  winters  in  s.  Fla.,  Bahamas,  and  Greater 
Antilles,  and  also  casually  n.  to  S.  C.  and  in  the  Lesser  Antilles;  in  migration 
casually  to  N.  Y.,  Mass.,  and  Conn. 

Washington,  rare  S.  R.,  rather  common  in  late  July  and  Aug.;  Apl. 
19-Sept.  4. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  strips  of  bark,  and  Tillandsia  'moss,'  lined  with  vegetable 
down,  30-40  feet  from  the  ground,  in  pines  or  live-oaks,  sometimes  in  a 
bunch  of  Tillandsia  'moss.'  Eggs,  4-5,  white  or  grayish  white,  with  numerous 
distinct  and  obscure  cinnamon-  or  olive-brown  markings,  sometimes  evenly 
distributed,  sometimes  in  a  wreath  at  the  larger  end,  "74  x  '52.  Date, 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Apl.  2;  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Apl.  22. 

Some  birds  are  so  characteristic  of  certain  places  that  wherever 
heard  or  seen  they  recall  their  accustomed  haunts.  I  have  only  to 
remember  the  song  of  the  Yellow-throated  Warbler  to  give  form  to  a 
mental  picture  of  some  tree-bordered  stream  or  bayou  in  the  South. 
The  song  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Indigo  Bunting,  but  has 
a  wilder,  more  ringing  quality.  In  this  respect  it  suggests  the  song  of 
Seiurus  motacilla.  It  may  be  written  ching-ching-ching,  chicker,  cher- 
wee.  It  is  to  some  extent  ventriloquial,  and  this  in  connection  with 
the  rather  deliberate  movements  of  the  birds,  and  the  fact  that  they 
resort  to  the  upper  branches,  makes  it  sometimes  difficult  to  locate  the 
singer. 

663a.  D.  d.  albilora  Ridgw.  SYCAMORE  WARBLER.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  with  a  smaller  bill  and  the  line  in  front  of  the  eye  white 
instead  of  yellow.  W.,  2'60;  T.,  2'00;  B.,  '45. 

Range. — E.  cen.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Upper  and  Lower  Austral  zones  of 
Miss.  Valley  from  se.  Nebr.,  s.  Wise.,  s.  Mich.,  Ohio,  W.  Va.,  and  s.  N.  C. 
s.  to  e.  Tex.  and  La.;  winters  from  Puebla,  Mex.,  to  Costa  Rica;  in  migra- 
tion occasional  e.  to  S.  C. 

"The  Sycamore  Warbler  is  a  common  summer  resident  in  the  bot- 
tom-lands [of  Illinois],  where,  according  to  the  writer's  experience,  it 
lives  chiefly  in  the  large  sycamore  trees  along  or  near  the  water-courses. 
On  this  account  it  is  a  difficult  bird  to  obtain  during  the  breeding 
season,  the  male  usually  keeping  in  the  topmost  branches  of  the  tallest 
trees,  out  of  gunshot  and  often,  practically,  out  of  sight,  although  its 
presence  is  betrayed  by  its  loud,  very  unwarblerlike  song"  (Ridgway), 


WOOD  WARBLERS  457 

667.  Dendroica  virens  (GmeL).  BLACK-THROATED  GREEN  WAR- 
BLER. Ad.  d". — Upperparts  bright  olive-green,  back  sometimes  spotted  with 
black;  line  over  the  eye  and  cheeks  bright  yellow,  ear-coverts  dusky;  two 
white  wing-bars;  inner  vanes  of  outer  tail-feathers  entirely  white,  outer  web 
white  at  the  base;  throat  and  breast  black;  belly  white,  sometimes  tinged 
with  yellow;  sides  streaked  with  black.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  the  black  of 
throat  and  breast  more  or  less  mixed  with  yellowish.  Ad.  d"  in  fall  and  im.<?. 
— Similar  to  the  9 ,  but  with  more  yellow  on  the  chest,  the  black  sometimes 
being  almost  entirely  hidden  or  wanting.  Im.  9. — Similar  to  ad  9,  but 
duller  above,  black  on  chest  sometimes  entirely  absent.  L.,  5*10;  W.,  2'46; 
T.,  1-99;  B.  from  N.,  '25. 

Remarks. — The  bright  yellow  cheeks  of  this  species,  in  connection  with 
the  large  amount  of  white  in  the  tail,  will  serve  to  distinguish  it  in  any 
plumage. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  lower  Canadian  and  Transition  zones  from 
w.  cen.  and  ne.  Alberta,  s.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  ne.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  s. 
Minn.,  s.  Wise.,  n.  Ohio,  n.  N.  J.,  Conn.,  and  L.  I.,  N.  Y.,  and  in  the  Alle- 
ghanies  s.  to  S.  C.  and  Ga. ;  in  migration  w.  to  e.  Tex.;  winters  from  Mex. 
to  Panama. 

Washington,  very  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  22-May  30;  Aug.  26-Oct.  21. 
Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  30-June  3;  Sept.  1-Oct.  26;  a  few  breed. 
Cambridge,  abundant,  S.  R.,  May  1-Oct.  15.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl. 
25-May  24;  Sept.  1-Oct.  16;  a  few  breed.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl. 
29-June  6;  Aug.  22-Oct.  12.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  uncommon  S.  R., 
Apl.  29-Sept.  22. 

Nest,  of  small  twigs  and  moss,  lined  with  rootlets,  fine  grasses,  and  ten- 
drils, in  coniferous  trees,  15-50  feet  from  the  ground.  Eggs,  4,  white,  dis- 
tinctly and  obscurely  spotted  and  speckled  with  olive-brown  or  umber, 
chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  '65  x  '46.  Date,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  21; 
Cambridge,  June  5;  Grand  Menan,  N.  B.,  June  14. 

When  migrating  this  species  joins  the  ranks  of  the  Warbler  army 
and  visits  wooded  land  of  almost  any  kind.  When  nesting  it  prefers 
coniferous  forests,  where  it  is  a  dweller  among  the  tree-tops. 

While  resembling  its  congeners  in  general  habits,  the  song  of  the 
Black-throated  Green  is  so  unlike  their  generally  humble  ditties  that 
the  bird  seems  possessed  of  more  character  than  they  impress  us  with 
having.  Mr.  Burroughs  graphically  represents  its  notes  by  straight 

lines: V ;  a  novel  method  of  musical  annotation,  but 

which  nevertheless  will  aid  one  in  recognizing  the  bird's  song.  There 
is  a  quality  about  it  like  the  droning  of  bees;  it  seems  to  voice  the 
restfulness  of  a  midsummer  day. 

1910.   STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Auk,  XXVII,  289-294  (nesting). 

TOWNSEND'S  WARBLER  (668.  Dendroica  townsendi},  a  species  of  western 
North  America,  has  been  once  recorded  from  Pennsylvania. 

670.  Dendroica  kirtlandi  (Baird}.  .-KIRTLAND'S  WARBLER.  Ad.  d". — • 
Head  bluish  gray,  sometimes  spotted  with  black ;  lores  and  sides  of  the  throat 
black;  back  brownish  ashy,  spotted  with  black;  no  white  wing-bars;  outer 
tail-feathers  with  white  patches  on  their  inner  webs  at  the  tips;  underparts 
pale  yellow;  sides  streaked  and  spotted  with  black.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but 
lores  and  cheeks  grayish,  black  streaks  less  pronounced.  Fall  specimens 
of  both  sexes  are  much  browner.  L.,  575;  W.,  2'75;  T.,  2'30;  B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Transition  zone  in  Oscoda,  Crawford, 
and  Roscpmmon  counties,  Mich.;  winters  in  the  Bahamas  as  far  s.  at  least 
as  the  Caicos  Islands;  in  migration  recorded  from  Minn.,  Wise.,  Ont.,  Ohio, 
Ills.,  Ind.,  Mo.,  Va.,  S.  C.,  Ga.r  and  Fla. 


458  WOOD  WARBLERS 

Washington,  one  record,  Sept.  25,  1887.  N.  Ohio,  rare  T.  V.,  May  9 
and  11.  Glen  Ellyn,  one  record,  May  7,  1894.  SE.  Minn.,  one  record,  Min- 
neapolis, May  13. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  pine  or  oak,  of  soft  bark,  strips  of 
vegetable  fiber,  grass,  etc.,  lined  with  fine  grass,  pine  needles,  and  hair. 
Eggs,  3—5,  white,  speckled  with  umber,  wreathed  at  the  larger  end,  '71  x  '54. 
Date,  Oscoda  Co.,  Mich.,  June  6.  (See  Wood,  Warblers  of  N.  A.,  206-209.) 

During  the  summer  this,  the  rarest  of  North  American  Warblers, 
is  known  only  from  north  central  Michigan,  while  during  the  winter  it 
appears  to  be  restricted  to  the  Bahamas.  In  the  intervening  region  it  has 
been  reported  about  thirty-five  times;  it  reaches  Florida  about  April  20 
and  Michigan  about  May  15.  The  return  journey  is  made  between 
August  and  November. 

Aside  from  its  size  and  color,  Kirtland's  Warbler  may  be  Jknown  by 
its  habit  of  tail-wagging  in  which  it  rivals  the  Palm  Warbler.  When 
migrating  it  frequents  the  lower  growth  and  when  nesting  lives  only 
in  high,  sandy  jack-pine  plains.  According  to  Wood  (in  " Warblers  of 
North  America")  this  Warbler  has  several  distinct  songs,  "all  of  which 
belong  to  the  whistling  type  and  have  the  clear,  ringing  quality  of  the 
Oriole's." 

671.  Dendroica  vigors!  vigors!  (Aud.).  PINE  WARBLER.  (Fig.  7Gb.) 
Ad.  d". — Upperparts  bright  olive-green,  sometimes  washed  with  ashy;  two 
Whitish  wing-bars;  outer  tail-feathers  with  white  patches  on  their  inner 
vanes  near  the  tip;  underparts  bright  yellow,  more  or  less  washed  with 
ashy,  turning  to  white  on  the  lower  belly  and  under  tail-coverts;  sides  some- 
times with  a  few  black  streaks.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  upperparts  brownish 
olive-green;  underparts  soiled  whitish;  breast  tinged  with  yellow.  L.,  5'52; 
W.,  2'81;  T.,  2'25;  B.  from/N.,  '33. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Transition  and  Austral  zones  from  n. 
Man.,  n.  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  e.  cen.  Tex.,  the  Gulf  States, 
and  Fla. ;  winters  from  s.  Ills,  and  coast  of  Va.  to  Fla.,  e.  Tex.,  and  Tamaulipas, 
and  casually  n.  to  Mass. 

Washington,  quite  uncommon  S.  R.,  Mch.  20-Oct.  29;  abundant  in 
fall.  Ossining,  casual.  Cambridge,  locally  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  10-Oct.  20; 
occasional  W.  V.  N.  Ohio,  rare  T.  V.;  Apl.  29-May  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  not 
common  T.  V.,  spring  records  only,  Apl.  17-May  24.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  26-  . 

Nest,  of  strips  of  bark,  leaves,  plant  fibers,  etc.,  in  pines  10-80  feet  up. 
Eggs,  4-5,  white  or  grayish  white,  with  numerous  distinct  and  obscure 
cinnamon-brown  to  umber  markings,  chiefly  in  a'wreath  or  band  at  the  larger 
end,  70  x  '52.  Date,  Raleigh,  N.'C.,  Mch.  24;  Cambridge,  May  20. 

True  to  its  name,  the  Pine  Warbler  is  rarely  found  outside  of  pine 
woods.  In  the  South,  where  pineries  may  extend  over  half  a  state,  it 
is  an  abundant  and  generally  distributed  bird;  in  the  more  northern 
part  of  its  range  it  is,  from  force  of  circumstances,  a  local  species, 
occurring  only  with  the  pines. 

In  the  winter  it  is  found  in  small  flocks,  which  may  contain  a  few 
Myrtle  or  Palm  Warblers,  and  at  this  season  it  lives  on  or  near  the 
ground.  In  the  summer  it  is  more  arboreal.  Its  habit  of  clinging  to 
the  trunk  of  a  tree,  or  hopping  along  a  limb  while  searching  for  insects 
in  crevices  in  the  bark,  has  given  it  the  misnomer  of  Pine  Creeping 


WOOD  WARBLERS  459 

Warbler.    Its  song  which,  in  Florida,  is  often  heard  in  the  winter,  is  a 
clear,  sweet,  even  trill. 

672.  Dendroica  palmarum  palmarum  (GmeL).  PALM  WARBLER. 
Ads. — Crown  chestnut;  back  olive  grayish  brown,  indistinctly  streaked; 
rurnp  olive-green;  no  wing-bars;  tail  black,  the  outer  feathers  with  white 
patches  on  their  inner  vanes  at  the  tips;  a  yellow  line  over  the  eye;  throat 
and  breast  bright  yellow;  belly  soiled  whitish,  tinged  with  yellow;  sides  of  the 
throat,  the  breast,  and  sides  streaked  with  chestnut-rufous;  under  tail- 
coverts  yellow.  Ad.  in  winter  and  I?n. — Crown-cap  partly  concealed  by 
brownish  tips  to  the  feathers  and  sometimes  wanting;  line  over  the  eye  and 
eye-ring  white;  underparts  soiled  whitish,  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow; 
breast  streaked  with  dusky.  L.,  5'25;  W.,  2'64;  T.,  2'10;  B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Range. — Interior  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  s.  Mackenzie 
(Ft.  Simpson)  and  cen.  Keewatin  s.  and  se.  to  n.  Minn.;  winters  from  s. 
Fla.  and  the  Bahamas  to  the  Greater  Antilles  and  Yucatan ;  occurs  in  migra- 
tion on  the  Atlantic  slope. 

Washington,  rare  T.  V.,  Apl.  22-May  18;  Sept.  18-Oct.  11.  Ossining, 
T.  V.,  Apl.  29;  Sept.  30-Oct.  12.  Cambridge,  uncommon  T.  V.,  in  fall, 
Sept.  15-Oct.  10.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  24-May  20; 
Sept.  10  to  Oct.  16.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  23-May  19;  Sept.  4- 
Oct.  18.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.  Apl.  23-  ;  Sept.  17-Oct.  3. 

Nesting  date,  Ft.  Resolution,  Mack.,  June  18. 

This  interior  race  of  the  Yellow  Palm  Warbler  is  occasionally  met 
with  in  the  North  Atlantic  States,  while  in  Florida  it  is  much  more 
common  than  the  eastern  form.  Sometimes  the  two  birds  may  be  seen 
in  the  same  flock,  when  the  brighter  colors  of  hypochrysea  are  usually 
apparent. 

672a.  D.  p.  hypochrysea  Ridgw.  YELLOW  PALM  WARBLER.  Ads. — 
Crown,  chestnut;  back  brownish  olive-green;  rump  olive-green;  no  white 
wing-bars;  secondaries  sometimes  tinged  with  chestnut;  tail  edged  with 
olive-green,  the  outer  feathers  with  white  spots  on  their  inner  vanes  near 
the  tips;  line  over  the  eye  and  eye-ring  yellow;  underparts  entirely  bright 
yellow;  sides  of  the  throat,  the  breast,  and  sides  streaked  with  chestnut- 
rufous.  Ad.  in  winter  and  Im. — Crown-cap  partly  concealed  by  the  brownish 
tips  to  the  feathers  and  sometimes  wanting;  line  over  the  eye  and  eye-ring 
yellowish;  entire  underparts  uniform  yellow,  washed  with  ashy;  the  sides  of 
the  throat,  the  breast,  and  sides  streaked  with  chestnut-rufous  or  dusky. 
L.,  5'43;  W.,  2'61;  T.,  2'10;  B.  from  N.,  '31. 

Remarks. — In  any  plumage  this  bird  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  its  uniform  yellow  underparts. 

Range. — Atlantic  slope  of  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  Ont.,  n. 
Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  s.  N.  S.,  N.  B.,  and  Maine;  winters  from  La.  to  n. 
Fla.,  casually  to  N.  C.  and  Pa.;  accidental  in  Ohio,  Cuba,  Jamaica  arid 
Bermuda. 

Washington,  T.  V.,  common,  Mch.  31-Apl.  29;  Sept.  4-Oct.  28.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  11-May  5;  Sept.  20-Nov.  8.  Cambridge, 
usually  common,  sometimes  abundant,  T.  V.,  Apl.  15-May  5;  Oct.  1-15. 

Nest,  of  rather  coarse  grasses  lined  with  finer  grasses,  on  or  near  the 
ground.  Eogs,  4-5,  white  or  buffy  white,  with  some  distinct  and  obscure 
cinnamon- or  olive-brown  markings,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  '65  X  "51. 
Date,  Dartmouth,  N.  S.,  May  26. 

This  species  is  a  renegade  Dendroica.  He  has  no  liking  for  the 
woods,  and  even  trees  in  the  open  do  not  seem  to  attract  him.  His 
tastes  bring  him  to  fields  and  roadsides,  where  he  lives  on  or  near  the 


460  WOOD  WARBLERS 

ground,  but  is  ever  active  and  much  on  the  move.  During  the  winter, 
in  the  south,  he  is  a  common  bird  in  the  streets  and  gardens  of  towns, 
and  like  a  Chippy  hops  familiarly  about  piazzas. 

He  has  the  same  nervous  peculiarity,  which,  irrespective  of  family, 
seems  to  affect  some  birds,  and,  as  though  life  were  a  matter  of  beat- 
ing time,  never  ceases  to  wag  his  tail.  His  fine  chip  is  recognizable 
after  one  has  become  familiar  with  it,  while  his  two  songs  are  described 
by  Gerald  Thayer  (in  "Warblers  of  North  America")  as  "chiefly  trills, 
one  slower  and  fuller-toned,  the  other  much  quicker  and  thinner." 

673.  Dendroica   discolor    (Vieill.}.    PRAIRIE  WARBLER.    (Fig.  124.) 

Ad.  cf. — Upperparts  bright  olive-green;  back  spotted  with  chestnut-rufous; 
wing-bars  yellowish;  outer  tail-feathers  with  large  white  patches  at  their  tips, 
the  outer  vane  of  the  outer  feather  white  at  the  base;  a  yellow  line  over  the 
eye;  lores  and  a  crescent  below  the  eye  black;  underparts  bright  yellow; 
sides  heavily  streaked  with  black.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  with  less,  and  some- 
times no  chestnut-rufous  in  the  back.  Im.  9. — Upperparts  uniform  ashy 
olive-green;  no  apparent  wing-bars;  outer  tail-feathers  with  white  on  their 
inner  webs  at  the  tips;  ear-coverts  ashy;  underparts  yellow;  sides  indistinctly 
streaked  with  blackish.  L.,  4'75;  W.,  2'20;  T.,  1'95;  B.  from  N.,  '28. 

Remarks. — The  chestnut-rufous  patch  in  the  back  at  once  identifies  the 
adults;  but  the  young  females  are  puzzling  birds  to  be  known  chiefly  by 
their  small  size,  absence  of  wing-bars  and  streaks  on  the  sides. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Carolinian  and  Austroriparian 
faunas  from  se.  Nebr.,  e.  Kans.,  s.  Ohio,  sw.  Pa.,  s.  N.  J.,  and  (along  the 
coast)  from  Mass.  s.  to  sw.  Mo.,  n.  Miss.,  nw.  Ga.,  Fla.,  and  the  Bahamas, 
and  n.  locally  to  cen.  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  and  N.  H.;  breeds  rarely  and  locally 
in  the  Gulf  States;  winters  from  cen.  Fla.  through  the  Bahamas  and  the 
West  Indies. 

Washington,  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  12-Sept.  20.  Ossining,  rare  S.  R., 
May  2-Sept.  14.  Cambridge,  locally  common  S.  R.,  May  8-Sept.  15.  N. 
Ohio,  rare,  Apl.  29,  May  9  and  14. 

Nest,  of  plant  fibers  and  plant-down,  lined  with  rootlets  and  long  hairs, 
in  briary  bushes.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  spotted  distinctly  and  obscurely  with 
cinnamon-  or  olive-brown,  or  chestnut,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  at  the  larger  end, 
•64  x  "48.  Date,  Savannah,  Ga.,  Apl.  25;  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  May  14;  Cambridge, 
May  28;  Ottawa  Co.,  Mich.,  May  26. 

The  Yellow,  Palm,  and  Prairie  Warblers  are  the  three  "Wood 
Warblers"  that  are  rarely  found  in  the  woods.  The  latter,  however, 
differs  decidedly  in  habits  from  either  of  the  former.  It  is  a  rather 
retiring  inhabitant  of  scrubby  clearings,  bushy  fields,  and  pastures,  or 
thickets  of  young  pines  and  cedars.  But  while  the  Prairie,  if  silent, 
might  readily  escape  observation,  no  one  with  an  ear  for  bird  music 
will  pass  within  sound  of  a  singing  bird  without  at  least  trying  to  solve 
the  mystery  of  its  peculiar  notes,  a  series  of  six  or  seven  quickly  repeated 
zees,  the  next  to  the  last  one  the  highest. 

674.  Seiurus   aurocapillus    (Linn.').    OVEN-BIRD.    (Fig.125.)    Ads. — 
Center  of  the  crown  pale  rufous  or  ochraceous-buff,  bordered  on  either  side 
by  black  lines;  rest  of  the  upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  brownish  olive-green; 
no  wing-bars  or  tail-patches,  underparts  white;  the  sides  of  the   throat, 
the  breast,  and  sides  streaked  with  black.    L.,  6*17;  W.,  3*00;  T.,  2' 15;  B. 
from  N.,  '35. 

Range. — N.  A.    Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Upper  Austral 


WOOD  WARBLERS  461 

zones  from  sw.  Mackenzie  (casually  the  lower  Yukon  Valley),  to  N.  F.  s. 
to  cen.  Alberta,  Colo.,  Kans.,  s.  Mo.,  Ohio  Valley,  Va.,  in  mts.  to  Ga.  and  S. 
C.,  and  e.  to  the  Atlantic  coast  from  N.  S.  to  Va.;  winters  from  cen.  Fla. 
(casually  S.  C.)  and  islands  on  the  La.  coast  through  the  Bahamas 
to  Colombia. 

Washington,  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  10  to  Oct.  17.  Ossining,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Oct.  10.  Cambridge,  very  common  S.  R.,  May  6-Sept.  15. 
N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  22-Oct.  1.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R., 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  28-Sept.  30.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  27- 
Sept.  22. 

Nest,  bulky,  covered,  the  entrance  at  one  side,  of  coarse  grasses,  weed 
stalks,  leaves,  and  rootlets,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  speckled  or 
spotted  with  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown  markings,  sometimes  finely  dis- 
tributed, sometimes  confluent  about  the  larger  end,  "80  x  '60.  Date,  Weaver- 
ville,  N.  C.,  May  7;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  22;  Cambridge,  May  25;  se. 
Minn.,  May  19. 

During  the  nesting  season  Oven-birds  are  among  our  commonest 
woodland  birds.  We  hear  them  everywhere;  one  singer  scarcely  ceases 
before  another  begins.  But  when  the  song  period  has  passed  how  com- 
paratively rare  they  become!  The  reason  is  not  hard  to  find.  At  most 
times  the  Oven-bird  is  somewhat  of  a  recluse.  He  passes  much  of  his 
time  on  or  near  the  ground,  generally  where  the  woods  are  more  or 
less  undergrown.  Only  the  practised  ear  will  detect  his  sharp,  weak 
cheep. 

If  there  be  such  a  thing  as  inspiration,  I  believe  the  Oven-bird  sings 
under  its  influence.  Not  that  his  usual  song  is  in  the  least  remarkable, 
but  because  the  bird  is  so  obviously  moved  by  a  spirit  which  demands 
utterance.  Watch  him  now  as  he  is  about  to  sing.  Flying  up  from  the 
ground,  how  cautiously  he  hops  from  branch  to  branch,  and,  with 
crest  slightly  erect,  walks  carefully  along  a  limb,  when,  suddenly  over- 
come by  the  music  in  his  soul,  he  throws  fear  to  the  winds  and  lifts  up 
his  voice  in  a  crescendo  chant  which  vibrates  through  the  woods. 
Teacher,  teacher,  TEACHER,  TEACHER,  TEACHER,  Mr.  Burroughs 
writes  it,  and  the  description  is  difficult  to  improve  upon. 

The  bird  fairly  quivers  with  the  violence  of  his  effort.  The  result 
seems  inadequate;  we  feel  that  he  is  striving  for  something  better, 
and,  in  truth,  as  Mr.  Bicknell  says,  he  sometimes  breaks  the  bonds 
that  ordinarily  beset  his  expression,  and  "bursts  forth  with  a  wild  out- 
pouring of  intricate  and  melodious  song,"  the  very  force  of  which 
carries  him  up  into  the  air  among  the  tree  tops. 

1911.  STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.,  XIII,  18-20  (nesting). 

675.  Seiurus  noveboracensis  noveboracensis  (GmcL).  WATER- 
THRUSH.  Ads. — Upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  uniform  olive;  no  wing-bars  or 
tail-patches;  a  buffy  line  over  the  eye;  underparts  white,  tinged  with  pale 
sulphur-yellow,  (richer  in  fall)  and  everywhere — including  throat — streaked 
with  black.  LM  6'04;  W.,  2'99;  T.,  2'11;  B.  from  N.,  '36. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Canadian  zone  from  n.  Ont.,  n. 
Ungava,  and  N.  F.  s.  to  cen.  Ont.,  nw.  N.  Y.,  and  n.  New  England  (casually 
s.  New  England),  and  in  mts.  s.  to  W.  Va.;  winters  from  the  Valley  of  Mex- 
ico to  British  Guiana,  and  throughout  West  Indies. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  22-June  2;  July  21-Oct.  6.    Ossining, 


462 


WOOD   WARBLERS 


FIG.  124.    Prairie  Warbler. 


FIG.  125.    Oven-bird. 


FIG.  123.    Black-poll  Warbler.  FIG.  127.    Maryland  Yellow-throat. 


FIG.  128.    Wilson's  Warbler. 


FIG.  126.    Kentucky  Warbler.  FIG.  130.    Canadian  Warbler. 

FIGS.  123-130.    Heads  of  Warblers.    (Natural  size.) 


WOOD  WARBLERS  463 

tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  11-21;  July  2&-Oct.  3.  Cambridge,  abundant 
T.  V.,  May  8-June  1;  Aug.  10-Oct.  10.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  26- 
May  25;  Sept.  1-15. 

Nest,  of  moss,  lined  with  tendrils  and  fine  rootlets,  in  a  mossy  bank  or 
under  the  roots  of  a  fallen  tree.  Eggs,  4-5,  white,  or  buffy  white,  with  nu- 
merous cinnamon-brown  markings,  chiefly  about  the  larger  end,  "76  x  '59. 
Date,  Branchport,  N.  Y.,  May  18;  Pittsfield,  Maine,  May  28. 

In  general  habits  this  bird  resembles  its  southern  relative,  the 
Louisiana  Water-Thrush,  but  during  its  migrations  it  is  frequently 
found  some  distance  from  water,  and  I  have  known  birds  to  spend  sev- 
eral days  beneath  evergreen  trees  on  a  lawn  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from 
the  woods.  It  is,  too,  much  less  shy  than  motacilla,  and  one  can  gen- 
erally approach  closely  enough  to  take  note  of  the  characters  which  dis- 
tinguish it  from  that  species — a  smaller  bill,  more  sharply  defined  and 
darker  streaks,  and  yellower  underparts. 

The  sharp,  steely  alarm  note,  clink,  is  not  so  penetrating  as  that  of 
motacilla,  and  the  loud,  ringing  song,  while  lacking  in  the  wild  quality 
which  so  characterizes  the  notes  of  that  species,  is  nevertheless  more 
musical. 

675a.  S.  n.  notabilis  Ridgw.  GRINNELL'S  WATER-THRUSH.  Simi- 
lar to  the  preceding,  but  slightly  larger,  upperparts  darker,  underparts  and 
line  over  the  eye  whiter.  W.,  3'10;  T.,  2'20;  B.  from  N.,  '37. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Boreal  zones  from  limit  .of  trees 
in  nw.  Alaska,  n.  Yukon,  nw.  and  cen.  Mackenzie,  and  cen.  Keewatin  s. 
to  s.  B.  C.,  cen.  Mont.,  nw.  Nebr.,  n.  Minn.,  and  nw.  Mich.;  winters  in  Cuba 
and  the  Bahamas  and  from  Mex.  to  n.  S.  A.;  migrates  throughout  the 
Miss.  Valley,  and  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  S.  C.  southward;  casual 
in  N.  J. 

Washington,  casual,  two  instances,  May.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common 
T.  V.,  Apl.  14-June  5;  Aug.  17-Oct.  6.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  30-  ; 
Sept,  24. 

676.  Seiurus  motacilla  (VieilL).  LOUISIANA  WATER-THRUSH.  (Fig. 
70d.)  Ads. — A  conspicuous  white  line  over  the  eye;  upperparts,  wings,  and 
tail  olive;  no  wing-bars  or  tail-patches;  underparts  white,  tinged  with  cream- 
buft,  especially  on  the  flanks,  and  streaked  with  blackish,  except  on  the  throat 
and  middle  of  the  belly.  L.,  6'28;  W.,  3'23;  T.,  2'14;  B.  from  N.,  '40. 

Remarks. — Aside  from  its  larger  size,  this  bird  may  be  known  from  the 
preceding  species  by  the  whiter,  more  conspicuous  line  over  the  eye,  buffy 
instead  of  yellowish  tinge  on  the  underparts,  and  absence  of  spots  on  the 
throat. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  mainly  in  Carolinian  fauna  from  se.  Nebr., 
se.  Minn.,  and  the  s.  parts  of  Mich.,  Ont.,  N.  Y.,  and  New  England  s.  to 
ne.  Tex.,  n.  Ga.,  and  cen.  S.  C.;  winters  from  n.  Mex.  to  Colombia,  and  in 
the  West  Indies. 

Washington,  rare  S.  R.,  Apl.  2-Sopt.  14.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  9- Aug.  24.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  28-Sept.  15.  SE. 
Minn.,  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  17-Aug.  26. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  twigs,  and  rootlets,  under  a  bank  or  the  upturned  roots 
of  a  fallen  tree.  Eggs,  4—6,  white,  evenly  speckled  or  spotted,  distinctly 
and  obscurely,  with  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown,  "75  x  *60.  Date,  Iredell 
Co.,  N.  C.,  Apl.  21;  Waynesburg,  Pa.,  May  5,  hatching;  New  Haven,  Conn., 
May  6;  Petersburg,  Mich.,  May  5. 

Few  birds  are  more  particular  in  their  choice  of  homes  than  this 
Water-Thrush.  He  lives  where  dashing  brooks  leap  down  wooded 


464  WOOD  WARBLERS 

hillsides,  or  where  quieter  streams  flow  through  the  lowland  forests. 
He  is  a  wild,  shy  bird,  and  his  never-ceasing  alertness  suggests  the 
watchfulness  of  the  savage.  Approach  as  quietly  as  you  will,  the  Water- 
Thrush  knows  of  your  coming.  With  a  tilting  motion  he  walks  on 
ahead,  springs  from  rock:  to  rock,  or  with  a  sharp,  metallic  clink  of 
alarm  takes  wing  and  darts  through  the  woods  so  low  you  scarcely  get 
a  glimpse  of  him.  From  a  distant  limb  near  the  ground  he  watches  you, 
constantly  teetering  his  body  as  though  even  when  resting  he  must 
find  some  outlet  for  his  surplus  nervous  energy. 

As  a  songster  the  Water-Thrush  is  without  a  rival.  His  song  is 
not  to  be  compared  with  the  clear-voiced  carol  of  the  Rose-breasted 
Grosbeak,  the  plaintive  chant  of  the  Field  Sparrow,  or  the  hymnlike 
melody  of  the  true  Thrushes;  it  is  of  a  different  kind.  It  is  the  untam- 
able spirit  of  the  bird  rendered  in  music.  There  is  an  almost  fierce 
wildness  in  its  ringing  notes.  On  rare  occasions  he  is  inspired  to  voice 
his  passion  in  a  flight-song,  which  so  far  exceeds  his  usual  performance 
that  even  the  memory  of  it  is  thrilling. 

677.  Oporornis  formosus  (Wils.).  KENTUCKY  WAKBLER.  Ad.  &. — 
(Fig.  126.)  A  yellow  line  from  the  bill  passes  over  and  around  the  back  of 
the  eye;  crown,  region  below  the  eye,  and  the  side  of  the  throat  black,  the 
crown  tipped  with  gray;  rest  of  the  upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  olive-green; 
no  wing-bars  or  tail-patches;  underparts  bright  yellow.  Ad.  9. — Similar,  but 
the  black  areas  more  grayish  and  less  clearly  defined.  L.,  5*40;  W.,  2'60; 
T.,  1'90;  B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  to  n.  S.  A.  Breeds  in  Carolinian  and  Austroriparian 
faunas  from  se.  Nebr.,  s.  Wise.,  se.  and  sw.  Pa.,  and  the  Hudson  Valley 
s.  to  e.  Tex.,  La.,  Ala.,  and  n.  Ga.;  winters  from  Tabasco  to  Colombia; 
accidental  in  Vt. 

Washington,  not  very  uncommon  S.  R.,  Apl.  29-Sept.  2.  Ossining, 
common  S.  R.,  May  2- Aug.  27.  N.  Ohio,  rare,  Apl.  27  and  May  12. 

Nest,  bulky,  of  twigs  and  rootlets,  firmly  wrapped  with  several  thick- 
nesses of  leaves,  lined  with  fine  rootlets,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  4—5, 
white  or  grayish  white,  finely  and  evenly  speckled  or  coarsoly  blotched  with 
rufous  to  umbor,  '72  x  "58.  Date,  Buncombe,  N.  C.,  May  23;  West  Chester, 
Pa.,  May  27;  Dunklin  Co.,  Mo.,  May  15. 

The  Kentucky  Warbler  frequents  rather  densely  grown,  well- 
watered  woods.  Here  he  may  be  found,  on  or  near  the  ground,  hop- 
ping from  limb  to  limb  or  walking  about  searching  for  food.  When 
singing,  he  generally  mounts  to  the  lower  branches  of  the  higher  trees. 
His  song  is  entirely  unlike  that  of  any  other  Warbler.  It  is  a  loud, 
clearly  whistled  performance  of  five,  six,  or  seven  notes — tur-dle,  tur- 
dle,  tur-dle — resembling  in  tone  some  of  the  calls  of  the  Carolina  Wren. 
Even  in  the  woods  it  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  yards. 

In  the  height  of  the  breeding  season  this  Warbler  is  a  most  per- 
sistent singer.  On  one  occasion,  at  Englewood,  N.  J.,  I  watched  a 
male  for  three  hours.  During  this  period,  with  the  exception  of  five 
interruptions  of  less  than  forty-five  seconds  each,  he  sang  with  the 
greatest  regularity  once  every  twelve  seconds.  Thus,  allowing  for 
the  brief  intervals  of  silence,  he  sang  about  875  times,  or  some  5,250 


WOOD  WARBLERS  465 

notes.   I  found  him  singing,  and  when  I  departed  he  showed  no  signs 
of  ceasing. 

678.  Oporornis    agilis    (Wils.}.    CONNECTICUT  WARBLER.    Ad.  <?. — 
Head,  neck,  and  breast  bluish  gray,  lighter  on  the  throat;  crown  in  the  fall 
tipped  with  olive-green;  eye-ring  white;  rest  of  upperparts,  wings,  and  tail 
olive-green;  no  wing-bars  or  tail-patches;  belly  yellow;  sides  washed  with 
olive-green.    Ad.  9  and  Im. — Similar  to  the  cf ,  but  upperparts  uniform  olive- 
green;  throat  and  breast  pale  grayish  brown;  belly  pale  yellow.    L.,  5*40; 
W.,  2-90;  T.,  1'90;  B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  Man.  to  cen.  Minn., 
and  n.  Mich.;  winters  in  n.  S.  A.;  migrates  through  Fla.  and  the  Bahamas; 
in  spring  rare  e.  of  Alleghanies  but  common  in  the  Miss.  Valley;  in  autumn 
rare  in  the  Miss.  Valley  but  common  e.  of  the  Alleghanies;  casual  ne.  of 
Mass,  and  in  Ont. 

Washington,  T.  V.,  very  rare  in  spring,  May  24-30;  common  from 
Aug.  28-Oct.  24.  Ossining,  rare  T.  V.,  Aug.  26-Oct.  9.  Cambridge,  fall 
T.  V.,  sometimes  locally  abundant,  Sept.  10-30.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  com- 
mon T.  V.,  May  7-24.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  T.  V.,  May  12-June  28; 
Aug.  14-Sept.  22.  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon  T.  V.,  June  1.-  . 

Nest,  of  dry  grasses,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4,  white,  with  a  few  spots  of 
lilac-purple,  brown,  and  black  about  the  larger  end,  '75  x  '60.  (Seton,  Auk, 
I,  1884,  192.)  Date,  Carberry,  Man.,  June  21. 

"Connecticut  Warbler"  is  an  unfortunate  misnomer  for  this  species. 
'Swamp'  or  'Tamarack  Warbler,'  or  'Bog  Black-throat,'  would  have 
been  much  more  truly  descriptive. 

IN  the  cold,  boggy  tamarack  swamps  of  Manitoba,  where  I  found  it 
breeding,  it  was  the  only  one  of  the  family,  and  almost  the  only  bird, 
whose  voice  broke  the  silence  of  those  gray  wastes.  Its  loud  song  was 
much  like  the  "teacher,  teacher"  chant  of  the  Oven-bird,  but  it  also 
uttered  another,  which  I  can  recall  to  mind  by  the  aid  of  the  syl- 
ables  "free-chappie,  free-chappie,  free-chappie,  WHOIT." 

The  nest  was  placed  on  the  ground,  or,  rather,  in  the  moss  which 
everywhere  covered  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  two,  and  was  com- 
posed of  fine  vegetable  fibers. 

This  species  has  somewhat  the  manners  of  the  Vireos,  but  is  much 
more  active  and  sprightly  in  its  movements.  During  the  migrations 
it  is  generally  found  on  or  near  the  ground,  in  the  undergrowth  of  low, 
damp  woods,  and  also  in  bordering,  weedy  fields,  where  it  sometimes 
announces  its  presence  by  a  sharp  peek.  ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

679.  Oporornis  Philadelphia  (Wils.].    MOURNING  WARBLER.    Ad.  &. 
— Head,  neck,  and  throat  bluish  gray,  changing  to  black  on  the  breast;  no 
white  eye-ring;  rest  of  upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  olive-green;  no  wing-bars 
or  tail-patches;  belly  yellow.    Ad.  9  and  Im. — Similar,  but  upperparts  olive- 
green,  slightly  grayer  on  the  head;  breast  grayish,  throat  whiter.    L.,  5'63; 
W.,  2-56;  T.,  2'13;  B.  from  N.,  '32. 

Remarks. — This  species  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the  preceding, 
but  may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  the  absence  of  a  white  eye-ring. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  lower  Canadian  zone  from  e.  cen.  Alberta, 
s.  Sask.,  sw.  Keewatin,  N.  S.,  and  Magdalen  Islands,  s.  to  cen.  Minn., 
Mich.,  cen.  Ont.,  and  mts.  of  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Mass.,  and  W.  Va.;  winters  from 
Nicaragua  to  Ecuador;  in  migration  from  e.  Tex.  to  the  Alleghanies;  rare 
e.  of  the  Alleghanies  arid  from  N.  C.  w.  to  Miss.  (See  Fig  6.) 


466  WOOD  WARBLERS 

"  Washington,  very  rare  T.  V.,  May  6-30;  Aug.  17-Oct.  1.  Ossining,  rare 
T.  V.,  May  28-29;  Aug.  18-Oct.  1.  Cambridge,  rare  T.  V.,  May  22- June 
5;  Sept.  12-25.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  5-28.  Glen  Ellyn, 
rather  rare  T.  V.,  May  18-June  8;  Aug.  17-  .  SE.  Minn.,  uncommon 
T.  V.,  May  13-  ;  Aug.  1-Sept.  10. 

Nest,  of  strips  of  bark  and  other  fibrous  materials,  lined  with  hair,  on 
or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  4,  white,  sprinkled  with  reddish  dots  near  the 
larger  end,  '71  x  '54.  Date,  Orleans  Co.,  N.  Y.,  May  31;  Listowel,  Ont., 
June  3;  Kalkuska  Co.,  Mich.,  June  7. 

The  Mourning  Warbler  inhabits  the  undergrowth,  choosing  situ- 
ations not  unlike  those  selected  by  the  Maryland  Yellow-throat. 

"Its  common  song  consists  of  a  simple,  clear,  warbling  whistle, 
resembling  the  syllables  'true,  'true,  'true,  'tru,  'too,  the  voice  rising  on 
the  first  three  syllables  and  falling  on  the  last  two. 

"Sometimes,  when  otherwise  occupied,  the  first,  or  first  two,  syl- 
lables are  omitted.  All  through  the  breeding  season,  and  till  late  in 
July,  they  have  a  very  characteristic  habit  of  perching,  at  frequent  inter- 
vals during  the  day,  on  some  branch,  generally  a  dead  one,  and  com- 
monly ten  or  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground,  and  singing  for  half  an  hour 
at  a  time."  (Merriam,  "Birds  of  Connecticut,"  24.) 

681.  Geothlypis  trichas  trichas  (Linn.).  MARYLAND  YELLOW- 
THROAT.  (Fig.  127.)  Ad.  tf. — A  broad  band  across  the  forehead,  and  on 
the  cheeks  and  ear-coverts  black,  bordered  behind  by  grayish;  rest  of  the 
upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  olive-green,  sometimes  tinged  with  brownish; 
no  wing-bars  or  tail-patches;  throat  and  breast  bright  yellow,  changing  to 
whitish  on  the  belly;  sides  washed  with  brownish;  under  tail-coverts  yellow. 
Ad.  cf1  in  fall. — Similar,  but  browner  above;  black  mask  tipped  with  grayish; 
belly  more  yellow;  sides  browner.  7m.  cf. — Similar,  but  the  black  mask 
more  concealed,  sometimes  merely  indicated  by  a  dusky  area.  Ad.  9. — 
No  black  mask;  upperparts,  wings  and  tail  olive-green,  the  forehead  some- 
times tinged  with  rufous;  throat  and  breast  yellowish,  changing  to  whitish 
on  the  belly;  under  tail-coverts  yellow;  sides  brownish.  L.,  5*33;  W.,  2*20; 
T.,  2-04;  B.,  '42. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Upper  Austral 
zones  from  N.  D.,  n.  Minn.,  n.  Ont.,  and  s.  Lab.  s.  to  cen.  Tex.,  n.  parts  of 
the  Gulf  States,  and  Va.;  winters  from  N.  C.  and  La.  to  Fla.,  the  Bahamas, 
Cuba,  Jamaica,  Guatemala,  and  Costa  Rica. 

Washington,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl  13-Oct.  21.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  28-Oct.  23.  Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R.,  May  5-Oct.  20;  occasional 
in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  25-Sept.  25.  Glen  Ellyn,  common 
S.  R.,  May  2-Oct.  2.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R. 

Nest,  bulky,  of  strips  of  bark,  coarse  grasses,  and  dead  leaves,  lined  with 
fine  grasses,  tendrils,  and  rootlets,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs^  3-5,  white, 
rather  thinly  speckled  and  spotted  with  rufous  to  umber,  chiefly — some- 
times entirely — at  the  larger  end,  "70  x  "53.  Date,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  19; 
Cambridge,  May  25;  Lancaster,  N.  H.,  June  2;  Melbourne,  Iowa,  May  24. 

Doubtless  one  of  the  first  acquaintances  you  will  make,  among  the 
Warblers,  will  be  this  black-masked  inhabitant  of  thickets  and  bushes. 
Indeed,  you  have  only  to  pause  near  his  home,  when  he  will  meet  you 
halfway.  He  announces  his  coming  by  an  impatient,  quickly  repeated 
chack,  varying  to  chit,  pit,  quit,  as,  hopping  from  twig  to  twig,  he  finally 
appears  for  a  moment  and  then  darts  back  into  the  cover  of  his  haunts. 

His  song  is  characteristic  of  his  active,  nervous  nature,  and  is  deliv- 


WOOD  WARBLERS 


467 


ered  with  much  force  and  energy.  It  varies  greatly  with  locality,  a 
fact  which  may  account  for  the  quite  different  descriptions  given  of 
it  by  authors.  Sometimes  it  is  written  wichity,  wichity,  wichity,  wichity; 
again,  rapity,  rapity,  etc. ;  but  the  birds  near  New  York  City  seem  to  me 
to  say  I  beseech  you,  I  beseech  you,  I  beseech  you,  I  beseech  you;  though, 
to  be  sure,  the  tone  is  far  from  pleading. 

They  sing  throughout  the  summer,  and  include  a  flight-song  in 
their  repertoire.  This  is  usually  uttered  toward  evening,  when  the  bird 
springs  several  feet  into  the  air,  hovers  for  a  second,  and  then  drops 
back  to  the  bushes. 

68  Ib.  G.  t.  ignota  Chapm.  FLORIDA  YELLOW-THROAT.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  with  longer  tarsus,  tail,  and  bill;  yellow  of  underparts  of  a 
deeper  shade  and  of  greater  extent;  flanks  of  a  much  darker  color;  upper- 
parts  browner;  black  mask  wider,  its  ashy  border  (in  summer  specimens) 
slightly  paler  and  of  greater  extent ;  first  primary  shorter,  equaling  the  eighth 
instead  of  the  sixth.  W.,  2'17;  T.,  2'18;  B.,  '47. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  the  Dismal 
Swamp,  Va.,  s.  to  Fla.  and  along  the  Gulf  coast  at  least  to  La.;  winters  from 
the  coast  of  S.  C.  to  se.  Tex.  and  Cuba. 

Nesting  date,  Charleston,  S.  C.,  May  9. 

In  Florida  this  southern  representative  of  the  Maryland  Yellow- 
throat  is  usually  found  in  dense  growths  of  scrub  palmetto.  Its  song 
differs  recognizably  from  that  of  the  northern  bird. 

683.  Icteria  virens  virens  (Linn.}.  YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT.  Ads. — 
Largest  of  the  Warblers;  upperparts,  wings  and  tail  olive-green;  line  from  the 
eye  to  the  bill,  one  on  the  side  of  the  throat,  and  eye-ring  white;  throat, 
breast,  and  upper  belly  bright  yellow; 
lower  belly  white;  sides  grayish.  L., 
7'44;  W.,  3-00;  T.,  3'07;  B.  from  N.,  '41. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly 
in  Upper  and  Lower  Austral  zones  from 
s.  Minn.,  Wise.,  Mich.,  Ont.,  cen.  N.  Y., 
and  s.  New  England  s.  to  se.  Tex.,  s. 
parts  of  Gulf  States,  and  n.  Fla. ;  win- 
ters from  Puebla,  Vera  Cruz,  to  Costa 
Rica;  casual  in  Maine. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
16-Sept.  28.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  28-Aug.  29.  Cambridge,  rather 
rare  and  irregular  S.  R.,  May  15— Sept. 
N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept. 
15.  Glen  Ellyn,  local,  not  common.  May  10- Aug.  16.  SE.  Minn.,  rare  S. 
R.  (?). 

Nest,  rather  bulky,  of  coarse  grasses,  leaves,  and  strips  of  bark  well 
interwoven,  lined  with  finer  grasses,  in  a  crotch,  near  the  ground.  Eggs, 
3-5,  white,  rather  evenly  speckled  and  spotted  with  rufous-brown,  "90  x  '66. 
Date,  Chatham  Co.,  Ga.,  May  7;  Waynesburg,  Pa.,  May  10;  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  May  22;  Oberlin,  Ohio,  May  15. 

Bushy  undergrowths  or  thickets  in  partial  clearings  form  the  home 

of  the  Chat.   After  an  acquaintance  of  many  years  I  frankly  confess  that 

his  true  character  is  a  mystery  to  me.    While  listening  to  his  strange 

medley  and  watching  his  peculiar  actions,  we  are  certainly  justified 

32 


FIG.  131.    Yellow-breasted  Chat. 
(Natural  size.) 


468  WOOD  WARBLERS 

in  calling  him  eccentric,  but  that  there  is  method  in  his  madness  no 
one  who  studies  him  closely  can  doubt. 

Is  the  odd  jumble  of  whistles,  chucks,  and  caws  uttered  by  one 
bird  in  that  copse  yonder,  or  by  half  a  dozen  different  birds  in  as  many 
places?  Approach  cautiously,  and  perhaps  you  may  see  him  in  the 
air — a  bunch  of  feathers  twitched  downward  by  the  queer,  jerky  notes 
which  animate  it.  One  might  suppose  so  peculiar  a  performance  would 
occupy  his  entire  attention,  but  nevertheless  he  has  seen  you;  in  an 
instant  his  manner  changes,  and  the  happy-go-lucky  clown,  who  a 
moment  before  was  turning  aerial  somersaults,  has  become  a  shy, 
suspicious  haunter  of  the  depths  of  the  thicket,  whence  will  come  his 
querulous  chut,  chut  as  long  as  your  presence  annoys  him. 

684.  Wilsonia   citrina    (Gmel.\     HOODED    WARBLER.      (Fig.    129.) 
Ad.  cf. — Forehead  and  cheeks  bright  yellow;  crown  black,  connected  behind 
with  the  black  throat;  upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  olive-green;  outer  tail- 
feathers  with  inner  vane  mostly  white;  breast  and  belly  yellow;  bill  with 
evident  bristles  at  its  base.   Ad.  9 . — Similar,  but  with  the  black  hood  usually 
developed  as  a  narrow  line  on  the  nape  and  crown,  and  a  blackish  wash  on 
the  throat  or  chest.    Im.  cf . — Similar  to  ad.  <?,  but  the  black  feathers  with 
yellow  tips.    Im.  9. — Similar  to  ad.   9,  but  with  no  black  on  the  head  or 
breast.   L.,  5'67;  W.,  2'58;  T.,  2'30;  B.  from  N.,  '31. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas 
from  se.  Nebr.,  s.  Iowa,  sw.  Mich.,  cen.  N.  Y.,  and  the  lower  Conn.  Valley 
s.  to  La.,  Ala.,  and  Ga.;  winters  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Panama;  occasional  in 
the  Bahamas,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica;  casual  n.  to  Wise.,  Mich.,  Ont.,  and 
Mass. 

Washington,  locally  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  19-Oct.  1.  Ossining,  rare  S.  R., 
to  Sept.  1.  N.  Ohio,  rare,  May  8,  9,  12  and  22. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  strips  of  bark,  and  rootlets,  lined  with  fine  grasses  and 
rootlets,  in  the  crotch  of  a  bush  or  sapling,  about  four  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5, 
white  or  creamy  white,  rather  thinly  speckled  or  spotted  with  rufous  or 
rufous-brown,  generally  in  a  wreath  at  the  larger  end,  '71  x  '53,  Date, 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Apl.  30,  inc.  adv.;  Saybrook,  Conn.,  May  26;  Kalamazoo 
Co.,  Mich.,  June  10. 

This  beautiful  bird  is  a  lover  of  well-watered,  rather  densely  grown 
woods.  It  is  a  bird  of  the  lower  growth  rather  than  the  trees,  but  is  not 
a  thicket-haunter,  and  its  habit  of  flitting  restlessly  from  bush  to 
bush  renders  it  easily  observed.  When  on  the  wing  its  white  outer 
tail-feathers  are  conspicuously  displayed,  and,  with  the  striking  mark- 
ings of  the  head,  make  an  excellent  field-mark. 

The  song  of  the  Hooded  Warbler  is  sweet  and  graceful.  It  is  sub- 
ject to  much  variation,  but  as  a  rule  consists  of  eight  or  nine  notes. 
To  my  ear  the  bird  seems  to  say,  "You  must  come  to  the  woods,  or 
you  won't  see  me."  Its  call-note  is  a  sharp,  characteristic  cheep,  fre- 
frequently  uttered  when  the  bird  is  anxious  for  the  safety  of  its  nest  or 
young,  and  accompanied  by  a  flit  of  the  tail,  which  reveals  the  white 
outer  tail-feathers. 

685.  Wilsonia   pusilla   pusilla  (Wils.).    WILSON'S  WARBLER.     (Fig. 
128.)    Ad.  &. — Forehead  yellow,  crown  black;  rest  of  the  upperparts,  wings 
and  tail  bright  olive-green;  no  wing-bars  nor  tail-patches;  underparts  bright 


WOOD  WARBLERS  469 

yellow;  bill  with  bristles  at  its  base.  Ad.  9 .- -Similar,  but  generally  without 
the  black  cap.  Im.  9. — Similar,  but  without  black  cap.  L.,  5'00;  W.,  2*21; 
T.,  2'03;  B.  from  N.,  '25. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones  from  tree  limit  in  nw. 
Mackenzie,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  s.  Sask.,  n.  Minn.,  cen.  Ont.,  N.  H.,  Maine,  and 
N.  S.;  winters  in  e.  Cen.  Am.;  migrates  mainly  along  the  Alleghanies; 
practically  unknown  in  the  Austroriparian  fauna  from  Va.  to  La. 

Washington,  rather  common  T.  V.,  May  1-26;  Aug.  27-Oct.  6.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  9-30;  Aug.  10-Sept.  9.  Cambridge,  common 
T.  V.,  May  12-25;  uncommon,  Sept.  5-20.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common  T. 
V.,  May  5- June  2;  Sept.  5-15.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  May  7- 
June  26;  Aug.  16-Sept.  21.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  2-  ;  Aug.  23- 
Sept.  27. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  almost  wholly  of  fine,  dry  grass,  lined  with  a  few 
hairs,  deeply  cupped  and  quite  substantial  for  a  Warbler.  Eggs,  4,  white, 
with  or  without  light  brown  splashes  and  with  a  small  wreath  of  dark  specks 
fit  the  larger  end,  *59  x  '48.  Date,  Bangor,  Maine,  June  1.  (See  "Warblers 
of  North  America,"  277.) 

The  Black-cap  frequents  the  lower  woodland  or  bushy  growths. 
Like  other  members  of  this  genus,  it  has  decided  talents  as  a  fly-catcher 
and  captures  much  of  its  prey  on  the  wing,  darting  out  into  the  air,  but 
does  not,  like  a  true  Flycatcher,  return  to  the  same  perch.  It  is  an  alert 
little  bird  and  its  motions  of  wings,  tail  or  crest  suggest  a  certain  pert- 
ness  of  manner. 

"The  song  has  much  of  the  ringing  clarity  of  the  Canada's  and 
Hooded's  songs.  The  commonest  form  of  it,  a  rapid  bubbling  warble  of 
two  nearly  equal  parts,  the  second  lower-toned  and  sometimes  dimin- 
uendo, has  always  reminded  me  of  a  Northern  Water-Thrush's  song" 
(Thayer  in  " Warblers  of  North  America"). 

686.  Wilsonia  canadensis  (Linn.}.  CANADIAN  WABBLEB.  (Fig.  130.) 
Ad.  d". — Upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  gray;  no  wing-bars  or  tail-patches; 
crown  spotted  with  black;  line  from  the  bill  to  the  eye  and  underparts  yellow; 
sides  of  the  neck  black;  a  necklace  of  black  spots  across  the  breast;  under  tail- 
coverts  white;  bill  with  evident  bristle  at  its  base.  Ad.  9  and  Im.  rf1. — Simi- 
lar, but  with  no  black  on  the  head  or  sides  of  the  throat;  necklace  indicated 
by  dusky  spots.  Im.  9. — Similar,  but  with  breast  spots  fainter  or  wanting. 
L.,  5-61;  W.,  2-53;  T.,  2'23;  B.  from  N.,  '31. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  the  Canadian  zone  and  casually  in  the 
Transition  from  cen.  Alberta,  s.  to  N.  F.,  s.  to  cen.  Minn.,  cen.  Mich., 
s.  Ont.,  cen.  N.  Y.,  and  Mass.,  and  along  the  Alleghanies  to  N.  C.  and  Tenn.; 
winters  in  Ecuador  and  Peru  and  casually  in  Guatemala. 

Washington,  very  common  T.  V.,  May  5- June  2;  July  31-Sept.  25. 
Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  May  6-June  2;  Aug.  10-Oct.  11.  Cambridge, 
common,  May  12-30,  rare,  Sept.  l-15;*rare  S.  R.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V., 
Apl.  28-May  27;  Sept.  1-18.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  May  5-June  6; 
Aug.  15-Sept.  22.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  8-  ;  Aug.  18-Sept.  5. 

Nest,  of  strips  of  bark,  bits  of  dead  wood,  and  moss  wrapped  in  leaves, 
and  lined  with  fine  rootlets,  in  mossy  banks  or  under  roots.  Eggs,  4—5, 
white,  speckled  and  spotted,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  rufous  or  rufous- 
brown,  '66  x  '51.  Date,  Lancaster,  N.  H.,  June  9;  Bay  City,  Mich.,  June  2. 

Although  when  associated  with  other  migrating  Warblers  this  bird 
may  be  found  in  woodland  of  varied  character,  it  prefers  low,  wet  woods, 
in  which,  like  Wilson's  Warbler,  it  frequents  the  lower  growth.  Like 
that  bird  also  it  is  an  expert  fly-catcher. 


470  WAGTAILS  AND  PIPITS 

Its  song  is  sweet,  loud,  and  spirited.  Fuertes  writes  "it  suggests  to 
me  the  unfinished  song  of  a  Goldfinch  more  than  that  of  a  Warbler. 
It  is  very  broken  and  energetic  and  also  possesses  a  large  quality" 
(" Warblers  of  North  America"). 

687.  Setophaga  ruticilla  (Linn.).  REDSTART.  (Fig.  70c.)  Ad.  <?. — 
Upperparts,  throat,  and  breast  shining  black;  basal  half  of  the  wing-feath- 
ers salmon,  end  half  and  wing-coverts  black;  basal  two-thirds  of  all  but  the 
middle  tail-feathers  salmon,  end  third  and  middle  feathers  black;  sides  of 
the  breast  and  flanks  deep  reddish  salmon;  belly  white,  tinged  with  salmon; 
bill  with  prominent  bristles  at  its  base.  Ad.  9. — Salmon  of  the  &  replaced 
by  dull  yellow;  head  grayish;  back  ashy,  with  a  greenish  tinge;  underparts, 
except  where  marked  with  yellow,  white.  Im. — Resemble  the  9 ;  the  d" 
acquires  his  full  plumage  at  the  end  of  his  first  breeding  season  during 
which  he  resembles  the  9,  but  is  more  or  less  mottled  with  black.  L.,  5'41; 
W.,  2'57;  T.,  2'27;  B.  from  N.,  '27 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and  Upper  Austral 
zones  from  cen.  B.  C.  to  N.  F.,  s.  to  Wash.,  n.  Utah,  Colo.,  cen.  Okla.,  Ark., 
and  N.  C.;  rarely  breeds  in  the  se.  U.  S.  s.  of  lat.  35°;  casual  in  migration 
in  Ore.,  Calif.,  L.  Calif.,  Ariz.,  and  n.  Ungava;  winters  in  the  West  Indies 
and  from  cen.  Mex.  to  Ecuador  and  B.  Guiana.  (See  Fig.  8.) 

Washington,  very  abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  15-May;  Aug.  19-Sept.  30; 
a  few  breed.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Oct.  3.  Cambridge,  abundant 
S.  R.,  May  5-Sept.  20.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  27-Sept.  20.  Glen 
Ellyn,  not  common  S.  R.,  common  T.  V.,  May  3-Oct.  5.  SE.  Minn.,  com- 
mon S.  R.,  May  2-Sept.  22. 

Nest,  of  fine  strips  of  bark,  leaf  stalks,  and  plant-down,  firmly  inter- 
woven, lined  with  tendrils  and  fine  rootlets,  in  the  crotch  of  a  sapling,  5-20 
feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5,  grayish  white  or  bluish  white,  spotted  and  blotched, 
chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  cinnamon-  or  olive-brown,  "68  x  '50.  Date, 
Raleigh,  N.  C.,  May  12;  Waynesburg,  Pa.,  May  19;  New  Haven,  Conn., 
May  20;  Cambridge,  June  2. 

If  this  active,  brilliantly  colored  inhabitant  of  woodlands  were  as 
rare  as  he  is  beautiful,  we  would  consider  a  meeting  with  him  an  event 
demanding  at  least  a  page  in  our  journals.  In  Cuba  most  of  our  Wood 
Warblers  are  known  simply  as  'Mariposas' — butterflies;  but  the 
Redstart's  bright  plumage  has  won  for  him  the  name  '  Candelita' — • 
the  little  torch  that  flashes  in  the  gloomy  depths  of  tropical  forests. 

Ching,  ching,  chee;  ser-wee,  swee,  swe-e-e  he  sings,  and  with  wings 
and  tail  outspread  whirls  about,  dancing  from  limb  to  limb,  darting 
upward,  floating  downward,  blown  hither  and  thither  like  a  leaf  in  the 
breeze.  But  the  gnats  dancing  in  the  sunlight  and  the  caterpillars 
feeding  in  the  shade  of  the  leaves  know  to  their  sorrow  that  his  erratic 
course  is  guided  by  a  purpose. 

59.  FAMILY  MOTACILLID^B.  WAGTAILS  AND  PIPITS.  (Fig.  71.) 

Of  the  one  hundred  species  included  in  this  family  only  ten  are 
American,  the  remaining  ninety  being  distributed  throughout  the  Old 
World.  Of  Wagtails,  a  single  species  (Budytes  flavus  alascensis)  reaches 
western  Alaska,  while  our  nine  species  of  Pipits  are  scattered  from  the 
Arctic  zone  to  Patagonia,  only  two  being  known  from  north  of  the  Rio 
Grande. 


WAGTAILS  AND  PIPITS  471 

Wagtails  are  found  about  the  borders  of  streams  and  where  there  is 
more  or  less  vegetation,  while  the  Pipits  are  more  larklike  and  usually 
inhabit  an  open,  treeless  country.  Both  Wagtails  and  Pipits  are  emi- 
nently terrestrial.  They  walk  or  run,  instead  of  hop,  rarely  (with  one 
or  two  exceptions)  if  ever  alight  in  trees,  sing  on  the  wing,  the  Pipits 
ascending  much  the  higher,  and  nest  on  the  ground,  and  both  have  in  a 
highly  developed  form  the  habit  of  tail-wagging. 

697.  Anthus  rubeseens  (Tunstall}.  AMERICAN  PIPIT.  (Fig.  71.)  Ads. 
in  winter. — Outer  tail-feather  largely  white,  next  one  or  two  white-tipped. 
Above  warm  grayish  brown;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  whitish  or  buffy; 
longest  tertial  longer  than  fifth  primary;  a  whitish  or  buffy  line  over  eye; 
below  buffy  (whitish  just  before  spring  molt)  breast  and  sides  streaked  with 
fuscous;  hind  toe-nail  longest,  as  long  as  or  longer  than  its  toe.  After  spring 
molt  upperparts  grayer,  underparts  more  pinkish  buff,  but  these  colors  fade 
as  breeding  season  advances.  L.,  6'38;  W.,  3'50;  T.,  2'69;  B.,  '47. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Arctic  zone  from  ne.  Siberia,  n.  Alaska,  and  lat.  70° 
on  w.  coast  of  Greenland  s.  to  Great  Slave  Lake,  cen.  Keewatin,  n.  Que., 
and  N.  F.,  and  on  high  mts.  s.  to  Calif.,  Colo.,  and  N.  M.;  winters  from  s. 
Calif.,  and  the  Ohio  and  lower  Del.  valleys  to  Guatemala. 

Washington,  W.  V.,  sometimes  abundant,  Oct.  2-May  12.  Ossining, 
common  T.  V.,  Mch.  26-(?);  Sept.  24-Nov.  16.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  abund- 
ant Sept.  20-Nov.  10;  rare  Apl.  10-May  20.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl. 
6-May  26;  Oct.  19.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  15-  ;  Sept.  30- 
Oct.  18.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  4-  ;  Oct. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  4-6,  bluish  white  or  grayish 
white,  thickly  and  evenly  speckled  with  cinnamon-  or  vinaceous-brown , 
•78  X  '57.  Date,  Whale  River,  Lab.,  June  20. 

Large,  open  tracts  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast  are  the  localities  in 
which  Titlarks  are  most  common,  but  they  are  also  found  in  numbers  in 
old  fields,  meadows,  and  pastures  inland.  A  recently  burned  or  newly 
plowed  field  is  a  good  place  in  which  to  look  for  them.  Once  seen,  there 
is  little  difficulty  in  identifying  these  graceful  walkers,  as  they  run  on 
before  you,  or  with  constantly  wagging  tail  await  your  approach.  The 
individuals  of  a  flock  are  generally  scattered  over  a  varying  space  while 
feeding,  but  when  flushed  they  rise  together  and,  with  a  soft  dee-dee, 
dee-dee,  mount  high  in  the  air  as  though  bound  for  parts  unknown, 
but  often,  after  hovering  above  you  for  several  seconds  in  an  undecided 
way,  they  will  return  to  or  near  the  place  from  which  they  rose.  Their 
flight  is  light  and  airy,  and  in  loose  companies  they  undulate  gently 
through  the  air  without  apparent  effort,  uttering  their  faint  dee-dee 
as  they  fly. 

The  Pipit's  song  is  delivered  in  the  air  both  as  he  mounts  to  and 
descends  from  a  height  of  as  much  as  two  hundred  feet.  To  me  it  sounds 
like  the  ringing  of  a  little  bell.  Townsend  ("Along  the  Labrador  Coast," 
p.  52)  describes  it  as  "che-whee,  che-whee,  with  a  vibratory  resonance  on 
the  whee." 

700.  Anthus  spraguei  (And.}.  SPRAGUE'S  PIPIT.  Hind  toe-nail 
longer  than  its  claw.  Ads. — Above  grayish  brown  widely  margined  with 
buffy  or  ashy;  tail  fuscous,  two  outer  feathers  largely  white,  wings  browner 
with  two  indistinct  bars;  below  white,  buff-tinged,  a,  band  of  streaks  across 
the  breast.  L.,  6'25;  W.,  3'30;  T.,  2'40;  B.,  '50,. 


472         THRASHERS,  MOCKINGBIRDS,  ETC. 

Range. — Interior  plains  of  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Transition  zone  from  sw. 
Sask.  and  s.  Man.  s.  to  w.  Mont.,  and  N.  D.;  winters  from  Tex.,  s.  La.,  and 
s.  Miss.,  to  s.  Mex. 

Nest,  of  grasses  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-5,  grayish  white,  thickly  and 
finely  speckled  with  blackish  and  purplish. 

This  species  appears  to  be  of  rare  but  more  or  less  regular  occurrence 
on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  In  general  habits  it  resem- 
bles the  Pipit,  but  its  song  appears  to  be  far  more  noteworthy  than  the 
vocal  effort  of  that  species.-  Seton  ("Birds  of  Manitoba")  writes  that 
the  song,  which  is  delivered  from  a  height  of  five  hundred  feet  or  more, 
is  loud  and  ventriloquial.  "At  the  beginning  it  is  much  like  that  of  the 
English  Skylark,  and  the  notes  are  uttered  deliberately  but  continuously, 
and  soon  increase  in  rapidity  and  force  till  in  a  few  seconds  the  climax 
is  reached,  after  which  they  fade  away  in  a  veery-like  strain,  and  then 
suddenly  stop." 

The  EUROPEAN  WHITE  WAGTAIL  (694.  Motacilla  alba}  and  EUROPEAN 
MEADOW  PIPIT  (698.  Anihus  pratensis)  have  been  recorded  as  of  accidental 
occurrence  in  Greenland. 


60.  FAMILY  MIMID^E.  THRASHERS,  MOCKINGBIRDS,  ETC.   (Fig.  72a,  &.) 

Most  of  the  sixty-odd  species  contained  in  this  distinctively  American 
family  are  restricted  to  the  tropics,  only  eleven  being  found  north  of 
Mexico.  Generally  speaking,  they  frequent  scrubby  growths  and  bushy 
borders  of  wooded  land.  When  singing  they  take  a  more  or  less  exposed 
perch  and  devote  themselves  seriously  and  exclusively  to  the  delivery 
of  their  musical  message.  As  a  rule  they  are  possessed  of  exceptional 
vocal  ability,  and  the  Mockingbirds,  of  which  there  are  some  twenty 
species,  some  quite  as  talented  as  ours,  are  conceded  first  rank  among 
American  song  birds,  so  far  as  variety  of  expression  and  execution  are 
concerned. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  Back  slate-color;  cap  black;  under  tail-coverts  rufous-brown. 

704.  CATBIRD. 

B.  Back  and  crown  grayish;  underparts  whitish;  outer  tail-feathers  white. 

703.   MOCKINGBIRD. 

C.  Back  rufous;  underparts  streaked  with  black  .  705.  BROWN  THRASHER. 

703.  Mimus  polyglottos  polyglottos  (Linn.}.  MOCKINGBIRD.  Ads. 
Above  ashy;  wings  and  tail  fuscous;  primary  coverts  white,  centrally,  black 
at  end,  primaries  basally  white,  showing  conspicuously  in  flight;  outer  tail- 
feather  white,  next  two  or  three  with  a  decreasing  amount;  below  soiled 
white.  L.,  10-50;  W.,  4'50;  T.,  4'90;  B.,  '70. 

Remarks. — The  sexes  can  not  be  certainly  distinguished  in  color,  but  in 
the  female  the  white  areas  average  slightly  smaller.  Nestlings  are  grayish 
brown  above,  white,  spotted  with  fuscous  below. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.,  chiefly  in  Austral  zones,  from  e.  Nebr.,  s.  Iowa, 
Ills.,  Ind.,  Ohio,  and  Md.,  s.  to  e.  Tex.,  s.  Fla.,  and  the  Bahamas,  and  spa- 
ringly to  N.  Y.  and  Mass.;  accidental  in  Wise.,  Out.,  Maine,  and  N.  S.; 
introduced  in  Bermuda. 


THRASHERS,  MOCKINGBIRDS,  ETC.         473 

Washington,  uncommon  P.  R.,  less  numerous  in  winter.  Cambridge, 
rare  S.  R.,  Mch.  to  Nov. 

Nest,  of  coarse  twigs,  weed  stalks,  etc.,  lined  with  rootlets,  cotton,  etc., 
in  thickets,  orange  trees,  etc.  Eggs,  4-6,  pale  greenish  blue  or  bluish  white, 
sometimes  with  a  brownish  tinge,  rather  heavily  spotted  and  blotched, 
chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown,  TOO  x  '72.  Date, 
Gainesville,  Fla.,  Apl.  1;  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  May  9. 

The  Mockingbird  might  be  called  our  national  song  bird;  his 
remarkable  vocal  powers  have  made  him  famous  the  world  over,  while 
our  more  retiring  Thrushes  are  scarcely  to  be  found  mentioned  outside 
the  literature  of  ornithology.  He  is  a  good  citizen,  and  courting  rather 
than  shunning  public  life,  shows  an  evident  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
the  day.  He  lives  in  our  gardens,  parks,  and  squares,  and  even  in  the 
streets  of  the  town,  and  is  always  alert  and  on  the  qui  vive;  a  self- 
appointed  guardian,  whose  sharp  alarm-note  is  passed  from  bird  to 
bird  like  the  signals  of  watchmen. 

In  Florida,  Mockingbirds  begin  to  sing  in  February,  and  by  March 
1  the  air  rings  with  music.  The  heat  of  midday  is  insufficient  to  quell 
their  ardor,  and  on  moonlight  nights  many  birds  sing  throughout  the 
night.  It  is  customary  to  consider  the  Mockingbird  a  musician  possessed 
of  marvelous  technique,  but  with  comparatively  little  depth  of  feel- 
ing. He  is  said  to  create  intense  admiration  without  reaching  the 
soul.  But  listen  to  him  when  the  world  is  hushed,  when  the  air  is  heavy 
with  the  rich  fragrance  of  orange  blossoms  and  the  dewy  leaves  glisten 
in  the  moonlight,  and  if  his  song  does  not  thrill  you  then  confess  your- 
self deaf  to  Nature's  voices. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  every  Mockingbird  is  a  mocker;  there 
is  much  variation  in  their  imitative  gifts.  Mr.  L.  M.  Loomis  tells 
me  of  a  Mockingbird  he  once  heard  singing  in  South  Carolina  which 
imitated  the  notes  of  no  less*  than  thirty-two  different  species  of 
birds  found  in  the  same  locality,  and  this  during  ten  minutes'  contin- 
uous singing!  This  was  a  phenomenal  performance,  one  I  have  never 
heard  approached,  for  in  my  experience  many  Mockingbirds  have  no 
notes  besides  their  own,  and  good  mockers  are  exceptional. 

1902.   DANIELS,  J.  W.,  Wilson  Bull.,  68-71  (nesting). 

704.  Dumetella  carolinensis  (Linn.}.  CATBIRD.  Ads. — Crown  and 
tail  black;  under  tail-coverts  chestnut,  sometimes  spotted  with  slaty,  and 
rarely  largely  slaty;  rest  of  the  plumage  slaty  gray.  L.,  8'94;  W.,  3'54;  T., 
3-65;  B.,  '60. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  Transition  and  Austral  zones 
from  cen.  B.  C.,  cen.  Alberta,  cen.  Sask.,  s.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and 
N.  S.  s.  to  ne.  Ore.,  n.  Utah,  ne.  N.  M.,  e.  Tex.,  and  n.  Fla.;  resident  in 
Bermuda;  winters  from  s.  States  to  the  Bahamas  and  Cuba  and  through 
Mex.  to  Panama;  casual  in  winter  n.  to  the  Middle  States. 

Washington,  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  24— Oct.  11;  occasionally  winters. 
Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  28-Oct.  25.  Cambridge,  abundant  S.  R.,  May 
6-Oct.  1;  occasional  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  21-Oct.  5. 
Glen  Ellyn,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29-Oct.  6.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
30-Oct.  6. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  grasses,  and  leaves,  lined  with  rootlets,  in  thickets  or 


474         THRASHERS,  MOCKINGBIRDS,  ETC. 

densely  foliaged  trees.    Eggs,  3-5,  rich  greenish  blue,  "94  x  '67.    Date,  D,  C., 
May  17;  Cambridge,  May  22;  Utica,  N.  Y.,  May  21;  se.  Minn.,  May  18. 

The  Catbird  is  one  of  the  most  intelligent  birds  in  North  America. 
He  is  inclined  to  be  very  friendly  to  man,  and  where  he  is  well  treated 
and  his  confidence  won  he  likes  to  nest  near  our  homes,  showing  him- 
self delightfully  familiar,  coming  around  the  doorsteps,  answering 
one's  calls  and  talk,  and  singing  by  the  hour  for  our  entertainment. 
In  the  garden  and  orchard  he  is  as  useful  as  he  is  enchanting,  for  he 
is  an  untiring  devourer  of  insects,  and  his  value  in  preserving  our 
fruits  can  hardly  be  overrated.  In  this  way  he  earns  his  full  share  of 
the  fruit  protected,  and  it  should  not  be  grudged  to  him  when  he  pro- 
ceeds to  take  it,  as  he  surely  will. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  Catbird  is  a  charming  singer, 
for  the  reason,  probably,  that  his  song  is  rarely  loud,  and  is  preferably 
given  from  the  depths  of  the  thickest  shrub  he  can  find.  One  more 
often  hears  than  sees  him  sing,  and  will  miss  even  the  hearing  unless 
quite  near,  and  gifted  with  a  listening  ear,  ever  open  to  bird  notes. 

The  Catbird  mother  is  one  of  the  most  anxious  and  devoted.  If 
her  nest  is  discovered,  she  exhibits  so  much  distress  that  one  sympa- 
thetic to  bird  griefs  has  no  heart  to  pursue  investigations. 

The  Catbird  is  generous  and  helpful  to  others  of  his  kind  in  trouble 
of  any  sort,  feeding  and  caring  for  deserted  or  orphaned  young  ones 
of  any  species,  and  always  ready  to  aid  distracted  parents  in  the  defense 
of  their  home  and  little  ones. 

He  is  of  a  lively  and  restless  temperament,  entirely  lacking  the 
serene  repose  of  his  near  relatives,  the  Thrushes.  He  is  always  toss- 
ing upward  or  spreading  his  tail,  jerking  his  lithe  body  about,  now 
crouching  like  a  cat  ready  to  spring,  then  straightening  himself  up 
very  tall;  one  moment  puffing  his  feathers  out  till  he  looks  like  a  ball, 
and  the  next  holding  them  closely  against  his  body.  He  is  very  playful, 
full  of  droll  pranks  and  quaint  performances.  I  know  of  no  bird  better 
worth  cherishing  and  cultivating  than  the  Catbird. 

OLIVE  THORNE  MILLER. 

1905.   HEREICK,  F.  H.,  Home-Life  of  Wild  Birds,  122-128. 

705.  Toxostoma  rufum  (Linn.}.  BROWN  THRASHER.  (Fig.  72a.) 
Ads. — Upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  rufous ;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  whitish; 
underparts  white  (buffy  in  fall),  heavily  streaked  with  black  or  cinnamon, 
except  on  throat  and  middle  of  belly.  L.,  1T42;  W.,  4'06;  T.,  5'03;  B.,  '96. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  mainly  in  Transition  and  Austral  zones  from 
s.  Alberta,  s.  Man.,  n.  Mich.,  s.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  n.  Maine,  s.  to  e.  La., 
Miss.,  Ala.,  and  n.  Fla.,  and  from  base  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  in  Mont.,  Wyo., 
and  Colo,  eastward;  winters  from  se.  Mo.  and  N.  C.  to  s.  cen.  Tex.,  s.  Fla., 
a>nd  casually  further  n. 

Washington,  very  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  8-Oct.;  occasionally  winters. 
Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  22-Oct.  28.  Cambridge,  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
26-Oct.  20.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  6-Oct.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  9-Oct.  11.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  15-Oct.  7. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  coarse  rootlets,  and  leaves,  lined  with  finer  rootlets,  in 
bushes,  thickets,  or  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-6,  bluish  white  or  grayish  white, 
thickly,  evenly,  and  minutely  speckled  with  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown, 


WRENS  475 

1*08  X  *80.   Date,  D.  C.,  May  7;  Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  May  15;  Cambridge, 
May  21;  Wheatland,  Ind.,  May  7;  se.  Minn.,  May  11. 

Hedgerows,  shrubbery  about  the  borders  of  woods,  scrubby  growth, 
or  thickets  in  dry  fields,  are  alike  frequented  by  the  Thrasher.  Gen- 
erally speaking  he  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  undergrowth,  where  he  passes 
much  time  on  the  ground  foraging  among  the  fallen  leaves.  He  is  an 
active,  suspicious  bird,  who  does  not  like  to  be  watched,  and  expresses 
his  annoyance  with  an  unpleasant  kissing  note  or  sharply  whistled 
wheeu. 

Like  many  thicket-haunting  birds,  who  ordinarily  shun  observa- 
tion, he  seeks  an  exposed  position  when  singing.  Morning  and  evening 
he  mounts  to  a  favorite  perch — generally  in  the  upper  branches  of  a 
tree — and  deliberately  gives  his  entire  attention  to  his  song.  This 
is  repeated  many  times,  the  bird  singing  almost  continuously  for  an 
extended  interval.  He  is  a  finished  musician,  and,  although  his  reper- 
toire is  limited  to  one  air,  he  rivals  the  Mockingbird  in  the  richness 
of  his  tones  and  execution.  I  never  listen  to  the  Thrasher's  song  with- 
out involuntarily  exclaiming,  "What  a  magnificent  performance!" 
Nevertheless,  there  is  a  certain  consciousness  and  lack  of  spontaneity 
about  it  which  makes  it  appeal  to  the  mind  rather  than  to  the  heart. 

61.  FAMILY  TROGLODYTIDTE.    WRENS.    (Fig.  72  c,  d.) 

The  Wrens  are  one  of  the  few  families  of  birds  represented  in  both 
hemispheres,  in  which  there  is  a  larger  number  in  the  New  World  than 
in  the  Old;  only  thirty-odd  of  the  some  two  hundred  and  sixty  known 
forms  occurring  in  the  Old  World,  while  the  remainder  are  American.  In 
this  country  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  tropics,  only  fourteen  species 
advancing  beyond  Mexico.  Wrens,  as  a  rule,  are  haunters  of  the  under- 
growth in  well-thicketed  places,  but  some  species  are  marsh-inhabiting 
and  others  live  among  rocks.  They  are  active,  nervous  little  creatures, 
whose  usually  up-cocked  tail  is  an  index  to  their  excitable  dispositions. 
Their  notes  of  alarm  or  displeasure  are  loud,  harsh  and  insistent,  but 
the  songs  of  most  species  are  marked  by  sweetness  and  brilliancy  of 
execution.  Their  irrepressible  energy  finds  expression  in  nests  of  great 
size  or  complex  structure  as  well  as  in  exceptionally  large  sets  of  eggs. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  Upperparts  bright  rufous,  a  long,  conspicuous  whitish  line  over  the  eye; 

underparts  cream-buff  or  ochraceous-buff ;  wing  2*25  or  over. 

718.  CAROLINA  WREN.     718a.  FLORIDA  WREN. 

B.  Upperparts  not  bright  rufous. 

a.  Upperparts  uniform  dark,  reddish  olive-brown;  back  without  white 

streaks. 

a1.  Underparts  whitish;  primaries  finely  barred;  no  white  line  over  the 

eye    .     .     .     721.  HOUSE  WREN.     7216.  WESTERN  HOUSE  WREN. 

a2.  Underparts  whitish;  primaries  not  barred;  a  white  line  over  the  eye. 

719.  BEWICK'S  WREN. 
a3.  Underparts  brownish,  finely  barred  with  black.   722,  WINTER  WREN. 


476  WRENS 

b.  Back  with  white  streaks. 

b1.  White  streaks  confined  to  the  center  of  the  back;  a  white  line  over 
the  eye      .     .     .     .     725.  LONG-BILLED  MARSH  WREN  and  races. 
b2.  Crown,  back,  and  wing-coverts  streaked  with  white. 

724.  SHORT-BILLED  MARSH  WREN. 

718.  Thryothorus  ludovicianus  ludovicianus  (Lath.}.  CAROLINA 
WREN.  (Fig.  72c.)  Ads. — Above  bright  rufous  or  rufous-brown  without 
bars  or  streaks ;  feathers  of  rump  with  concealed  downy  white  spots ;  a  long, 
conspicuous  whitish  or  buffy  line  over  eye;  wings  and  tail  rufous-brown, 
finely  barred  with  black;  underparts  ochraceous-buff  or  cream-buff,  whiter 
on  the  throat;  flanks  sometimes  with  a  few  blackish  bars.  Worn  breeding 
plumage  is  dingier  above  and  whiter  below.  The  largest  of  our  Wrens. 
L.,  5-50;  W.,  2-30;  T.,  2'00;  B.,  '60. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas  from 
se.  Nebr.,  s.  Iowa,  Ohio,  s.  Pa.,  and  lower  Hudson  and  Conn,  valleys  s.  to 
cen.  Tex.,  Gulf  States,  and  n.  Fla.;  casual  n.  to  Wise.,  Mich.,  Ont.,  Mass., 
N.  H.,  and  Maine. 

Washington,  common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  rare  or  casual.  N.  Ohio, 
tolerably  common  P.  R. 

Nest,  bulky,  of  grasses,  feathers,  leaves,  etc.,  lined  with  finer  grasses, 
long  hairs,  etc.,  in  holes  in  trees  or  stumps,  nooks  and  crevices  about  build- 
ings, etc.  Eggs,  4-6,  white  or  creamy  white,  with  numerous  cinnamon-, 
rufous-brown,  and  lavender  markings,  sometimes  wreathed  about  the 
larger  end,  *75  x  *58.  Date,  Weaverville,  N.  C.,  Apl.  20. 

The  cozy  nooks  and  corners  about  the  home  of  man  which  prove 
so  attractive  to  the  House  Wren  are  less  commonly  chosen  by  this  bird. 
His  wild  nature  more  often  demands  the  freedom  of  the  forests,  and  he 
shows  no  disposition  to  adapt  himself  to  new  conditions.  Undergrowths 
near  water,  fallen  tree  tops,  brush  heaps,  and  rocky  places  in  the  woods 
where  he  can  dodge  in  and  out  and  in  a  twinkling  appear  or  disappear 
like  a  feathered  Jack-in-the-box,  are  the  resorts  he  chooses. 

The  nervous  activity  so  characteristic  of  all  Wrens  reaches  in  him 
its  highest  development.  Whatever  he  may  be  when  alone,  he  is  never 
at  rest  so  long  as  he  imagines  himself  observed.  Now  he  is  on  this 
side  of  us,  now  on  that ;  a  moment  later,  on  a  stump  before  us,  bobbing 
up  and  down  and  gesticulating  wildly  with  his  expressive  tail ;  but  as  a 
rule  he  is  seldom  in  sight  more  than  a  second  at  a  time.  Of  course,  so 
excitable  a  nature  must  find  other  than  physical  outlet  for  its  irrepressi- 
ble energy,  and  the  bird  accompanies  his  movements  by  more  or  less 
appropriate  notes:  scolding  cacks,  clinking,  metallic  rattles,  musical 
trills,  tree-toadlike  krrrings — in  fact,  he  possesses  an  almost  endless 
vocabulary.  He  is  sometimes  called  Mocking  Wren,  but  the  hundreds 
of  birds  I  have  heard  were  all  too  original  to  borrow  from  others.  In 
addition  to  his  peculiar  calls  he  possesses  a  variety  of  loud,  ringing  whis- 
tles, somewhat  similar  in  tone  to  those  of  the  Tufted  Titmouse  or  Car- 
dinal, and  fully  as  loud  as,  if  not  louder  than,  the  notes  of  the  latter. 
The  more  common  ones  resemble  the  syllables  whee-udel,  whee-udel, 
whee-udel,  and  tea-kettle,  tea-kettle,  tea-kettle. 

1909.   TOWNSEND,  C.  W.,  Auk,  XXVI,  263-269  (in  N.  E.). 

718a.  T.  1.  miamensis  Ridgw.  FLORIDA  WREN.  Similar  to  the  preceding, 
but  larger;  above  darker;  below  more  deeply  colored.  W.f2'46;T.,2*19;B.,  "70. 


WRENS  477 

Range. — Florida  s.  of  the  Suwanee  River,  Gainesville,  and  Palatka. 
Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Apl.  6. 

719.  Thryomanes  bewicki  bewicki  (Aud.).  BEWICK'S  WREN.  Ads. — 
Above  dark  cinnamon-brown  without  bars  or  streaks;  feathers  of  rump  with 
concealed,  downy  white  spots;  outer  vane  of  primaries  little  if  at  all  barred; 
central  tail-feathers  grayish-brown,  barred,  at  least  on  sides,  with  black; 
outer  ones  black,  tipped  with  grayish;  the  outer  one  or  two  with  more  or 
less  bars  on  the  outer  vane;  a  white  or  buffy  line  over  eye,  underparts  gray- 
ish white;  flanks  brownish.  L.,  5'00;  W.,  2'30;  T.,  2'10;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Carolinian  fauna  from  se.  Nebr., 
n.  Ills.,  s.  Mich.,  and  s.  cen.  Pa.  s.  to  cen.  Ark.,  n.  Miss.,  cen.  Ala.,  and  along 
the  Alleghanian  highlands  to  n.  S.  C.;  winters  from  near  n.  limit  of  its 
range  s.  to  Gulf  coast  and  Fla.;  accidental  in  Ont.,  and  N.  H. 

Washington,  rare  and  local  T.  V.,  Mch.  26- July-  ;  may  winter,  Nov. 
24-Dec.  22. 

Nest,  resembles  that  of  T.  aedon;  location  the  same.  Eggs,  4-6,  white, 
speckled  with  cinnamon-,  rufous-brown,  or  lavender,  evenly,  or  in  a  wreath 
at  the  larger  end,  '66  x  *50.  Date,  Buncombe  Co.,  N.  C.,  Apl.  14;  Old 
Orchard,  Missouri,  Apl.  20. 

"No  bird  more  deserves  the  protection  of  man  than  Bewick's  Wren. 
He  does  not  need  man's  encouragement,  for  he  comes  of  his  own  accord 
and  installs  himself  as  a  member  of  the  community  wherever  it  suits  his 
taste.  He  is  found  about  the  cow-shed  and  barn  along  with  the  Pewee 
and  Barn  Swallow;  he  investigates  the  pig-sty,  then  explores  the  garden 
fence,  and  finally  mounts  to  the  roof  and  pours  forth  one  of  the  sweetest 
songs  that  ever  was  heard.  Not  .  .  .  like  the  House  Wren's  merry 
roundelay,  but  a  fine,  clear,  bold  song,  uttered  as  the  singer  sits  with 
head  thrown  back  and  long  tail  pendent — a  song  which  may  be  heard  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  or  more,  and  in  comparison  with  which  the  faint 
chant  of  the  Song  Sparrow  sinks  into  insignificance.  The  ordinary 
note  is  a  soft,  low  plit,  uttered  as  the  bird  hops  about,  its  long  tail 
carried  erect  or  even  leaning  forward,  and  jerked  to  one  side  at  short 
intervals.  In  its  movements  it  is  altogether  more  deliberate  than  either 
T.  ludovicianus  or  T.  aedon,  but  nothing  can  excel  it  in  quickness  when 
it  is  pursued"  (Ridgway). 

721.  Troglodytes  aedon  aedon  (VieilL).  HOUSE  WREN.  Ads. — Above 
cinnamon  olive-brown,  more  rufous  on  the  rump  and  tail;  back  generally  with 
indistinct  bars;  feathers  of  the  rump  with  concealed,  downy  white  spots; 
wings  and  tail  finely  barred;  below  grayish  white,  flanks  rusty,  sides  and 
flanks  usually,  breast  rarely,  under  tail-coverts  always  barred  with  blackish. 
L.,  5-00;  W.,  1-97;  T.,  1'71;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  chiefly  in  Transition  and  Upper  Austral 
zones  from  e.  Wise.,  Mich.,  cen.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  B.  s.  to  Ky.  and 
Va.;  winters  in  e.  Tex.  and  Tamaulipas,  and  in  the  S.  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  13-Oct.  11.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  23-Oct.  14.  Cambridge,  formerly  abundant  S.  R.,  Apl.  28-Sept.  25; 
now  rare  and  local.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  17-Oct.  5.  Glen  Ellyn, 
S.  R.  in  isolated  pairs;  Apl.  26-Oct.  13.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  27- 
Sept.  18. 

Nest,  of  twigs  lined  with  grasses,  feathers,  etc.,  generally  filling  the  hole 
in  a  tree,  bird-box,  crevice,  etc.,  in  which  it  is  placed.  Eggs,  6-8,  vinaceous, 
uniform,  or  minutely  speckled,  with  generally  a  wreath  of  a  deeper  shade 


478  WRENS 

at  the  larger  end,  '65  x  '51.    Date,  White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va.,  Apl.  27; 
D.  C.,  May  1;  Cambridge,  May  25;  se.  Minn.,  May  19. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  name  House  Wren  is  a  misnomer, 
because  in  the  South  during  the  winter  these  birds  are  found  in  the  for- 
ests miles  from  the  nearest  habitation.  This,  however,  is  owing  to 
circumstances  over  which  the  House  Wren  has  no  control.  He  is  just 
as  much  of  a  House  Wren  in  the  south  as  he  is  in  the  north ;  you  will 
find  a  pair  in  possession  of  every  suitable  dwelling.  The  difficulty  is 
that  in  the  winter  there  are  more  House  Wrens  than  there  are  houses, 
and,  being  of  a  somewhat  irritable  disposition,  the  House  Wren  will  not 
share  his  quarters  with  others  of  his  kind.  Late  comers,  therefore, 
who  can  not  get  a  snug  nook  about  a  house  or  outbuilding,  are  forced 
to  resort  to  the  woods. 

In  the  summer,  when  they'  are  spread  over  a  much  greater  area, 
House  Wrens  are  very  particular  in  their  choice  of  haunts,  and  for 
this  reason  are  locally  distributed.  Having  selected  a  nesting-site,  they 
become  much  attached  to  it,  and  return  to  the  same  place  year  after 
year.  It  may  be  a  bird-box,  a  crevice  in  a  building,  a  hollow  in  an 
apple  tree,  or  hole  in  a  fence  rail ;  wherever  it  is,  it  is  theirs,  and  they  will 
fight  for  it  against  all  comers. 

The  song  of  the  House  Wren  is  delivered  with  characteristic  energy — 
a  sudden  outpouring  of  music  which  completely  dominates  the  singer, 
who  with  raised  head  and  drooped  tail  trembles  with  the  violence  of 
his  effort. 

1905.  HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Home  Life  of  Wild  Birds,  38-44. 

72 la.  T.  ae.  parkmani  (Aud.}.  WESTERN  HOUSE  WREN.  Similar 
to  T.  aedon  aedon  but  grayer,  bars  above  usually  more  distinct;  black  bars 
of  tail  usually  more  or  less  margined  posteriorly  with  grayish  or  buffy; 
flanks  less  rusty. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  lower  Canadian  and  Transition  zones 
from  s.  B.  C.,  n.  Alberta,  cen.  Sask.,  and  s.  Man.,  s.  to  L.  Calif.,  s.  Ariz., 
sw.  Tex.,  s.  Mo.,  and  s.  Ills.;  winters  from  Calif,  and  Tex.  southward  to  Mex. 

SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  26-Sept.  18. 

722.  Nannus  hiemalis  hiemalis  (Vieill).  WINTER  WREN.  Ads. — 
Tail  very  short;  a  cinnamon-buff  line  over  eye;  upperparts  dark,  nearly 
uniform  cinnamon-brown;  back  indistinctly  barred;  feathers  of  the  rump 
with  concealed,  downy  white  spots;  wings  and  tail  barred;  underparts  cin- 
namon-buff; flanks  and  belly  heavily  barred  with  black.  L.,  4*06;  W.,  1*89; 
T.,  1'24;  B.,  '35. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Canadian  zone  from  cen.  Alberta,  s.  Man., 
n.  Ont.,  n.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  cen.  Minn.,  n.  Wise.,  cen.  Mich.,  and  Mass., 
and  through  the  Alleghanies  to  N.  C.;  winters  from  about  its  s.  breeding 
limit  to  Tex.  and  n.  Fla. 

Washington,  rather  common  W.  V.,  Aug.  10-May  1.  Ossining,  tolerably 
common  W.  V.,  Sept.  18-Apl.  27.  Cambridge,  T.  V.,  uncommon,  Sept.  20- 
Nov.  25;  rare,  Apl.  10-25;  a  very  few  winter.  N.  Ohio,  tolerably  common 
W.  V.,  Sept.  14-May  17.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common,  T.  V.,  Apl.  1-May  10; 
Sept.  9-Nov.  7.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  rare  W.  V.,  Sept.  22-Apl.  3. 

Nest,  of  small  twigs  and  moss,  lined  with  feathers,  in  the  roots  of  a  tree, 
brush-heap,  or  similar  place.  "Eggs,  5-7,  white  or  creamy  white,  finely  but 


WRENS  479 

rather  sparingly  speckled  with  reddish  brown,  sometimes  nearly  immaculate, 
*69  x  "50"  (Ridgw.)  .   Date,  Upton,  Maine,  June  11. 

When  looking  for  a  Winter  Wren  during  the  fall  migration  I  go  to 
an  old  raspberry  patch,  and  in  the  woods  watch  the  stumps  and  fallen 
trees.  In  the  shadow  of  the  woods  it  is  easy  to  overlook  the  small  dark 
bird  creeping  under  a  log  or  clambering  over  an  old  stump.  But  often, 
when  sitting  alone  in  the  deserted  patch,  my  heart  has  been  warmed 
by  the  sudden  apparition  of  the  plump  little  Wren  atilt  of  a  dry  golden- 
rod  stalk  close  beside  me,  his  tail  standing  straight  over  his  back  and 
his  head  cocked  on  one  side.  He  would  bow  to  me  with  a  droll  bobbing 
motion,  but  his  hearty  quip-quap  and  the  frank  look  of  interest  in  his 
bright  eyes  showed  that  he  was  quite  ready  to  make  friends.  Many 
a  dull  morning  has  been  gladdened  by  such  an  encounter. 

Perhaps  my  choicest  memories,  however,  are  of  a  Wren  who  loft 
his  usual  home  in  the  dark  coniferous  forest  for  our  brighter  woodlands 
of  maple  and  beech.  He  built  his  nest  in  an  upturned  root  on  the  edge 
of  a  bit  of  marshy  land,  helping  himself  to  some  feathers  the  Scarlet 
Tanager  had  left  at  his  bath  in  the  swamp  behind. 

I  had  never  before  had  a  chance  to  listen  to  his  famous  song,  and 
it  was  the  event  of  the  summer  in  the  woods.  Full  of  trills,  runs,  and 
grace  notes,  it  was  a  tinkling,  rippling  roundelay.  It  made  me  think 
of  the  song  of  the  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet,  the  volume  and  ringing  qual- 
ity of  both  being  startling  from  birds  of  their  size.  But  while  the  King- 
let's may  be  less  hampered  by  considerations  of  tune,  the  Wren's  song 
has  a  more  appealing  human  character.  It  is  like  the  bird  himself.  The 
dark  swamps  are  made  glad  by  the  joyous,  wonderful  song. 

FLORENCE  MERRIAM  BAILEY. 

724.  Cistothorus  stellaris  (Licht.).  SHORT-BILLED  MARSH  WREN. 
Ads. — Entire  upperparts  streaked  with  white,  black,  and  ochraceous-buff; 
wings  and  tail  barred;  underparts  unbarred,  white;  under  tail-coverts, 
flanks,  and  a  more  or  less  broken  band  across 
breast  ochraceous-buff.  L.,4'00;  W.,  175;  T.,  1*41. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Transition  and 
Upper  Austral  zones  from  se.  Sask.,  s.  Keewatin, 
s.  Ont.,  and  s.  Maine,  s.  to  e.  Kans.,  cen.  Mo., 
con.  Ind.,  and  n.  Del.;  winters  from  s.  Ills.,  and 
s.  N.  J.  to  s.  Tex.,  La.,  and  Fla.;  accidental  in 
Colo. 

Washington,  very  rare  T.  V.,  two  instances, 
May.  Ossining,  rare  S.  R.,  to  Oct.  16.  Cambridge, 
formerly  locally  common  S.  R.,  May  12-Sept.  25; 
now  chiefly  T.  V.  N.  Ohio,  rare,  May  12,  14,  16 
and  19.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  May8-Oct.  17.  SE.  Minn.,  com- 
mon S.  R.,  May  13-Sept.  19. 

Nest,  globular,  the  entrance  on  one  side,  of  grasses,  lined  with  plant- 
down,  on  or  near  the  ground,  in  a  tussock  of  tall  grass.  Eggs,  6-8,  pure 
white,  rarely  with  a  few  lavender  spots,  *62  x  '47.  Date,  Cambridge,  May 
25. 

This  bustling,  energetic  little  creature  will  much  more  often  be 
heard  than  seen.  Its  ordinary  call-note,  like  the  sound  of  two  pebbles 


480  WRENS 

struck  together,  may  be  heard  in  a  dozen  directions  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  before  one  of  the  birds  comes  in  view,  so  careful  are  they  to 
keep  concealed  among  the  protecting  sedge.  The  ordinary  song  of 
the  species  has  much  the  same  timbre  as  the  call-note;  it  resembles  the 

syllables  chap chap — chap-chap,  chap  chap-chap-chap-p-p-rrrr;   but 

during  the  height  of  the  love  season  it  vents  its  feelings  in  a  much  more 
ambitious  refrain,  one  which,  while  it  is  everywhere  varied  and  in  parts 
very  musical,  is  still  conspicuous  for  the  amount  of  chappering  that 
enters  into  its  composition.  While  singing,  it  is  usually  seen  clinging  to 
the  side  of  some  tall  swaying  reed  with  its  tail  bent  forward  so  far  as 
almost  to  touch  the  head,  thus  exhibiting  in  an  exaggerated  manner  a 
characteristic  attitude  of  all  the  Wrens. 

This  is  less  a  species  of  the  deep-water  marshes  than  is  the  long- 
billed  member  of  the  genus,  and  often  it  will  be  found  in  places  that  are 
little  more  than  damp  meadows.  It  is  remarkably  mouselike  in  its 
habits  and  movements,  and  can  be  flushed  only  with  extreme  difficulty. 

ERNEST  THOMPSON  SETON. 

725.     Telmatodytes     palustris     palustris     (Wils.).       LONG-BILLED 

MARSH  WREN.  Crown  unstreaked,  its  sides  black,  its  center  olive-brown, 
a  white  line  over  eye;  middle  of  back  black  broadly  streaked  with  white; 
rest  of  back  cinnamon-brown;  middle  tail-feathers  narrowly,  outer  tail- 
feathers  broadly  barred;  below  white,  the  sides  and  flanks  pale  cinnamon- 
brown  sometimes  extending  to  breast;  under 
tail-coverts  rarely  barred.  Specimens  in  worn 
breeding  plumage  are  grayer. 

Range. — E.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Transition 
and  Upper  Austral  zones  from  s.  Ont.  and  s. 
Que.  s.  to  the  Potomac  Valley  and  coast  of 
Va.;  winters  from  s.  N.  J.  to  S.  C.  and 
casually  to  Fla. ;  casual  in  N.  B. 

Washington,  very  numerous  S.  R.,  Apl. 
15-Nov.  1.   Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  May  10- 
FIG.  133.    Long-billed- Marsh        Oct.  28.    Cambridge,  locally  abundant  S.  R 
Wren.    (Natural  size.)  May  15-Oct.  1;  sometimes  a  few  winter.    N. 

Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  21-Sept.  20.    Glen 
Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  May  16-Oct.  10. 

Nest,  globular,  the  entrance  at  one  side,  of  coarse  grasses,  reed  stalks, 
etc.,  lined  with  fine  grasses,  attached  to  reeds  or  bushes.  Eggs,  5-9,  uni- 
form chocolate  or  minutely  speckled  or  thickly  marked  with  cinnamon-  or 
olive-brown,  '65  x  *49.  Date,  D.  C.f  June  4;  Cambridge,  June  12. 

If  you  would  make  the  acquaintance  of  this  Marsh  Wren,  you  have 
only  to  visit  his  home  in  the  cattails  and  tall,  reedy  grasses  bordering 
rivers,  creeks,  and  sloughs.  It  will  be  unnecessary  to  announce  yourself; 
he  will  know  of  your  presence  long  before  you  know  of  his,  and  from 
the  inner  chambers  of  his  dwelling  will  proceed  certain  scolding,  caching 
notes  before  this  nervous,  excitable  bit  of  feathered  life  appears  on  his 
threshold.  With  many  flourishes  of  the  tail  and  much  bobbing  and 
attitudinizing,  he  inquires  your  business,  but  before  you  have  had  time 
enough  to  inspect  him  he  has  darted  back  into  his  damp  retreats,  and 
you  can  tell  of  his  frequently  changing  position  only  by  his  scolding, 
grabbling  notes. 


CREEPERS  481 

All  this  time  his  neighbors — and  he  generally  has  numbers  of  them — 
have  doubtless  been  charming  you  with  their  rippling,  bubbling,  gurg- 
ling song.  It  is  quite  beyond  their  control  Jjthey  seem  filled  to  overflowing 
with  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  music.  Sometimes,  like  a  mine  of 
melody,  it  explodes  within  them  and  lifts  them  from  the  dark  recesses 
of  the  flags  up  into  the  air  above. 

725b.  T.  p.  griseus  (Brewst.).  WORTHINGTON'S  MARSH  WREN.  Gray- 
est of  the  Marsh  Wrens.  Ads, — Above  olive-gray;  sides  of  crown  narrowly 
blackish,  black  of  back  much  reduced  in  extent,  white  streaks  less  conspicu- 
ous than  in  other  races;  below  white,  the  sides  grayish,  bars,  if  present, 
indistinct;  under  tail-coverts  barred,  in  this  respect  resembling  T.  p.  mariance 
from  which  it  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  much  grayer  color. 
W.,  1-80;  T.,  1-52;  B.,  '53. 

Range. — S.  Atlantic  coast  region  from  S.  C.  to  n.  Fla. 

725d.  T.  p.  iliacus  Ridgw.  PRAIRIE  MARSH  WREN.  "Similar  to 
T.  p.  palustris,  but  slightly  larger  and  with  the  coloration  much  more  ru- 
fescent,  the  brown  of  the  upperparts  russet-brown  to  cinnamon-brown  or 
russet,  the  flanks  conspicuously  deep  cinnamon-buff  or  cinnamon"  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Plains  and  Prairies  of  cen.  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Transition  and 
Upper  Austral  zones  from  cen.  Alberta  and  sw.  Keewatin  s.  to  cen.  Miss. 
Valley  and  e.  to  Ind.;  winters  s.  along  the  Gulf  coast  to  w.  Fla.  and  s.  to 
Mex.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  5-Sept.  9. 

Nesting  da  e,  se.  Minn.,  June  3  (nest,  no  eggs). 

725e.  T.  p.  marianse  (Scott}.  MARIAN'S  MARSH  WREN.  Similar  to 
T.  p.  palustris,  but  smaller,  with  the  upperparts  darker,  the  sides  and  flanks 
more  heavily  washed  and  of  about  the  same  color  as  rump;  the  under 
tail-coverts,  and  sometimes  sides  and  breast  barred  or  spotted  with  black. 
W.,  1'80;  T.,  1-50;  B.,  '52. 

Remarks. — The  amount  of  black  above  is  variable  and  the  general  tone 
of  color  in  some  specimens  closely  approaches  that  of  T.  p.  palustris,  from 
which,  however,  the  heavily  barred  under  tail-coverts  separate  this  race. 

Range. — Coast  of  S.  Atlantic  States.  Breeds  on  coast  of  N.  C.;  winters 
s.  to  S.  C.  and  w.  coast  of  Fla. 

Nesting  date,  Matanzas  Inlet,  Fla.,  May  24. 

62.  FAMILY  CERTHIID^E.  CREEPERS.   (Fig.  73.) 

This  is  an  Old  World  family,  numbering  about  twelve  species,  of 
which  only  one  is  found  in  America  where,  represented  by  five  sub- 
species, it  ranges  as  far  south  as  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Mexican 
tableland.  It  is  a  true  tree-creeper,  and,  like  a  Woodpecker,  uses  its 
tail  as  a  prop  in  climbing. 

726.  Certhia  familiaris  americana  (Bonap.).  BROWN  CREEPER. 
(Figs.  166,  73.)  Ads. — Upperparts  mixed  with  white,  fuscous,  and  ochra- 
ceous-buff;  rump  pale  rufous;  tail  pale  grayish  brown;  a  band  of  cream- 
buff  through  all  but  outer  wing-feathers;  bill  curved;  tail-feathers  stiff- 
ened and  sharply  pointed;  underparts  white.  L.,  5*66;  W.,  2'56;  T.,  2'65; 
B.,  -63. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  mainly  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones 
from  s.  Man.,  cen.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  e.  Nebr.,  n.  Ind.,  n.  N.  Y., 
and  Mass.,  and  s.  along  the  Alleghanies  to  N.  C.,  and  casually  in  se.  Mo.; 


482  NUTHATCHES 

winters  over  a  large  part  of  its  breeding  range  and  s.  to  cen.  Tex.  and  n. 
Fla. 

Washington,  common  W.  V.,  Sept.  22-May  1.  Ossining,  tolerably 
common  W.  V.,  Sept.  20-May  7.  Cambridge,  common  T.  V.,  rather  common 
W.  V.,  Sept.  25-May  1;  one  summer  record.  N.  Ohio,  common  W.  V.,  Oct. 
1-May  9.  Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common  W.  V.,  Sept.  15-May  19.  SE. 
Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  uncommon  W.  V.,  Sept.  25-Mch.  30. 

Nest,  of  twigs,  strips  of  bark,  bits  of  dead  wood,  moss,  etc.,  placed 
behind  the  loose  bark  of  a  tree.  Eggs,  5-8,  white,  spotted  and  speckled 
with  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown  and  lavender,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  at  the 
larger  end,  '62  x  *47  (Brcwster,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club.,  IV,  1'879,  199). 
Date,  Holland  Patent,  N.  Y.,  May  20. 

The  facts  in  the  case  will  doubtless  show  that  the  patient,  plod- 
ding Brown  Creeper  is  searching  for  the  insects,  eggs,  and  larvae  which 
are  hidden  in  crevices  in  the  bark;  but  after  watching  him  for  several 
minutes  one  becomes  impressed  with  the  thought  that  he  has  lost  the 
only  thing  in  the  world  he  ever  cared  for,  and  that  his  one  object  in 
life  is  to  find  it.  Ignoring  you  completely,  with  scarcely  a  pause,  he 
winds  his  way  in  a  preoccupied,  near-sighted  manner  up  a  tree  trunk. 
Having  finally  reached  the  top  of  his  spiral  staircase,  one  might  sup- 
pose he  would  rest  long  enough  to  survey  his  surroundings,  but  like  a 
bit  of  loosened  bark  he  drops  off  to  the  base  of  the  nearest  tree  and 
resumes  his  never-ending  task. 

He  has  no  time  to  waste  in  words,  but  occasionally,  without  stop- 
ping in  his  rounds,  he  utters  a  few  sweeping,  squeaky  notes,  which 
are  about  as  likely  to  attract  attention  as  he  is  himself.  As  for  song, 
one  would  say  it  was  quite  out  of  the  question;  but  Mr.  Brewster,  in 
his  biography  of  this  bird,  tells  us  that  in  its  summer  home,  amid  the 
northern  spruces  and  firs,  it  has  an  exquisitely  pure,  tender  song  of 
four  notes,  "the  first  of  moderate  pitch,  the  second  lower  and  less 
emphatic,  the  third  rising  again,  and  the  last  abruptly  falling,  but 
dying  away  in  an  indescribably  plaintive  cadence,  like  the  soft  sigh  of 
the  wind  among  the  pine  boughs." 

1879.  BREWSTER,  W.,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  IV,  199-209  (Biog.). 
—1895.  WIDMANN,  O.,  Auk,  XII,  350-355  (nesting  in  Mo.). — 1905.  CHAD- 
BOURNE,  A.  P.,  Auk,  XXII,  179-183;  KENNARD,  F.  H.  and  MCKECHNIE, 
F.  B.,  183-193  (nesting  in  Mass.). 

63.  FAMILY  SITTID^E.    NUTHATCHES.    (Fig.  74a.) 

The  Nuthatches,  numbering  some  seventy  species,  are  mainly 
restricted  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  four 
species  occurring  in  the  New  World.  Although  expert  creepers,  they 
receive  no  support  from  the  tail  while  climbing,  nor  does  their  foot 
conform  to  the  usual  Woodpecker  type  of  two  toes  in  front  and  two 
behind.  Both  their  toes  and  toe-nails  are,  however,  well  developed, 
and  the  birds  run  up  or  down  a  tree  trunk  with  equal  ease.  Their  nptes 
are  pronounced,  characteristic,  and  freely  uttered,  but  their  singing 
powers  are  limited.  They  nest  in  holes  in  trees,  but,  contrary  to  the 


NUTHATCHES  483 

rule  that  birds  which  nest  in  sueh  situations  lay  white  unmarked  eggs, 
their  eggs  are  spotted.  Their  name  is  derived  from  the  habit  of  wedging 
a  nut  in  a  crevice  of  the  bark  and  then  attempting  to  'hatch'  or  'hack' 
it  by  repeated  strokes  with  the  bill. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  Underparts  more  or  less  washed  with  rufous;  a  black  or  gray  streak 

through  the  eye        728.  RED-BREASTED   NUTHATCH. 

B.  Underparts  white  or  whitish ;  under  tail-coverts  more  or  less  rufous ;  tail 

with  white  spots.     727.  WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH.     7276.  FLORIDA 
NUTHATCH, 

C.  Whole  top  of  the  head  brown    .     .     .     729.  BROWN-HEADED  NUTHATCH. 

727.  Sitta  carolinensis  carolinensis  Lath.  WHITE -BREASTED 
NUTHATCH.  (Fig.  74a.)  Ad.  <?. — Top  of  head  shining  black;  rest  of  upper- 
parts  bluish  gray;  inner  secondaries  bluish  gray,  marked  with  black;  wing- 
coverts  and  quills  tipped  with  whitish;  outer  tail-feathers  black,  with  white 
patches  near  their  tips;  middle  ones  bluish  gray;  sides  of  head  and  under- 
parts  white;  lower  belly  and  under  tail-coverts  mixed  with  rufous.  Ad.  9. — 
Similar,  but  black  of  head  veiled  by  bluish  gray.  L.,  6'07;  T.,  1'92;  B.,  '70. 

Range. — N.  Am.  e.  of  the  Plains.  Breeds  in  Canadian,  Transition,  and 
Upper  Austral  zones  from  n.  Minn.,  cen.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  the 
n.  parts  of  the  Gulf  States;  casual  in  Keewatin. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  and  W.  V.,  less  common  S.  R.  Ossining, 
common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  P.  R.,  rare  in  summer,  uncommon  in  winter, 
common  in  migrations;  most  numerous  in  Oct.  and  Nov.  N.  Ohio,  common 
P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  P.  R.  SE.  Minn.,  common  P.  R. 

Nest,  of  feathers,  leaves,  etc.,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  stump.  Eggs,  5-8, 
white  or  creamy  white,  thickly  and  rather  evenly  spotted  and  speckled 
with  rufous  and  lavender,  '75  x  '57.  Date,  Cambridge,  Apl.  19;  se.  Minn., 
Apl.  7. 

When  the  cares  of  a  family  devolve  upon  him,  the  Nuthatch  eschews 
all  society  and  rarely  ventures  far  from  his  forest  home.  But  in  the 
winter  I  believe  even  the  birds  are  affected  by  the  oppressive  loneliness; 
the  strangers  of  summer  become  for  a  time  boon  companions,  and  we 
find  Downy  Woodpeckers,  Chickadees,  and  Nuthatches  wandering 
about  the  woods  or  visiting  the  orchards  on  apparently  the  best  of 
terms. 

Few  birds  are  easier  to  identify :  the  Woodpecker  pecks,  the  Chick- 
adee calls  chickadee,  while  the  Nuthatch,  running  up  and  down  the 
tree  trunks,  assumes  attitudes  no  bird  outside  his  family  would  think 
of  attempting.  His  powers  of  speech  are  in  nowise  disturbed  by  his 
often  inverted  position,  and  he  accompanies  his  erratic  clamberings  by 
a  conversational  twitter  or  occasionally  a  loud,  nasal  yank,  yank,  which 
frequently  tells  us  of  his  presence  before  we  see  him. 

He  is  not  too  absorbed  in  his  business  to  have  a  mild  interest  in 
yours,  and  he  may  pause  a  moment  to  look  you  over  in  a  calm  kind  of 
way,  which  somehow  makes  one  feel  that  perhaps,  after  all,  Nuthatches 
are  of  as  much  importance  as  we.  But  his  curiosity  is  soon  satisfied; 
affairs  are  evidently  pressing,  and  with  a  yank,  yank,  he  resumes  his 
search  for  certain  tidbits  in  the  shape  of  grubs  or  insects'  eggs  hidden 
in  the  bark. 

33 


484  NUTHATCHES 

There  is  such  a  lack  of  sentiment  in  the  Nuthatch's  character,  he 
seems  so  matter-of-fact  in  all  his  ways,  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine 
him  indulging  in  anything  like  song.  But  even  he  can  not  withstand 
the  all-conquering  influences  of  spring,  and  at  that  season  he  raises  his 
voice  in  a  peculiar  monotone — a  tenor  hah-hah-hah-hah-hah — sounding 
strangely  like  mirthless  laughter. 

727b.  S.  c.  atkinsi  Scott.  FLORIDA  WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH. 
Similar  to  the  preceding,  but  somewhat  smaller,  the  wing-coverts  and  quills 
but  slightly  or  not  at  all  tipped  with  whitish,  the  female  with  the  top  of  the 
head  and  nape  black,  as  in  the  male.  WM  3*32;  T.,  1'80;  B.,  70. 

Range. — Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  Miss.  e.  along  the  coast 
to  Fla.,  and  n.  to  S.  C. 

Nesting  date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  16. 

728.  Sitta   canadensis   Linn.    RED-BREASTED  NUTHATCH.    Ad.   <?. — 
Top  of  head  and  a  wide  stripe  through  eye  to  nape  shining  black;  a  white 
line  over  eye;  upperparts  bluish  gray,  no  black  marks  on   secondaries,  or 
tips  to  wing-coverts;  outer  tail-feathers  black,  with  white  patches  near  their 
tips;  middle  ones  bluish  gray;  throat  white;  rest  of  underparts  ochraceous- 
buff.    Ad.  9. — Similar,  but  top  of  head  and  stripe  through  the  eye  bluish 

gray,  like  the  back;  underparts  paler. 
L.,  4-62;  W.,  2'66;  T.,  T58;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — N.  A.    Breeds  in  Canadian 
zone  from  the  upper  Yukon  Valley,  and 
N.  F.,  s.  to  n.  Minn.,  Mich.,  and  Mass., 
and  s.  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Rocky 
Mts.  to  Calif.,  Ariz.,  and  N.  M.,  and  in 
the  Alleghanies  to  N.  C. ;  winters  from  s.  Canada 
s.  to  L.  Calif.,  and  the  Gulf  States. 

Washington,  irregularly  abundant  W.  V.,  some- 
times rare,  Sept.  15-May  10.    Ossining,  irregular 
W.  V.,  Aug.  8-May  8.    Cambridge,  irregular  T.  V. 
FIG.   134.       Red -breasted    and   W.  V.,  Aug.    15-Nov.  25;   Nov.   25-Apl.  15. 
Nuthatch.  (Natural  size.)      N.  Ohio,   tolerably  common  W.  V.,  Sept.  4-May 
22.    Glen  Ellyn,  irregular  T.  V.,  Apl.  24-May  21; 

Aug.  19-Dec.  12.    SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  uncommon  W.  V.,  Sept.  24- 
Apl.  21. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  stump.  Eggs,  4-7,  white  or  creamy 
white,  speckled  with  cinnamon-,  rufous-brown,  and  lavender,  '60  x  '47. 
Date,  Calais,  Maine,  May  7. 

While  resembling  the  White-breasted  Nuthatch,  this  more  northern 
species  differs  from  it  sufficiently  both  in  notes  and  appearance  to  be 
easily  distinguished.  Its  black  face-stripe  is  a  noticeable  character, 
while  to  the  trained  ear  its  feigner,  finer,  more  nasal,  slightly  drawled, 
penny-trumpet-like  yna,  yna  is  quite  unlike  the  White-breast's  vigorous 
yank,  yank.  The  Red-breast  has  an  evident  partiality  for  pine  trees, 
and  may  be  seen  hovering  about  the  cones  while  looking  for  a  foothold 
from  which  to  extract  their  seeds. 

729.  Sitta  pusilla  Lath.   BROWN-HEADED  NUTHATCH.    Ads. — Top  and 
back  of  head  grayish  brown,  sometimes  tipped  with  pale  ashy;  a  whitish 
patch  on  nape;  no  white  over  eye;  rest  of  upperparts  bluish  gray;  outer  tail- 
feathers  black,  tipped  with  grayish,  middle  ones   bluish   gray;   underparts 
grayish  white;  the  breast,  particularly  in  the  fall,  with  a  tinge  of  buff;  sides 
gray.   L.,  4'50;  W.,  2'60;  T.,  1'25;  B.,  '52. 


TITMICE  485 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  fauna  from  s.  Mo.,  and 
s.  Del.  s.  to  e.  Tex.  and  s.  Fla.;  casual  in  s.  Mich.,  Ohio,  N.  Y.,  and  the 
Bahamas. 

Nest,  of  feathers,  grasses,  etc.,  generally  near  the  ground,  in  a  hole  in  a 
tree  or  stump.  Eggs,  5-6,  white  or  creamy  white,  heavily  spotted  or  blotched 
with  cinnamon-  or  olive-brown,  '56  x  '46.  Date,  San  Mateo,  Fla.,  Mch.  4; 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Mch.  12;  Edgecombe  Co.,  N.  C.,  Mch.  28. 

This  little  Nuthatch,  the  Red-cockaded  Woodpecker,  and  Pine 
Warbler,  are  characteristic  birds  of  the  great  pineries  in  our  Southern 
States.  Frequently  they  are  found  associated.  The  Woodpeckers 
generally  keep  to  the  tree  tops,  the  Warblers  live  on  or  near  the  ground, 
while  the  Nuthatches  scramble  about  from  the  base  of  the  trunk  to  the 
terminal  twigs,  but  feed  chiefly  among  the  smaller  branches,  actively 
and  spirally,  getting  food  which  they  take  to  the  main  trunk  to  wedge 
behind  the  large  bark  scales.  They  are  talkative  sprites,  and,  like  a 
group  of  school  children,  each  one  chatters  away  without  paying  the 
slightest  attention  to  what  his  companions  are  saying.  When  feeding 
they  utter  a  liquid,  conversational  pit-pit,  a  note  which  is  accelerated 
and  emphasized  as  the  birds  take  wing.  At  intervals,  even  when  the 
individuals  of  a  troop  are  quite  widely  separated,  they  all  suddenly 
break  out  into  a  thin,  metallic  dee-dee-dee  or  tnee-tnee-tnee. 

64.  FAMILY  PAKID^B.   TITMICE.    (Fig.  74&.) 

Like  the  Nuthatches,  with  which,  after  the  nesting  season,  they  are 
often  associated,  the  Titmice  are  largely  restricted  to  the  more  northern 
parts  of  the  world.  Of  the  two  hundred  and  forty-one  known  species, 
fifteen  are  North  American,  where  they  range  to  the  southern  border 
of  the  Mexican  tableland.  They  inhabit  wooded  countries,  where  their 
destructiveness  to  insects,  their  eggs  and  larvae,  is  of  incalculable  value. 
Their  nests  vary  widely  in  character.  The  true  Titmice  (Penthestes) 
excavate  holes  in  dead  trees;  dZgithalus  builds  a  felted,  purse-shaped 
structure  of  plant-down  with  the  entrance  near  the  top;  Auriparus 
a  not  dissimilar  but  more  globular  home  which  is  covered  with  thorny 
twigs,  and  Psaltriparus  a  long,  loosely-woven  bag  of  plant-down,  covered 
with  lichens.  They  are  migratory  at  the  northern  limit  of  their  range 
and,  except  when  nesting,  are  usually  found  in  small  troops. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  Crown  brown;  sides  chestnut      ....     740a.  ACADIAN  CHICKADEE. 

B.  Crown  black;  outer  margin  of  greater  wing-coverts,  distinctly  whitish; 

wing   generally  over   2'50        735.  CHICKADEE. 

C.  Crown  black;  greater  wing-coverts  without  white  margins;  wing  under 

2'50 .     736.  CAROLINA  CHICKADEE. 

D.  Crown  gray,  crested 731.  TUFTED  TITMOUSE. 

731.  Bseolophus  bicolor  (Linn.}.  TUFTED  TITMOUSE.  Ads. — Head 
crested.  Forehead  black;  rest  of  upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  gray;  back  in 
winter  tinged  with  olive-brown;  underparts  whitish;  sides  washed  with 
rufous.  L.,  6'00;  W.,  3'10;  T.,  2'70;  B.,  *45. 


486 


TITMICE 


FIG.  135.    Tufted  Titmouse. 
(Natural  size.) 


Range. — Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas  from  Nebr.,  Iowa,  Ills., 
Ind.,  Ohio,  Pa.,  and  N.  J.  s.  to  cen.  Tex.,  the  Gulf  coast,  and  Fla.;  casual  in 
s.  parts  of  Wise.,  Mich.,  N.  Y.,  and  Conn. 

Washington,  very  common  P.  R.,  more  so  in  winter.  N.  Ohio,  common 
P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  only  two  records,  Apl.  4  and  Nov.  19. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  moss,  strips  of  bark,  feathers,  etc.,  in  Woodpeckers' 
deserted  holes,  stumps,  etc.  Eggs,  5-8,  white  or  creamy  white,  rather  coarsely 

and  evenly  marked  with  rufous-brown, 
•71  x  '55.  Date,  Mt.  Pleasant,  S.  C.,  Apl. 
21;  Weaverville,  N.  C.,  Apl.  8;  Brook- 
ville,  Ind.,  Apl.  22. 

The  Tufted  Titmouse  is  a  bird  of 
very  general  distribution  in  wood- 
lands, where  its  presence  is  always 
made  known  by  its  notes.  Its  com- 
mon call  is  a  loud,  clearly  whistled 
peto,  peto,  peto,  peto,  whieh  may  be 
repeated  by  the  same  individual  for 
hours  at  a  time.  Occasionally  the 
key  is  changed,  and  at  first  the  notes 
are  decidedly  pleasing,  but  the  bird 
finally  wearies  one  by  its  monoto- 
nous repetition.  It  utters  also  other  whistled  calls,  and  a  de-de-de-de, 
much  like  the  notes  of  the  Chickadee,  though  somewhat  louder  and 
hoarser.  The  Tufted  Tit  is  not  a  shy  bird  and  may  be  approached 
with  ease.  Its  conspicuous  crest  is  an  excellent  field-mark. 

735.  Penthestes  atricapillus  atricapillus  (Linn.).  CHICKADEE. 
(Fig.  746.)  Ads. — Top  of  the  head,  nape,  and  throat  shining  black;  sides 
of  the  head  and  neck  white;  back  ashy;  outer  vanes  of  greater  wing-coverts 
distinctly  margined  with  white;  wing  and  tail-feathers  margined  with 
whitish;  breast  white;  belly  and  sides  washed  with  cream-buff.  L.,  5*27; 
W.,  2-53;  T.,  2'43;  B.,  '37. 

Range. — Canadian  and  Transition  zones  of  e.  N.  A.  from  se.  Keewatin, 
and  N.  F.  s.  to  cen.  Mo.,  Ills.,  n.  Ind.,  Ohio,  Pa.,  n.  N.  J.,  and  in  the  Alle- 
ghanies  s.  to  N.  C. ;  somewhat  further  s.  in  winter. 

Washington,  rare  and  irregular  W.  V.,  Oct.  19- Apl.  19.  Ossining,  toler- 
ably common  P.  R.  Cambridge,  common  P.  R.,  more  numerous  in  fall  and 
winter.  N.  Ohio,  common  P.  R.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  P.  R.  SE.  Minn., 
common  P.  R. 

Nest,  of  moss,  grasses,  feathers,  and  plant-down,  in  old  stumps,  holes  in 
trees,  etc.,  not  more  than  15  feet  up.  Eggs,  5-9,  white,  spotted  and  speckled, 
chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  cinnamon-  or  rufous-brown,  "60  x  '48.  Date, 
Saybrook,  Conn.,  May  6;  Cambridge,  May  10;  Holland  Patent,  N.  Y.,  May 
15;  Brookville,  Ind.,  Apl.  22;  se.  Minn.,  May  11. 

When  most  birds  were  strangers  to  me,  I  remember  thinking 
what  a  blessing  it  would  be  if  every  one  spoke  his  name  as  plainly 
as  does  this  animated  bunch  of  black  and  white  feathers.  No  need 
of  a  text-book  to  discover  his  name  ;  with  winning  confidence  he 
introduced  himself,  and  probably  for  this  reason  he  hasjilways  been 
my  best  friend  among  birds.  £  +. 

I  never  hear  his  voice  in   the      pnt~       Z3     01 
woods  without  answering  him:      ^  - 


TITMICE  487 

This  is  the  so-called  Thcebe'  note,  which,  it  may  be  added,  is  uttered 
by  both  sexes.  Soon  he  comes  to  me,  mildly  inquisitive  at  first, 
looking  about  for  the  friend  or  foe  whose  call  has  attracted  him.  In 
an  unconcerned  way  he  hops  from  limb  to  limb,  whistling  softly  the 
while,  picking  an  insect's  egg  from  beneath  a  leaf  here  or  larva  from  a 
crevice  in  the  bark  there,  all  the  time  performing  acrobatic  feats  of 
which  an  accomplished  gymnast  might  be  proud.  Finally  his  curiosity 
becomes  aroused,  he  ceases  feeding,  and  gives  his  entire  attention  to  the 
discovery  of  the  bird  who  so  regularly  replies  to  him.  Hopping  down  to 
a  limb  within  three  feet  of  my  head,  he  regards  me  with  puzzled  intent- 
ness;  his  little  black  eyes  twinkle  with  intelligence,  he  changes  his  .call, 
and  questions  me  with  a  series  of  chick-d-dees,  liquid  gurgles,  and  odd 
chuckling  notes  which  it  is  beyond  my  power  to  answer,  and  finally, 
becoming  discouraged,  he  refuses  to  renew  our  whistled  conversation 
and  retreats  to  the  woods. 

On  several  occasions  Chickadees  have  flown  down  and  perched  upon 
my  hand.  During  the  few  seconds  they  remained  there  I  became  rigid 
with  the  emotion  of  this  novel  experience.  It  was  a  mark  of  confidence 
which  seemed  to  initiate  me  into  the  ranks  of  woodland  dwellers. 

1900.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.,  Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera,  147-61  (nesting). 
1911.  STANWOOD,  C.  J.,  Journ.  Me.  Orn.  Soc.,  XIII,  25-32  (nesting). 

736.  Penthestes  carolinensis  carolinensis  (Aud.).  CAROLINA  CHICKA- 
DEE.— Similar  to  the  preceding  species,  but  smaller;  greater  wing-coverts 
not  margined  with  whitish;  wing  and  tail-feathers  with  less  white  on  their 
outer  vanes.  L.,  4'06-4'75;  W.,  2'20-2'48;  T.,  1'88-2'12;  B.,  '30-'32. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Carolinian  and  Austroriparian  faunas 
from  cen.  Mo.,  Ind.,  cen.  Ohio,  Pa.  (sparingly),  and  cen.  N.  J.,  s.  to  se.  La., 
the  Gulf  coast,  and  n.  Fla. 

Washington,  very  common  P.  RM  particularly  in  winter. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  fine  strips  of  bark,  feathers,  hair,  etc.,  in  holes  in  trees, 
stumps,  etc.  Eggs,  5-8,  similar  in  color  to  those  of  P.  atricapillus.  Date,  Mt. 
Pleasant,  S.  C.,  Mch.  23;  Iredell  Co.,  N.  C.,  Apl.  13;  D.  C.,  Apl.  24. 

My  experience  with  this  southern  Chickadee  has  been  confined 
largely  to  Florida.  There  I  found  it  a  comparatively  shy  bird,  with 
notes  quite  unlike  those  of  P.  atricapillus.  Instead  of  the  two  clear 
whistles  which  atricapillus  in  New  Jersey  utters,  the  Florida  bird 
repeates  four  rather  tremulous  notes,  and  there  is  also  a  substantial 
difference  in  its  other  calls,  one  of  which  resembles  the  words  my  watcher 
key,  my  watcher  key. 

Dr.  C.  W.  Richmond  writes  me  that  at  Washington  the  chick-d-dee 
call  of  carolinensis  is  higher  pitched  and  more  hurriedly  given  than 
that  of  atricapillus,  and  that  the  whistle  consists  of  three  notes,  but  in 
New  Jersey,  Mr.  W.  DeW.  Miller  tells  me  that  it  consists  of  four. 

Writing  from  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina,  where  both  species 
occur  together,  Mr.  Brewster  says:  "In  one  place  a  male  of  each  species 
was  singing  in  the  same  tree  the  low,  plaintive,  tswee-dee-twsee-dee  of 
the  P.  carolinensis,  contrasting  sharply  with  the  ringing  te-derry  of  its 
more  northern  cousin"  (The  Auk,  1886,  p.  177). 


488  KINGLETS  AND  GNATCATCHERS 

736b.   P.  c.  impiger    (Bangs).    FLORIDA   CHICKADEE. — Similar  to  P. 
c.  carolinensis,  but  smaller  (except  bill)  and  darker  above. 
Range. — Southern  half  of  Florida. 

740.  Penthestes  hudsonicus  hudspnicus  (Forst.).  HTJDSONIAN 
CHICKADEE.  Ads. — Crown  dull,  dark  brownish  gray;  back  brownish  ashy; 
wings  and  tail  grayish ;  throat  black;  ear-coverts,  sides  of  the  neck,  breast,  and 
belly  white;  sides  rufous. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones  from 
Kowak  Valley,  Alaska,  and  tree  limit  in  cen.  Mackenzie  and  cen. 
Keewatin  s.  to  s.  B.  C.,  cen.  Alberta  (casually  Mont.),  n.  Man.,  cen.  Ont., 
and  Ungava;  s.  in  winter  casually  to  n.  Ills. 

740a.  P.  h.  littoralis  (Bryant).  ACADIAN  CHICKADEE. — Similar  to 
P.  h.  hudsonicus,  but  smaller  and  browner. 

Range. — NE.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones  from  n.  Que.,  and  N.  F., 
s.  to  the  Adirondacks  of  N.  Y.  and  mts.  of  n.  Vt.  and  cen.  N.  H. ;  migrating 
casually  to  Mass.,  R.  I.,  and  Conn. 

Cambridge,  rare,  perhaps  only  casual,  W.  V.,  Nov.  1-Apl.  1. 

Nest,  of  moss  and  felted  fur,  in  holes  in  trees  and  stumps.  Eggs,  6-7, 
not  distinguishable  from  those  of  P.  atricapillus,  '61  x  '50.  Date,  Stewiacke, 
N.  S.,  May  25. 

The  general  habits  of  this  northern  Chickadee  resemble  those  of 
atricapillus,  but  its  notes  are  recognizably  different.  Wright  (Auk, 
1890,  p.  407)  speaks  of  its  "sweet,  warbling  song,"  and  Clark  (Journ.  Me. 
Orn.  Soc.,  1906,  p.  27)  writes  of  "a  sweet,  little  song  of  three  or  four  notes," 
but  Brewster  ("Birds  of  the  Cambridge  Region,"  p.  379)  says  "besides 
low,  chattering,  conversational  sounds — difficult  of  description  but 
far  from  musical  in  character — which  the  birds  occasionally  make  while 
feeding,  I  have  heard  them  utter  only  a  low  chip  much  like  that  of  the 
common  Chickadee,  but  rather  feebler,  an  abrupt,  explosive  tch-tchip, 
and  a  nasal  drawling  tchick,  chee-day-day.  In  the  call  last  mentioned  the 
intervals  between  the  doubled  middle  note  and  the  single  notes  which 
precede  and  follow  it  are  very  pronounced,  and  the  accented  notes  are 
very  strongly  emphasized — characteristics  which  serve  at  once  to  dis- 
tinguish these  sounds  from  any  that  the  Black- capped  Chickadee  ever 
produces." 

1910.  ALLEN,  F.  H.,  The  Auk,  XXVII,  86  (song). 

65.  FAMILY  SYLVUD^E.    OLD-WORLD  WARBLERS,  KINGLETS,  AND 
GNATCATCHERS.    (Fig.  75.) 

No  generally  accepted  classification  of  the  birds  of  this  family  has  as 
yet  been  proposed,  but  for  our  present  purposes  they  may  be  divided 
into  three  subfamilies:  (1)  The  Sylviince,  or  Old- World  Warblers,  num- 
bering some  five  hundred  species,  confined  exclusively  to  the  Old- World, 
with  the  exception  of  one  species  found  in  Alaska;  (2)  the  Regulinoe, 
or  Kinglets,  of  which  two  of  the  seven  known  species  are  found  in  the 
New  World;  (3)  the  Polioptilince,  or  Gnatcatchers,  an  American  group 
containing  about  fifteen  species,  three  of  which  are  found  in  the  United 
States, 


KINGLETS  AND  GNATCATCHERS  489 

The  Old- World  Warblers  are  generally  dull,  olivaceous  birds  with 
ten,  instead  of  the  nine,  primaries  of  our  Mniotfltidce,  with  which,  indeed, 
they  have  no  close  relationship.  Many  of  the  species  are  highly  musical, 
whence  the  origin  of  the  family  name,  a  misfit  when  applied  to  the  New- 
World  Warblers,  to  which  it  was  given  because  of  their  superficial 
resemblance  to  the  Old- World  forms,  rather  than  for  their  musical  en- 
dowments. The  Kinglets  and  Gnat  catchers  are  typically  represented 
by  the  species  described  below. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

A.  With  a  bright-colored  crest. 

a.  Crest  ruby,  without  black    .     749.  RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET  (Ad.  cf.). 

b.  Crest  yellow,  or  orange  and  yellow,  bordered  by  black. 

748.  GOLDEN-CROWNED  KINGLET. 

B.  Without  a  colored  crest. 

a.  Back  ashy  blue;  outer  tail-feathers  white. 

751.  BLUE-GRAY  GNATCATCHER. 
6.  Back  olive-green;  no  white  in  tail.  RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET  (9  and  im. ). 

748.  Regulus  satrapa  satrapa  Licht.  GOLDEN-CROWNED  KINGLET. 
Ad.  cf. — Center  of  crown  bright  reddish  orange,  bordered  by  yellow  and 
black;  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye;  rest  of  upperparts  olive-green;  wings  and 
tail  fuscous,  margined  with  olive-green;  tail  slightly  forked;  underparts 
soiled  whitish.  Ad.  9 . — Similar,  but  crown  with- 
out orange,  its  center  bright  yellow,  bordered  on 
each  side  by  black.  L.,  4'07;  W.,  2'14;  T.,  1'75; 
B.,  '28. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones 
from  n.  Alberta,  s.  Keewatin,  s.  Ungava,  and  Cape 
Breton  Is.  s.  in  Rocky  Mts.  to  n.  Ariz,  and  N.  M., 
and  to  Mich.,  N.  Y.,  and  mts.  of  Mass.,  and  in 
the  higher  Alleghanies  s.  to  N.  C.;  winters  from 
Iowa  (casually  Minn.),  Ont.,  and  N.  B.  to  n.  Fla. 
and  Mex. 

Washington,  abundant  W.   V.,  Sept.  30-Apl.       FIG.  136.    Golden-crowned 
27.     Ossining,  common  W.  V.,  Sept.  20-Apl.  28.          Kinglet.    (Natural  size.) 
Cambridge,  very  common  T.  V.,  not  uncommon 

W.  V.,  Sept.  25-Apl.  20.  N.  Ohio,  common  W.  V.,  Sept.  26-May  4.  Glen 
Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  irregular  W.  V.,  Sept.  19-May  8.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  30-  ;  Sept.  21-Dec.  1. 

Nest,  generally  pensile,  of  green  mosses,  lined  with  fine  strips  of  soft 
inner  bark,  fine  black  rootlets,  and  feathers,  in  coniferous  trees,  6-60  feet 
from  the  ground.  Eggs,  9-10,  creamy  white  to  muddy  cream-color,  speckled 
and  blotched  with  pale  wood-brown,  and  rarely,  faint  lavender,  "55  x  *44. 
(See  Brewster,  Auk,  V,  1888,  337.)  Date,  Grand  Menan,  N.  B.,  May  24. 

This  Kinglet  resembles  in  habits  its  ruby-crowned  cousin,  with 
which  during  the  migrations  it  is  frequently  associated.  Its  notes, 
however,  are  quite  unlike  those  of  that  species,  its  usual  call-note  being 
a  fine,  high  ti-ti,  audible  only  to  practiced  ears.  In  his  extended  account 
of  the  nesting  habits  of  this  species,  as  observed  by  him  in  Worcester 
County,  Mass.  (Auk.  I.  c.),  Mr.  Brewster  writes  that  its  song  "begins 
with  a  succession  of  five  or  six  fine,  shrill,  high-pitched,  somewhat 
faltering  notes,  and  ends  with  a  short,  rapid,  rather  explosive  warble. 
The  opening  notes  are  given  in  a  rising  key,  but  the  song  falls  rapidly 


490  KINGLETS  AND  GNATCATCHERS 

at  the  end.  The  whole  may  be  expressed  as  follows:  tzee,  tzee,  tzee,  tzee, 
ti,  ti,  ter,  ti-ii-ti-ti" 

Muffled  in  its  thick  coat  of  feathers,  the  diminutive  Goldcrest 
braves  our  severest  winters,  living  evidence  that,  given  an  abundance 
of  food,  temperature  is  a  secondary  factor  in  a  bird's  existence. 

749.  Regulus  calendula  calendula  (Linn.).  RUBY-CROWNED  KING- 
LET. (Fig.  75a.)  Ad.  <?. — Crown  with  a  partly  concealed  crest  of  bright  red; 
rest  of  upperparts  grayish  olive-green,  brighter  on  the  rump;  wings  and  tail 
fuscous,  edged  with  olive-green;  two  whitish  wing-bars;  tail  slightly  forked, 
the  middle  feathers  shortest;  underparts  soiled  whitish,  more  or  less  tinged 
with  buffy.  Ad.  9  and  Im. — Similar,  but  without  the  red  crown-patch. 
L.,  4-41;  W.,  2'24;  T.,  173;  B.,  '29. 

Remarks. — Females  and  young  are  warblerlike  in  general  appearance, 
but  note  the  short  first  primary,  barely  one  inch  in  length. 

Range. — N.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Boreal  zones  from  nw.  Alaska,  and  w. 
cen.  Ungava  s.  in  mts.  to  s.  Calif.,  s.  Ariz.,  cen.  N.  M.,  n.  Ont.,  N.  B.,  and 
N.  S.  (casually  Maine);  winters  from  s.  B.  C.,  Iowa,  and  Va.  (casually 
further  n.)  s.  to  Guatemala. 

Washington,  abundant  T.  V.,  Apl.  12-May  15;  Sept.  25-Nov.  1;  occa- 
sionally winters.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  8-May  13;  Sept.  16-Nov.  3. 
Cambridge,  rather  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  12-May  5;  Oct.  10-30.  N.  Ohio, 
common  T.  V.,  Apl.  1-May  23;  Sept.  9-Nov.  3.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  22-May  19;  Sept.  9-Oct.  27.  SE.  Minn.,  Mch.  12-  ;  Sept.  18- 
Oct.  24. 

Nest,  usually  semipensile,  of  moss  and  fine  strips  of  bark,  neatly  inter- 
woven, lined  with  feathers,  in  coniferous  trees,  12-30  feet  from  the  ground. 
Eggs,  5-9,  dull  whitish  or  pale  buffy,  faintly  speckled  or  spotted  with  pale 
brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  '55  x  '43  (Davie).  Date,  Boulder  Co.,  Colo., 
June  3. 

When  the  leaves  begin  to  turn  you  will  notice  numerous  very  small, 
olive-green  birds  flitting  about  the  terminal  twigs  of  the  trees  and  lower 
growth,  in  the  woods,  orchards,  or  hedgerows.  They  resemble  Warblers, 
but  are  much  tamer — you  can  almost  touch  them — and  have  a  habit  of 
nervously  flitting  their  wings  every  few  seconds,  perhaps  accompany- 
ing the  action  by  a  wrenlike,  scolding  note.  You  will  not  often 
hear  them  sing  at  this  season,  and  there  is  little  in  their  voice  or  appear- 
ance to  tell  you  that  they  are  among  the  most  famous  of  feathered 
songsters. 

The  May  morning  when  first  I  heard  this  Kinglet's  song  is  among 
the  most  memorable  of  my  early  ornithological  experiences.  The 
bird  was  in  the  tree-tops  in  the  most  impassable  bit  of  woods  near  my 
home.  The  longer  and  more  eagerly  I  followed  the  unseen  singer  the 
greater  the  mystery  became.  It  seemed  impossible  that  a  bird  which 
I  supposed  was  at  least  as  large  as  a  Bluebird  could  escape  observation 
in  the  partly  leaved  trees.  The  song  was  mellow  and  flutelike,  and  loud 
enough  to  be  heard  several  hundred  yards;  an  intricate  warble  past 
imitation  or  description,  and  rendered  so  admirably  that  I  never  hear 
it  now  without  feeling  an  impulse  to  applaud.  The  bird  is  so  small, 
the  song  so  rich  and  full,  that  one  is  reminded  of  a  chorister  with  the 
voice  of  an  adult  soprano.  To  extend  the  comparison,  one  watches  this 
gifted  but  unconscious  musician  flitting  about  the  trees  with  somewhat 


THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC.  491 

the  feeling  that  one  observes  the   choir-boy  doffing  his  surplice  and 
joining  his  comrades  for  a  game  of  tag. 

751.  Polioptila  cserulea  caerulea  (Linn.).  BLUE-GRAY  GNATCATCHER. 
(Fig.  756.)  Ad.  <?. — Upperparts  bluish  gray;  forehead  and  front  of  the  head 
narrowly  bordered  by  black;  wings  edged  with  grayish,  the  secondaries  bor- 
dered with  whitish;  outer  tail-feathers  white,  changing  gradually  until  the 
middle  ones  are  black;  underparts  dull  grayish  white.  Ad.  9. — Similar, 
but  without  the  black  on  the  head.  L.,  4'50;  W.,  2'05;  T.,  2'00;  B.,  '40. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  Austroriparian  and  Carolinian  faunas 
from  e.  Nebr.,  and  s.  parts  of  Wise.,  Mich.,  and  Ont.,  and  sw.  Pa.,  Md.,  and 
s.  N.  J.  s.  to  s.  Tex.  and  cen.  Fla.;  winters  from  s.  Tex.,  Gulf  States,  and  n. 
Fla.  to  the  West  Indies  and  Cen.  Am.;  casual  n.  to  se.  Minn.,  New  Eng- 
land, and  N.  Y. 

Washington,  rather  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  30-Nov.  23.  N.  Ohio,  common 
S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Sept.  15.  Glen  Ellyn,  not  common,  S.  R.,  Apl.  22- Aug.  20; 
possibly  later.  SE.  Minn.,  rare  S.  R. 

Nest,  of  tendrils,  fine  strips  of  bark,  and  fine  grasses  firmly  interwoven 
and  covered  externally  with  lichens,  on  a  horizontal  branch  or  in  a  crotch, 
10-60,  usually  30  feet  up.  Eggs,  4-5,  bluish  white,  thickly  spotted  and 
speckled  with  cinnamon-,  rufous-brown,  or  umber,  '56  x  '46.  Date,  Mt. 
Pleasant,  S.  C.,  Apl.  17;  Iredell  Co.,  N.  C.,  May  6. 

The  Blue-gray  Gnatcatcher  frequents  rather  densely  foliaged  trees, 
generally  in  the  woods,  showing  a  preference  for  the  upper  branches. 
He  is  a  bird  of  strong  character,  and  always  seems  to  me  like  a  minia- 
ture Mockingbird  with  some  of  the  habits  of  Kinglets.  His  exquisitely 
finished  song  is  quite  as  remarkable  as  the  ordinary  performance  of  his 
large  prototype,  but  is  possessed  of  so  little  volume  as  to  be  inaudible 
unless  one  is  quite  near  the  singer.  His  characteristic  call-note — a 
rather  sudden  ting,  like  the  twang  of  a  banjo  string — can  be  heard  at  a 
greater  distance. 

66.  FAMILY  TURDID^E.    THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC.  (Fig.  76.) 

The  some  six  hundred  species  included  in  this  large  family  are  placed 
by  systematists  in  several  subfamilies.  About  two  hundred  and  forty 
are  true  Thrushes  belonging  in  the  subfamily  Turdince,  the  Juvenal 
plumage  of  which  is  always  more  or  less  spotted.  These  are  distributed 
throughout  the  world,  eighty  inhabiting  the  New  World,  twelve  of 
which  are  found  north  of  Mexico.  Thrushes  inhabit  wooded  regions; 
our  species  are  migratory,  and  gregarious  or  sociable  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  during  their  migrations  and  in  winter.  As  songsters,  they  are 
inferior  to  some  of  our  birds  in  power  of  execution,  but  their  voices  are 
possessed  of  greater  sweetness  and  expression,  and  they  are  conceded 
first  rank  among  song  birds  by  all  true  lovers  of  bird  music. 

KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES 

I.  Tail  blue,  back  blue  or    bluish 760.  BLUEBIRD. 

II.  Tail  not  blue. 
1.  Tail  with  white. 

A.  Tail  black,  outer  feathers  tipped  with  white     .     761.  7616.  ROBIN. 

B.  Tail  white  tipped  with  black    .     .     765a.  GREENLAND  WHEATEAR. 


492  THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC. 

2.  No  white  in  tail;  which  is  olive-brown  or  rufous. 

A.  Tail  not  brighter  than  back. 

a.  Upperparts  cinnamon-rufous. 

a1.  Entire  underparts,  including  sides,  more  or  less  heavily  marked 
with  round,  black  spots;  back  brighter  than  tail. 

755.  WOOD  THRUSH. 

a2.  Throat  and  upper  breast  pale  buffy,   with  small,   cinnamon- 
brown,   wedge-shaped  spots;  belly  pure  white;  sides  with  a 
barely  perceptible  grayish  wash  .     .     756.  WILSON'S  THRUSH. 
6.  Upperparts  olive. 

b1.  Throat,   breast,   cheeks,   eye-ring,   and  lores  deep   cream-buff. 

•    758a.  OLIVE-BACKED  THRUSH. 

62.  Throat,  and  breast,  white,  with  only  a  very  slight  buffy  tinge; 
eye-ring  whitish,  lores  grayish. 
757.  GRAY-CHEEKED  THRUSH.     757a.  BICKNELL'S  THRUSH. 

B.  Tail  brighter  than  back. 

a.  Upperparts  olive-brown,  sometimes  inclining  to  cinnamon;  upper 
tail-coverts  and  tail  rufous    ....     7596.  HERMIT  THRUSH. 

755.  Hylocichla  mustelina  (GmeL).  WOOD  THRUSH.  Ads. — Upper- 
parts  bright  cinnamon-brown,  brightest  on  the  head,  and  changing  gradually 
to  pale  olive-brown  on  the  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail;  underparts  white, 
thickly  marked  with  large,  round  black  spots  except  on  the  throat  and  middle 
of  the  belly.  L.,  8'29;  W.,  4'44;  T.,  2'92;  B.,  '65. 

Remarks. — The  Wood  Thrush  may  be  distinguished  from  our  other 
Thrushes  (1)  by  its  larger  size;  (2)  by  its  brighter,  more  rufous  color  above; 
and  (3)  especially  by  the  numerous  large,  round  black  spots  on  its  under- 
parts. These  cover  not  only  the  breast,  but  are  equally  numerous  on  the 
sides,  where  they  extend  well  up  under  the  wings. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Alleghanian  and  Carolinian  faunas  from 
s.  S.  D.,  cen.  Minn.,  cen.  Wise.,  s.  Ont.,  and  s.  N.  H.  s.  to  e.  Tex.,  La.,  and 
n.  Fla. ;  winters  from  s.  Mex.,  to  Costa  Rica;  casual  in  Maine. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  19-Oct.  10.  Ossining,  common  S.  R., 
Apl.  30-Oct.  2.  Cambridge,  locally  common  S.  R.,  May  10-Sept.  15.  N. 
Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Oct.  1.  Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  Apl. 
30-Sept.  29.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  1-Sept.  19. 

Nest,  of  leaves,  rootlets,  fine  twigs,  and  weed  stalks,  firmly  interwoven, 
with  an  inner  wall  of  mud  and  lining  of  fine  rootlets,  generally  in  saplings, 
about  8  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-5,  greenish  blue,  lighter  and  with  less  green  than 
those  of  the  Catbird,  averaging  lighter,  but  not  certainly  distinguishable 
in  color  from  those  of  the  Robin,  1'05  x  '76.  Date,  Yemassee,  S.  C.,  May 
12;  D.  C.,  May  1;  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  May  17;  Cambridge,  May  26;  se.  Minn., 
May  26. 

The  Wood  Thrush  is  not  so  distinctively  a  bird  of  the  woods  as  the 
Veery.  Well-shaded  lawns  are  sometimes  graced  by  its  presence,  and 
at  all  times  it  is  more  familiar  and  easier  to  observe  than  its  retiring 
relative.  Large  size,  bright  cinnamon  Upperparts,  and  especially 
a  conspicuously  spotted  breast  and  sides,  are  its  most  striking  field 
characters. 

The  Wood  Thrush's  call-notes  are  a  liquid  quirt  and  a  sharp  pit-pit. 
The  latter  is  the  more  characteristic  and  is  often  heard  after  night- 
fall. When  the  bird  is  alarmed  or  imagines  its  young  in  danger,  its 
loud  and  rapid  utterance  of  this  call,  resembling  the  sound  produced- 
by  striking  large  pebbles  together,  gives  painful  evidence  of  its  fear 
and  anxiety. 

The  songs  of  the  Wood  and  Hermit  Thrushes  are  of  the  same  char- 


PLATE  XXIV 


THRUSHES  OF  THE  GENUS  HYLOCICHLA 

1.  Wood  Thrush.  3.  Olive-backed  Thrush. 

2.  Veery.  4.  Gray-cheeked  Thrush. 

5.  Hermit  Thrush. 


THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC.  493 

acter,  but,  while  the  Hermit  is  the  more  gifted  performer,  the  Wood 
Thrush  does  not  suffer  by  the  comparison.  His  calm,  restful  song 
rings  through  the  woods  like  a  hymn  of  praise  rising  pure  and  clear 
from  a  thankful  heart.  It  is  a  message  of  hope  and  good  cheer  in  the 
morning,  a  benediction  at  the  close  of  day: 

The  flutelike  opening  notes  are  an  invitation  to 
his  haunts ;  a  call  from  Nature  to  yield  ourselves  to 
the  ennobling  influences  of  the  forest.  Come  to  me. 

1910.   WEYGANDT,  C.,  Cassinia,  21-27  (biography). 

756.  Hylocichla  fuscescens  fuscescens  (Steph.}.  VEERY.  Ads. — 
Upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  nearly  uniform  cinnamon-brown,  not  so  bright 
as  in  the  Wood  Thrush;  center  of  the  throat  white;  sides  of  the  throat  and 
breast  with  a  delicate  tinge  of  cream-buff,  spotted  with  small  wedge-shaped 
spots  of  nearly  the  same  color  as  the  back;  belly  white ;  sides  white,  with  only 
a  faint  tinge  of  grayish.  L.,  7'52;  W.,  3'84;  T.,  2'87;  BM  '53. 

Remarks. — The  Veery's  distinguishing  characters  are  (1)  its  uniform 
cinnamon-brown  upperparts;  (2)  its  delicately  marked  breast;  and  (3)  partic- 
ularly its  almost  white  sides.  The  Wood  Thrush  has  the  sides  heavily  spotted, 
and  the  other  Thrushes  have  this  part  more  or  less  strongly  washed  with 
grayish  or  brownish. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  lower  Canadian  and  Alleghanian  faunas 
from  n.  Mich.,  cen.  Ont.,  Anticosti,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  n.  Ills.,  n.  Ind.,  n.  Ohio, 
and  n.  N.  J.,  and  in  the  Alleghanies  to  N.  C.  and  n.  Ga.;  winters  in  n.  S.  A. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  26- June  2.  Aug.  18-Sept.  25.  Ossin- 
ing,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  29-Sept.  5.  Cambridge,  locally  abundant  S.  R., 
May  8-Sept.  5.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Apl.  20-Oct.  1.  Glen  Ellyn,  toler- 
ably common,  T.  V.,  Apl.  24-May  29;  Aug.  26-Sept.  3. 

Nest,  of  strips  of  bark,  rootlets,  and  leaves,  wrapped  with  leaves  and 
lined  with  rootlets,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-5,  greenish  blue,  of  the 
same  shade  as  those  of  the  Wood  Thrush,  '88  x  '65.  Date,  Ossining,  N.  Y., 
May  26;  Cambridge,  May  28;  Farmington,  Maine,  June  2. 

The  Veery's  home  is  in  low,  wet,  rather  densely  undergrown  wood- 
lands. He  is  a  more  retiring  bird  than  the  Wood  Thrush;  he  lives  nearer 
the  ground  and  is  less  likely  to  leave  the  cover  of  his  haunts.  For  this 
reason,  even  in  localities  where  both  are  equally  common,  the  Wood 
Thrush  is  more  frequently  observed. 

The  Veery's  call-notes  are  a  clearly  whistled  whee-o  or  whee-you,  the 
first  note  the  higher,  and  a  somewhat  softer  too-whee  or  teweu,  with  the 
first  note  lower,  all  of  which  can  be  closely  imitated.  His  song  is  a 
weird,  ringing  monotone  of  blended  alto  and  soprano  tones.  Neither 
notes  nor  letters  can  tell  one  of  its  peculiar  quality ;  it  has  neither  break 
nor  pause,  and  seems  to  emanate  from  no  one  place.  If  you  can  imagine 
the  syllables  vee-r-r-hu  repeated  eight  or  nine  times  around  a  series  of 
intertwining  circles,  the  description  may  enable  you  to  recognize  the 
Veery's  song. 

The  Veery  has  a  double  personality,  or  he  may  repeat  the  notes  of 
some  less  vocally  developed  ancestor,  for  on  occasions  he  gives  utter- 
ance to  an  entirely  uncharacteristic  series  of  caching  notes,  and  even 
mounts  high  in  the  tree  to  sing  a  hesitating  medley  of  the  same  un- 
musical cacfcs,  broken  whistled  calls,  and  attempted  trills.  Fortunately, 
this  performance  is  comparatively  uncommon,  and  to  most  of  us  the 


494  THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC. 

Veery  is  known  only  by  his  own  strange,  unearthly  song.  His  notes 
touch  chords  which  no  other  bird's  song  reaches.  The  Water-Thrush 
is  inspiring,  the  Wood  and  Hermit  Thrushes  "serenely  exalt  the  spirit," 
but  the  Veery  appeals  to  even  higher  feelings;  all  the  wondrous  myste- 
ries of  the  woods  find  a  voice  in  his  song;  he  thrills  us  with  emotions  we 
can  not  express. 

75  6a.  H.  £.  salicicola  Ridgw.  WILLOW  THRUSH.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  with  the  upperparts  slightly  darker. 

Range. — W.  N.  Am.,  eastward  in  migration  to  Wise.,  Ills.,  Ind.,  and 
Miss. 

Glen  Ellyn,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  3-June  4;  Aug.  26-Sept.  17. 
SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R.,  May  5. 

Nesting  date,  se.  Minn.,  May  24. 

757.  Hylocichla  aliciae  alicise  (Baird).  GRAY-CHEEKED  THRUSH. 
Ad. — Upperparts  uniform  olive,  practically  no  difference  between  the  colors 
of  the  back  and  tail;  eye-ring  whitish,  lores  grayish;  middle  of  the  throat  and 
middle  of  the  belly  white;  sides  of  the  throat  and  breast  with  a  very  faint 
tinge  of  cream-buff  (richer  in  the  fall) ;  the  feathers  of  the  sides  of  the 
throat  spotted  with  wedge-shaped  marks,  those  of  the  breast  with  half- 
round  black  marks;  sides  brownish  gray  or  brownish  ashy.  L.,  7'58;  W., 
4'09;  T.,  2'96;  B.,  '55. 

Remarks. — The  uniform  olive  of  the  upperparts  of  this  species  at  once 
separates  it  from  our  other  eastern  Thrushes  except  its  subspecies  bicknelli 
and  the  Olive-backed  Thrush.  From  the  latter  it  may  be  known  by  the  com- 
parative absence  of  buff  on  the  breast  and  sides  of  the  throat,  by  its  whitish 
eye-ring  and  grayish  lores. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  zone  in  a  narrow  belt  just  s.  of 
tree  limit  from  ne.  Siberia  to  cen.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.;  winters  in  S.  A. 

Washington,  rather  common  T.  V.,  May  8-31;  Sept.  15-Oct.  20.  Ossin- 
ing,  tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  15-June  1;  Sept.  20-Oct.  17.  Cambridge, 
uncommon  T.  V.,  May  18-28;  Sept.  15-Oct.  9.  N.  Ohio,  not  common  T.  V., 
Apl.  29-May  23.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  May  1-June  4;  Aug.  26-Oct. 
9.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  7-  ;  Sept.  8. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  leaves,  strips  of  fine  bark,  etc.,  lined  with  fine  grasses,  in 
low  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  4,  greenish  blue,  spotted  with  rusty  brown, 
•92  x  '67.  Date,  Ft.  Yukon,  Alaska,  June  9. 

The  Gray-cheeked  and  Bicknell's  Thrushes  differ  more  widely  in 
name  than  in  anything  else.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  representa- 
tives of  one  and  the  same  species  which,  in  the  northern  parts  of  its 
range,  is  somewhat  larger  than  it  is  in  the  southern  parts  of  its  range. 
But  here  the  difference  stops:  the  northern  bird  (alicice)  resembling  the 
southern  bird  (bicknelli)  in  notes  and  habits;  while  the  difference  be- 
tween them  in  size  is  so  slight  that  during  their  migrations,  where  both 
might  be  expected  to  occur  together,  it  would  be  impossible  to  say 
which  bird  was  under  observation.  During  the  nesting  season,  however, 
it  will  be  safe  to  call  any  olive-backed,  gray-cheeked  Thrush  found  south 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Bicknell's  and  all  to  the  north  of  that  river  the 
Gray-cheeked. 

The  Olive-backed  Thrush  (swainsoni)  may  be  distinguished  in  life 
from  the  gray-cheeked  bird  (alicice  and  bicknelli)  by  its  buff  cheeks  and 
eye-ring;  but  the  identification  should  be  made  under  favorable  con- 
ditions and  by  one  familiar  with  specimens  of  the  birds. 


THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC.  495 

757a.  H.  a.  bicknelli  Ridgw.  BICKNELL'S  THRUSH.  Similar  to  the 
preceding,  but  smaller.  L.,  6'25-7'25;  W.,  3'40-3'80;  T.,  2'60-270;  B., 
•50--52  (Ridgw.). 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  in  Hudsonian  and  upper  Canadian  zones  in 
N.  S.,  mts.  of  n.  New  England,  the  Catskills  and  Adirondacks  of  N.  Y.,  and 
probably  mts.  of  w.  Mass. ;  migrates  through  se.  U.  S.  and  the  Bahamas; 
winters  in  Haiti  and  probably  n.  S.  A. 

Washington,  apparently  rare  T.  V.,  May  14-23;  Oct.  3.  Cambridge, 
rather  common  T.  V.,  May  2-May  30;  Sept.  25-Oct.  5. 

Nest,  essentially  like  that  of  H.  u.  swainsoni,  both  in  construction  and 
position.  Eggs,  greener  and  more  finely  spotted  than  those  of  swainsoni 
(Breweter,  Minot's  Land  Birds  and  Game  Birds,  2d  ed.,  appendix,  468). 
Date,  Seal  Island,  N.  S.,  June  13  (Thayer  Coll.). 

"In  northern  New  England  BicknelPs  Thrush  breeds  from  an  alti- 
tude of  about  three  thousand  feet  (scattered  pairs  may  be  found  lower 
than  this)  to  the  extreme  upper  limits  of  tree  growth,  but  most  abun- 
dantly among  the  dwarfed,  densely  matted  spruces  and  balsams  which 
cover  such  extensive  areas  on  the  upper  slopes  and  ridges  of  our  higher 
mountains.  Here,  in  an  atmosphere  always  cool  and  ordinarily  satu- 
rated with  moisture  from  passing  clouds,  it  spends  the  summer  in 
company  with  such  birds  as  Swainson's  Thrushes,  Winter  Wrens, 
Yellow-rumped  and  Black-poll  Warblers,  Juncos,  White-throated 
Sparrows,  and  Yellow-bellied  Flycatchers.  In  many  places  it  is  quite 
as  numerous  as  any  of  these  species,  and  in  certain  favored  localities 
it  probably  outnumbers  them  all  put  together.  Nevertheless  one  may 
spend  hours  in  its  chosen  haunts  without  getting  a  fair  view  of  a  sin- 
gle individual,  for,  despite  (or  perhaps  really  because  of)  the  fact  that 
these  solitudes  are  rarely  invaded  by  man,  Bicknell's  Thrush  is,  while 
breeding,  one  of  the  very  shyest  of  our  smaller  birds.  .  .  . 

"The  song  is  exceedingly  like  that  of  the  Veery,  having  the  same 
ringing,  flutelike  quality;  but  it  is  more  interrupted,  and  it  ends  dif- 
ferently— the  next  to  the  last  note  dropping  a  half  tone,  and  the  final 
one  rising  abruptly  and  having  a  sharp  emphasis.  The  ordinary  calls 
are  a  whistled  pheu  practically  identical  with  that  of  H .  fuscescens,  a 
harsh  note  which  recalls  the  cry  of  the  Night  Hawk,  a  low  cluck  much 
like  that  of  the  Hermit  Thrush,  and  a  pip  or  peenk  similar  to  that  of 
Swainson's  I  =  Olive-backed]  Thrush.  The  last  is  rarely  heard"  (Brews- 
ter,  Minot's  Land  and  Game  Birds,  p.  467). 

1882.  BICKNELL,  E.  P.,  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  VII,  152-159.— 1883. 
BREWSTER,  W.,  Ibid,  VIII,  12-17  (biographical). 

758a.  Hylocichla  ustulata  swainsoni  (Tschudi).  OLIVE-BACKED 
THRUSH.  Ad.  Upperparts  uniform  olive;  back  and  tail  practically  the  same 
color ;  eye-ring  deep  cream-buff,  lores  the  same;  whole  throat  and  breast  with 
a  strong  tinge  of  deep  cream-buff  or  even  ochraceous-buff;  the  feathers  of  the 
sides  of  the  throat  with  wedge-shaped  black  spots  at  their  tips,  those  of  the 
breast  with  rounded  black  spots  at  their  tips;  middle  of  the  belly  white; 
sides  brownish  gray  or  brownish  ashy.  L.,  7*17;  W..  3'93;  T.,  2'76;  B.,  '50. 

Remarks. — This  bird  will  be  confused  only  with  the  Gray-cheeked  and 
Bicknell's  Thrushes,  from  which  it  differs  in  the  much  stronger  suffusion  of 
buff  on  the  throat  and  breast,  its  buff  eye-ring  and  lores. 

Range. — N.  A.    Breeds  in  lower  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones  from 


496  THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC. 

nw.  Alaska,  to  s.  Ungava,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  Kenai  Peninsula,  Alaska,  e.  Ore., 
Nev.,  Utah,  Colo.,  n.  Mich.,  N.  Y.,  and  in  mts.  from  Mass,  to  Pa.,  and  W. 
Va. ;  winters  from  s.  Mex.  to  S.  A. 

Washington,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  19-June  2;  Sept.  2-Nov.  1.  Ossining, 
tolerably  common  T.  V.,  May  2-30;  Sept.  19-Oct.  22.  Cambridge,  common 
T.  V.,  May  12-28;  Sept.  15-Oct.  5.  N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  22-June 
13;  Sept.  2-Oct.  24.  Glen  Ellyn,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  23-Jime  6;  Aug.  16- 
Oct.  24.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  May  1-  ;  Sept.  25-  . 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses,  moss,  rootlets,  leaves  and  bark,  lined  with  root- 
lets and  grasses,  in  bushes  or  small  trees,  about  4  feet  up.  Eggs,  3-4,  greenish 
blue,  more  or  less  spotted  and  speckled  with  cinnamon-brown  or  rufous, 
*90  x  '64.  Date,  Upton,  Maine,  June  4. 

Pa'ssing  northward  in  the  spring,  in  small,  silent  bands,  scattered 
through  the  woodland  undergrowth,  whence  they  quietly  slip  away,  if 
disturbed,  often  to  the  higher  brarjches  of  the  trees,  these  birds  easily 
escape  observation.  In  late  September  or  early  October  their  loud, 
metallic  call-notes  may  be  recognized  overhead  at  night,  and  during 
the  day  the  birds  themselves  may  be'  found  on  the  edges  of  the  woods 
or  along  tangled  hedgerows,  associated  with  Sparrows  and  other 
migrants.  Their  summer  home  is  in  the  coniferous  forest  of  the  North, 
although  they  do  not  confine  themselves  strictly  to  the  evergreen 
woods,  and,  avoiding  its  depths,  seek  rather  the  vicinity  of  clearings 
well  grown  up  with  firs  and  spruces.  Here,  day  after  day,  the  same 
musician  may  be  seen  pouring  forth  his  ringing  song  from  some  com- 
manding elevation — preferably  a  dead  tree  top.  If  approached,  he 
promptly  dives  down  into  the  underbrush,  where  he  is  very  likely 
joined  by  his  mate,  and  bpth  proceed  to  scold,  in  a  mild  way,  the 
chance  intruder.  Little  is  ever  seen  of  these  shy  birds,  but  fortunately 
their  notes  are  quite  characteristic,  and  the  sole  obstacle  in  distinguish- 
ing them  from  those  of  the  Hermit  Thrush,  a  bird  frequenting  the 
same  localities,  lies  in  the  difficulty  of  tracing  them  to  their  source. 

The  effect  of  its  loud  and  beautiful  song  is  much  enhanced  by  the 
evening  hush  in  which  it  is  most  often  heard.  It  lacks  the  leisurely 
sweetness  of  the  Hermit  Thrush's  outpourings,  nor  is  there  pause,  but 
in  lower  key  and  with  greater  energy  it  bubbles  on  rapidly  to  a  close 
rather  than  fading  out  with  the  soft  melody  of  its  renowned  rival. 
There  are  also  a  variety  of  other  notes,  the  most  frequent  being  a 
ptik  of  alarm,  pitched  higher  than  a  corresponding  cluck  of  the  Hermit 
Thrush.  J.  DWIGHT,  JR. 

759b.  Hylocichla  guttata  pallasi  (Cab.}.  HERMIT  THRUSH.  Ad. — 
Upperparts  olive-brown,  sometimes  cinnamon-brown;  tail  pale  rufous,  of  a 
distinctly  different  color  from  the  back ;  throat  and  breast  with  a  slight  buffy 
tinge;  feathers  of  the  sides  of  the  throat  with  wedge-shaped  black  spots 
at  their  tips;  those  of  the  breast  with  large,  rounded  spots;  middle  of  the 
belly  white;  sides  brownish  gray  or  brownish  ashy.  L.,  7' 17;  W.,  3 '56;  T., 
2'74;  B.,  -51. 

Remarks. — The  Hermit  Thrush  may  always  be  easily  identified  by  its 
rufous  tail.  It  is  the  only  one  of  our  Thrushes  which  has  the  tail  brighter 
than  the  back. 

Range. — N.  and  e.  N.  A.  Breeds  in  Canadian  and  Transition  zones 
from  s.  Yukon,  to  n.  Que.,  s.  to  cen.  Alberta,  s.  Sask.,  cen.  Minn.,  n.  Mich., 


THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC.  497 

Ont.,  Mass.,  Conn.,  L.  I.  (locally),  and  mts.  of  Pa.  and  Md.;  winters  from 
Mass,  (locally)  and  the  lower  Del.  and  Ohio  valleys  to  Tex.,  Fla.,  and 
Cuba. 

Washington,  very  common  T.  V.,  sometimes  not  uncommon  W.  V., 
Apl.  6-May  17;  Sept.  18-Nov.  12.  Ossining,  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  5-May 
9;  Oct.  18-Nov.  26.  Cambridge,  very  common  T.  V.,  Apl.  15-May  5;  Oct. 
5-Nov.  15;  occasionally  one  or  two  may  winter;  one  summer  record. 
N.  Ohio,  common  T.  V.,  Mch.  21-May  10;  Oct.  2-28.  Glen  Ellyn,  common 
T.  V.,  Mch.  18-May  11;  Sept.  14-Nov.  1.  SE.  Minn.,  common  T.  V.,  Apl. 
1-  ;  Sept.  13-Oct.  26. 

Nest,  of  moss,  coarse  grasses,  and  leaves,  lined  with  rootlets  and  pine 
needles,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  3-4,  greenish  blue,  of  a  slightly  lighter  tint 
than  those  of  the  Wood  Thrush,  "88  x  '69.  Date,  Holland  Patent,  N.Y.,May 
23;  Grand  Menan,  N.  B.,  May  26. 

This  Thrush  comes  to  us  in  the  spring,  when  the  woods  are  still 
bare,  and  lingers  in  the  autumn  until  they  are  again  leafless — the 
earliest  as  it  is  the  latest  of  our  Thrushes.  It  is  common  on  its  migra- 
tions, but  attracts  little  notice,  for,  though  not  really  a  shy  bird,  its 
disposition  is  retiring,  and  it  is  most  at  home  in  secluded  woodland 
and  thickety  retreats.  Still,  it  often  finds  seclusion  enough  along 
shrubby  roadsides,  and  may  so  far  doff  its  hermit  traits  as  to  approach 
dwellings,  where  its  attractive  lightness  of  motion  and  ease  of  manner 
may  be  observed  from  indoors.  It  frequently  descends  to  the  ground, 
but  is  soon  back  again  in  the  branches,  making  short  flights  from 
perch  to  perch,  often  with  long,  quiet  pauses  in  the  intervals.  It  may 
be  known  at  sight  by  its  habit  of  lifting  its  tail  slightly,  especially 
after  alighting.  This  action  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  bird's 
customary  note — a  low  chuck,  which  sounds  scarcely  thrushlike. 

The  Hermit  Thrush  bears  high  distinction  among  our  song  birds. 
Its  notes  are  not  remarkable  for  variety  or  volume,  but  in  purity  and 
sweetness  of  tone  and  exquisite  modulation  they  are  unequaled.  Some, 
indeed,  have  deemed  the  Wood  Thrush  not  inferior;  but  though  the 
Wood  Thrush  at  its  best  seems  sometimes  to  touch  the  very  highest 
chords  of  bird  music,  the  strains  of  its  wilder  cousin,  in  tranquil  clearness 
of  tone  and  exalted  serenity  of  expression,  go  beyond  any  woods  music 
we  ever  hear. 

While  traveling,  the  Hermit  Thrush  is  not  in  full  voice,  and  he 
who  would  know  its  song  must  follow  it  to  the  mossy  forests,  which 
are  its  summer  home.  EUGENE  P.  BICKNELL. 

1910.    MCCLINTOCK,  N.,  Auk,  XXVII,  409-418  (nesting). 

TOWNSEND'S  SOLITAIRE  (754-  Myadestes  townsendi)  of  western  North 
America,  is  of  accidental  occurrence  in  Illinois  and  New  York. 

The  RED-WINGED  THRUSH  (760.  Turdus  musicus),  a  European  species,  is 
of  accidental  occurrence  in  Greenland. 

761.  Planesticus  migratorius  migratorius  (Linn.}.  ROBIN.  (Fig. 
76o.)  Ads. — Top  and  sides  of  the  head  black,  a  white  spot  above  and  below 
the  eye;  rest  of  the  upperparts  grayish  slate-color;  margins  of  wings  slightly 
lighter;  tail  blackish,  the  outer  feathers  with  white  spots  at  their  tips;  throat 
white,  streaked  with  black ;  rest  of  the  underparts  rufous  (tipped  with  white 
in  the  fall),  becoming  white  on  the  middle  of  the  lower  belly;  bill  yellow, 


498  THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC. 

brownish  in  fall.  Im.  females  average  paler  below  and  with  less  black  on 
the  head,  but  fully  adult  birds  are  as  richly  colored  as  the  brightest  males. 
Nestling. — Back  and  underparts  spotted  with  black.  L.,  lO'OO;  W.,  4'96;  T., 
3'87;  B.,  '84. 

Range. — N.  A.  Breeds  from  limit  of  trees  in  nw.  Alaska,  to  n.  Ungava, 
and  N.  F.  s.  to  Cook  Inlet,  Alaska,  cen.  Alberta,  se.  Wyo.,  Kans.,  Ills.,  Ind., 
Ohio,  Pa.,  N.  J.,  and  in  the  Alleghanies  to  N.  C.;  winters  from  cen.  Kans., 
Ohio  valley,  and  N.  J.  (irregularly  further  n.)  to  the  Gulf  coast  and  Fla., 
and  to  Nuevo  Leon,  Mex. ;  accidental  in  Bermuda  and  Cuba. 

Washington,  rather  common  S.  R.,  abundant  T.  V.,  from  Feb.-Apl.; 
irregularly  common  W.  V.  Ossining,  common  S.  R.,  Mch.  4-Oct.  30;  a  few 
winter.  Cambridge,  very  abundant  S.  R.,  common  but  irregular  W.  V. 
N.  Ohio,  abundant  S.  R.,  Feb.  26-Nov.  30;  a  few  winter.  Glen  Ellyn,  very 
common  S.  R.,  rare  W.  V.,  Jan.  25-Nov.  19.  SE.  Minn.,  common  S.  R., 
rare  W.  V.,  Mch.  8-Nov.  11. 

Nest,  of  coarse  grasses,  leaves,  rootlets,  etc.,  with  an  inner  wall  of  mud 
and  lining  of  fine  grasses,  most  frequently  in  fruit  or  shade  trees,  5-30  feet 
up.  Eggs,  3-5,  greenish  blue,  very  rarely  with  brownish  markings,  1*14  X  '80. 
Date,  New  York  City,  Apl.  20;  Cambridge,  Apl.  25;  se.  Minn.,  Apl.  28. 

While  the  few  Robins  that  have  the  courage  to  winter  with  us  are 
seeking  protection  from  chilling  winds  in  the  depths  of  friendly  ever- 
greens, their  comrades  who  extended  their  journey  to  the  south  are 
holding  carnival  under  sunny  skies.  In  Florida,  during  the  winter, 
Robins  may  be  found  in  enormous  flocks,  feeding  on  the  berries  of  the 
China  tree,  holly,  and  mistletoe.  Occasionally  they  give  voice  to  a 
half-suppressed  chorus,  as  though  rehearsing  for  the  approaching 
season  of  song. 

Robins  migrate  in  flocks,  and  the  arrival  of  the  advance  guard 
makes  the  dreariest  March  day  seem  bright.  It  is  a  question  whether 
these  pioneers  are  summer  residents  or  transients  en  route  to  a  more 
northern  summer  home,  but  in  my  experience  they  make  the  sunny 
side  of  some  woods  their  headquarters  and  remain  there  until  paired. 
They  are  then  in  full  song,  and  we  see  them  in  their  accustomed  haunts 
about  our  lawns  and  orchards. 

Toward  the  last  of  June  the  young  of  the  first  brood,  with  the  old 
males,  resort  in  numbers  nightly  to  a  roosting-place.  These  roosts  are 
generally  in  deciduous  second  growths,  usually  in  low,  but  sometimes 
on  high  ground.  The  females  are  now  occupied  with  the  cares  of  a 
second  family,  and  the  males  are  said  to  return  each  day  to  assist  them 
in  their  duties. 

Early  in  September,  when  the  nesting  season  is  over,  Robins  gather 
in  large  flocks,  and  from  this  time  until  their  departure  for  the  south, 
roam  about  the  country  in  search  of  food,  taking  in  turn  wild  cher- 
ries, dogwood  and  cedar  berries. 

The  songs  and  call-notes  of  the  Robin,  while  well  known  to  every 
one,  are  in  reality  understood  by  no  one,  and  offer  excellent  subjects 
for  the  student  of  bird  language.  Its  notes  express  interrogation,  sus- 
picion, alarm,  caution,  and  it  signals  to  its  companions  to  take  wing; 
indeed,  few  of  our  birds  have  a  more  extended  vocabulary. 

1890.  BREWSTER,  W.,  Auk,  X,  360-373  (summer  roosts).— 1892. 
TORREY,  B.,  Foot-path  Way,  153-175  (summer  roosts).— 1895.  WIDMANN,  O., 


THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC.  499 

Auk,  XII,  1-11,  also  274  (winter  roosts).— 1898.     HOWE,  R.  H.,  JR.,  Auk, 
XV,  162-167  (nesting). — 1905.    HERRICK,  F.  H.,  Home  Life  of  Wild  Birds 

72-85. 

761b.  P.  m.  achrusterus  (Batch.).  SOUTHERN  ROBIN.  Smaller  than 
P.  m.  migratorius,  colors  in  general  much  lighter  and  duller.  W.,  4*80;  T., 
3'60. 

Range. — SE.  U.  S.  Breeds  in  s.  part  of  Carolinian  fauna  from  s.  111. 
and  Md.  to  n.  Miss.,  n.  Ga.,  and  S.  C. 

The  VARIED  THRUSH  (763.  Ixoreus  namus  ncevius),  a  species  of  western 
North  America,  has  been  recorded  from  Quebec,  Massachusetts,  Long  Is- 
land, and  New  Jersey. 

765a.  Saxicola  oenanthe  leucorhoa  (Gmel.).  GREENLAND  WHEATEAR. 
Ad.  cf. —  Upperparts  light  gray;  forehead  and  upper  tail-coverts  white; 
cheeks  and  wings  black;  the  basal  two-thirds  of  the  tail  white,  the  end 
black;  underparts  whitish,  more  or  less  washed  with  buffy.  Ad.  9. — Sim- 
ilar, but  duller,  the  black  grayer,  the  white  parts  more  buffy.  Ad.  In  winter 
and  Im. — Upperparts  cinnamon-brown,  wings  edged  with  lighter;  upper  tail- 
coverts  and  base  of  the  tail  white;  end  of  the  tail  black,  tipped  with  buffy; 
underparts  ochraceous-buff.  L.,  6'25;  W.,  4'00;  T.,  2'20;  B.,  '50. 

Range. — NE.  Arctic  Am.  Breeds  in  Arctic  zone  from  Ellesmere  Land 
and  Boothia  Penninsula  e.  to  Greenland  and  Iceland,  and  s.  to  n.  Ungava; 
winters  in  w.  Africa,  migrating  through  the  British  Isles  and  France ;  casual 
in  migration  to  Keewatin,  Ont.,  N.  B.,  Que.,  N.  Y.,  Bermuda,  La.,  and 
Cuba. 

Nest,  of  moss  and  grasses,  usually  in  crevices  among  rocks.  Eggs,  4-7, 
bluish  white,  '81  x  *59.  Date,  Holsteinborg,  Greenland,  June  8. 

This  European  species  is  a  common  summer  resident  in  Greenland. 
It  has  been  found  nesting  in  Labrador,  and  there  is  evidence  of  its 
having  bred  at  Godbout,  Province  of  Quebec  (Merriam,  Auk,  1885, 
p.  305;  Comeau,  ibid.,  1890,  p.  294).  South  of  these  points  it  is  of  acci- 
dental occurrence. 

Mr.  Saunders  writes:  "From  early  spring  onward  the  Wheatear  is 
to  be  seen,  jerking  its  white  tail  as  it  flits  along,  uttering  its  sharp  chack, 
chack,  on  open  downs,  warrens,  and  the  poorer  land;  ascending  the 
mountains  almost  to  the  highest  summits.  .  .  . 

"The  song  of  the  male  is  rather  pretty,  and  the  bird  also  displays 
considerable  powers  of  imitating  other  species." 

766.  Sialia  sialis  sialis  (Linn.).  BLUEBIRD.  (Figs.  1,  766.)  Ad.  <?.— 
Upperparts,  wings,  and  tail  bright  blue,  tipped  with  rusty  in  the  fall;  throat, 
breast,  and  sides  dull  cinnamon-rufous;  belly  white.  Ad.  9. — Upperparts 
with  a  grayish  tinge;  throat,  breast,  and  sides  paler.  Nestling. — Back 
spotted  with  whitish;  the  breast  feathers  margined  with  fuscous.  L.,  7'01; 
W.,  3'93;  T.,  2'58;  B.,  '47. 

Range. — E.  N.  Am.  Breeds  from  lower  Canadian  to  Lower  Austral 
zone  from  s.  Man.,  n.  Ont.,  s.  Que.,  and  N.  F.,  s.  to  s.  Tex.,  the  Gulf  coast, 
and  s.  Fla. ;  casually  w.  to  base  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  in  Mont.,  Wyo.,  and  Colo.; 
winters  from  s.  Ills.,  and  s.  N.  Y.,  southward. 

Washington,  common  S.  R.,  and  W.  V.  Ossining,  common  P.  R.  Cam- 
bridge, common  S.  R.,  Men.  6-Nov.  1;  more  numerous  during  migrations, 
in  Mch.  and  Nov.  N.  Ohio,  common  S.  R.,  Feb.  17-Nov.  18;  a  few  winter. 
Glen  Ellyn,  fairly  common  S.  R.,  Feb.  19-Nov.  18.  SE.  Minn.,  common 
S.  R.,  Mch.  16-Oct.  31. 

Nest,  of  grasses,  in  hollow  trees  or  bird-houses.    Eggs,  4-6,  bluish  white, 

34 


500  THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC. 

sometimes  plain  white,  *85  x  '65.  Date,  Ft.  Pierce,  Fla.,  Mch.  17;  Mt. 
Pleasant,  S.  C.,  Mch.  26,  small  embryos;  Cambridge,  Apl.  15;  se.  Minn., 
Apl.  16. 

A  bird  so  familiar  as  the  Bluebird  needs  no  introduction;  in  fact, 
he  seems  so  at  home  in  our  orchards  and  gardens  or  about  our  dwell- 
ings that  one  wonders  what  he  did  for  a  home  before  the  white  man 
came. 

In  the  winter,  it  is  true,  Bluebirds  are  greater  rovers,  and  one  may 
see  them  in  the  Southern  States  whirling  through  the  woods  in  large 
flocks  or  feeding  on  the  berries  of  the  mistletoe.  But  the  warmth  of 
returning  spring  reminds  them  of  cozy  bird-boxes  or  hospitable  pear 
or  apple  trees,  and  soon  we  see  them  inspecting  last  summer's  home, 
evidently  planning  repairs  and  alterations. 

The  Bluebird's  disposition  is  typical  of  all  that  is  sweet  and  amia- 
ble. His  song  breathes  of  love;  even  his  fall  call-note — fur-wee,  tur- 
wee — is  soft  and  gentle.  So  associated  is  his  voice  with  the  birth  and 
death  of  the  seasons  that  to  me  his  song  is  freighted  with  all  the  glad- 
ness of  springtime,  while  the  sad  notes  of  the  birds  passing  southward 
tell  me  more  plainly  than  the  falling  leaves  that  the  year  is  dying. 

1905.  HEBBICK,  F.  H.,  Home  Life  of  Wild  Birds,  115-121. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 

The  appended  titles  of  general  and  local  ornithological  publications 
have  been  selected  from  the  great  mass  of  literature  relating  to  American 
birds,  in  part  with  regard  to  their  historic  importance,  but  mainly  on 
the  basis  of  their  present  working  value.  They  include  chiefly  sys- 
tematic and  faunal  works,  references  to  special  books  and  papers  being 
given  in  their  proper  connection  in  the  body  of  the  book. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  section  devoted  to  local  lists/  as  they  are  com- 
monly termed,  will  be  of  much  assistance  to  the  faunal  naturalist  and 
particularly  to  students  of  the  bird-life  of  the  regions  to  which,  respec- 
tively, they  refer.  Unfortunately  many  of  these  papers  are  now  out  of 
print,  but  the  Librarian  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
may  be  consulted  with  a  view  to  securing,  at  cost,  type-written  copies 
of  those  not  otherwise  available,  and  which  are  of  sufficient  importance 
to  warrant  the  expense  involved. 

THE   WORLD 

1875-1895..    SHARPE,  B.  and  others.    Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  British 

Museum.  27  vols.  with  descriptions  of  the  birds  of  the  world,  ills. — 1885. 
STEJNEGER,  L.,  and  others.  Riverside  Natural  History.  Vol.  IV,  Birds,'  4to, 
558  pp.,  ills.  (Houghton,  Mifflin).  Classification,  structure,  habits,  distri- 
bution.— 1893-1896.  NEWTON,  A.,  and  others.  A  Dictionary  of  Birds. 
Pop.  Ed.,  8vo,  1088  pp.,  ills.  (Macmillaii).— 1894-95.  LYDEKKER,  R.,  and 
others.  Royal  Nat.  Hist.,  Birds,  4to,  Vols.  Ill,  584  pp.,  and  IV,  576  pp., 
ills.,  General  account. — 1899.  EVANS,  A.  H.,  Birds.  Vol.  IX,  Cambridge 
Natural  History  (Macmillan),  8vo,  635  pp.,  ills.  Classification,  habits, 
distribution. — 1899-1909.  SHARPE,  B.  A  Hand-List  of  the  Genera  and 
Species  of  Birds.  8vo,  5  vols.  Published  by  British  Museum.  Names  and 
Ranges. — 1909.  KNOWLTON,  F.  H.,  and  others.  Birds  of  the  World,  sm. 
4to,  873  pp.,  ills.  (Holt).  Habits,  distribution. 

NORTH    AMERICA 

1808-14.  WILSON,  A.  American  Ornithology.  9  vols.,  4to.  Many  sub- 
sequent editions,  the  last,  in  one  volume,  by  Porter  &  Coates,  Philadelphia, 
is  crude,  but  at  least  places  Wilson's  text  within  reach  of  every  one. — 1831-39. 
AUDUBON,  J.  J.  Ornithological  Biography.  5  vols.,  8vo  of  text  to  accompany 
the  4  elephant  folios  of  plates  (1827-38).  Republished  in  8  vols.,  8vo,  1840-44 
and  later  editions.  The  elephant  folios  with  the  5  volumes  of  text  sell  for  $2500 
-$3000 ;  the  text  can  sometimes  be  purchased  at  $5  per  volume ;  the  first  8vo 
edition  brings  about  $350. — 1832-34.  NUTTALL,  T.  Manual  of  the  Orni- 
thology of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  2  vols.  Several  later  editions,  the 
last  revised  by  Montague  Chamberlain  (Little,  Brown  &  Co.),  1903,  2  vols. 
in  one,  473  and  431  pp. — 1872.  COUES,  E.  Key  to  North  American  Birds. 
1903,  5th  and  last  ed.,  2  vols.,  roy.  8vo,  1152  pp.  The  introduction,  of  233 
pages,  treats  of  general  ornithology  and  the  anatomy  of  birds. — 1874-1884. 
BAIRB,  S.  F.,  BREWER,  T.  M.,  and  RIDGWAY,  R.  History  of  North  Ameri- 
can Birds.  Land  birds,  3  vols.;  water  birds,  2  vols.,  4to.  The  volumes  on 
land  birds  republished  in  8vo  size  but  from  same  plates,  1905,  596,  590,  560 

(501) 


502  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 

pp.  (Little,  Brown  &  Co). — 1886.  American  Ornithologists'  Union  Check-List 
of  North  American  Birds.  New  York,  Rev.  Ed.  1910,  8vo,  430  pp. — 1887. 
RIDGWAY,  R.  A  Manual  of  North  American  Birds.  2d  Ed.  1896,  653  pp. 
(Lippincott). — 1892-5.  BENDIRE,  C.  Life  Histories  of  North  American 
Birds.  I,  414  pp.,  Gallinaceous  birds,  Pigeons,  Hawks,  and  Owls;  II,  1895, 
508  pp.,  Parrots,  Cuckoos,  Trogons,  Kingfishers,  Woodpeckers,  Goat- 
suckers, Swifts,  Hummingbirds,  Cotingas,  Flycatchers,  Larks,  Crows  and 
Jays,  Blackbirds  and  Orioles.  (Pub.  by  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.) — 1893.  NEHR- 
LING,  H.  Our  Native  Birds  of  Song  and  Beauty.  Vol.  I,  371  pp.;  Vol.  II, 
1896,  452  pp.  Biographical. — 1898.  DAVIE,  O.  Nests  and  Eggs  of  North 
American  Birds.  5th  Ed.,  8vo,  509  pp.  (Columbus,  Ohio).— 1901-1911. 
RIDGWAY,  R.  The  Birds  of  North  and  Middle  America.  Bull.  50,  U.  S. 
Nat.  Mus.  Part  I,  1901,  Fringillidse;  Part  II,  1902,  Tanagridse,  Icteridse 
Ccerebidae,  Mniotiltidse;  Part  III,  1904,  Motacillidse,  Hirundinida?,  Ampel- 
idse,  Ptilogonatidse,  Dulidse,  Vireonidse,  Laniidse,  Corvidse,  Paridse,  Sittidae, 
Certhiidse,  Troglodytidse,  Cinclidse,  Chameidse,  Sylviidse;  Part  IV,  1907, 
Turdidse,  ZeledoniidaB,  Mimida?,  SturnidaB,  Ploceidse,  Alaudidse,  Oxyruncidse, 
Tyrannidse,  Pipridse,  Cotingidaa.  Other  volufnes  to  follow.  The  standard 
work. — 1903.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.  Color  Key  to  North  American  Birds.  312 
pp.,  upward  800  col.  ills. — 1904.  REED,  C.  S.  North  American  Birds' 
Eggs.  356  pp.,  many  ills. — 1910.  American  Ornithologists'  Union  Abridged 
Check-List  of  North  American  Birds.  Pocket  Edition,  77  printed +77  blank 
pp.  (New  York.) 

EASTERN   NORTH   AMERICA 

1872-1881.  MAYNARD,  C.  J.  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America;  1896, 
Rev.  Ed.,  4to,  721  pp.,  ills.  (West  Newton,  Mass.).— 1884.  LANGILLE,  J.  H. 
Our  Birds  in  Their  Haunts.  12mo,  624  pp.  (Cassino). — 1889.  MERRIAM, 
F.  A.  Birds  Through  an  Opera-glass.  12mo,  223  pp.  (Houghton), — 1895. 
WRIGHT,  M.  O.  Birdcraft,  12mo,  317  pp.,  ills.(Macmillan). — 1895.  CHAP- 
MAN, F.  M.  Handbook  of  the  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America,  421  pp., 
ills.;  1912,  Rev.  Ed.  (Appleton's).— 1897.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.  Bird-Life.  A 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  our  Common  Birds.  12mo,  269  pp.  75  plls.;  1901, 
Rev.  Ed.,  with  col.  plls.  (Appleton's). — 1897.  WRIGHT,  M.  O.,  and  COUES,  E. 
Citizen  Bird,  12mo,  430  pp.,  ills.  (Macmillan). — 1898.  BLANCHAN,  N. 
Bird  Neighbors,  234  pp.,  col.  plls.  (Doubleday). — 1898.  MERRIAM,  F.  A. 
Birds  of  Village  and  Field.  12mo,  406  pp.,  ills.  (Houghton). — 1898.  SCOTT, 
W.  E.  D.  Bird  Studies,  an  Account  of  the  Land  Birds  of  Eastern  North 
America.  4to,  363  pp.  Many  half-tones  (Putnam's). — 1898.  APGAR,  A.  C. 
Birds  of  the  United  States  East  of  the  Rockies.  12mo,  415  pp.,  ills. (Am. 
Book  Co.). — 1899.  CORY,  C.  B.  The  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America. 
8vo,  387  pp.,  ills.  (Field  Museum). — 1905-6.  REED,  C.  A.  Bird-Guide. 
Oblong,  32mo,  Part  I,  254  pp.;  Part  II,  197  pp.;  many  ills.  (Doubleday). 

GREENLAND 

1861.  REINHARDT,  J.  List  of  Birds  Hitherto  Observed  in  Greenland; 
Ibis,  III,  pp.  1-19,  118  species. — 1875.  NEWTON,  A.  Notes  on  Birds  Which 
Have  Been  Found  in  Greenland,  .  .  .  London,  8vo  pamphlet,  pp.  94-115 
(Author's  extra  from  Man.  Nat.  Hist.  Greenland).  63+62  species;  bibliog- 
raphy.— 1889.  HAGERUP,  A.  Some  'Account  of  the  Birds  of  Southern 
Greenland,  from  the  MSS.  of  A.  Hagerup,  edited  by  Montague  Chamberlain. 
Auk,  VI,  pp.  211-218,  291-297,  39  species.— 1891.  HAGERUP,  A.  T.  The 
Birds  of  Greenland,  translated  from  the  Danish  by  Fremann  B.  Arngrimson, 
edited  by  Montague  Chamberlain.  Boston  (Little,  Brown  &  Co),  8vo,  62  pp.; 
139  species. — 1892.  STONE,  W.  Birds  Collected  by  the  West  Greenland 
Expedition.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  1892,  pp.  145-152;  147  species. — 
1895.  STONE,  W.  List  of  Birds  Collected  by  the  Peary  Expd.  Proc.  Acad. 
Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  1895,  pp.  502-505;  28  species. — 1895.  SCHALOW,  H.  VON. 
Ueber  eine  Vogelsammlung  aus  Westgronland.  Jour,  fur  Orn.,  1895,  pp. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX  503 

457-481;  35  species. — 1899.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.  Report  on  Birds  Received 
Through  the  Peary  Expeditions  to  Greenland.  Bull.  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist., 
XII,  pp.  219-244;  48  species. — 1904.  SCHALOW,  H.  Die  Vogel  der  Arktis, 
Band  IV,  Leiferung,  I,  pp.  81-288;  Gustav  Fischer,  Jena.  A  detailed  syn- 
opsis of  Arctic  bird-life. 


BRITISH   POSSESSIONS 

BERMUDA 

1859.  JONES,  J.  M.,  WEDDERBURN,  J.  W.,  and  HURDIS,  J.  L.  The 
Naturalist  in  Bermuda.  Birds,  pp.  23-97 — 1884.  REID,  S.  G.  List  of  the 
Birds  of  Bermuda.  Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  No.  25.,  pp.  165-279;  186  species. 
(See  also,  MERRIAM,  C.  H.,  Ibid.,  283,  284.) — 1901.  BANGS,  O.  and  BRAD- 
LEE,  T.  S.  The  Resident  Land  Birds  of  Bermuda.  Auk,  XVIII,  pp.  249-257; 
10  species. 

CANADA 

1909.  MACOUN,  J.  and  J.  M.  Catalogue  of  Canadian  Birds.  8vo, 
xviii  +761  pp.  Government  Ptg.  Bureau,  Ottawa.  Distribution  and 
nesting;  important. — 1908.  PREBLE,  E.  A.  A  Biological  Investigation  of 
the  Athabaska-Mackenzie  Region.  N.  A.  Fauna,  No.  27,  574  pp.  Birds,  pp. 
251-500;  296  species,  bibliography. 

KEEWATIN 

1902.  PREBLE,  E.  A.  Birds  of  Keewatin.  N.  A.  Fauna,  No.  22,  pp.  75- 
131;  260  species. 

LABRADOR 

1861.  COUES,  E.  Notes  on  the  Ornithology  of  Labrador.  Proc.  Acad. 
Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  XIII,  pp.  215-257;  82  species.— 1885.  TURNER,  L.  M. 
List  of  the  Birds  of  Labrador,  including  Ungava,  East  Main,  Moose,  and 
Gulf  Districts  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  together  with  the  Island  of 
Anticosti.  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  VIII,  pp.  233-254;  207  species.  (See  also 
PACKARD,  A.  S.  The  Labrador  Coast,  1891).— 1887.  FRAZAR,  M.  A.  An 
Ornithologist's  Summer  in  Labrador.  Orn.  and  O6L,  XII,  pp.  1-3,  17-20,  33- 
35;  62  species.— 1902.  BIGELOW,  H.  B.  Birds  of  the  Northeastern  Coast  of 
Labrador.  Auk,  XIX,  1902,  pp.  24-31 ;  85  species. — 1907.  TOWNSEND,  C. 
W.,  and  ALLEN,  G.  M.  Birds  of  Labrador.  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 
XXXIII,  pp.  277-428,  map;  213  species.  (See  also  TOWNSEND,  C.  W.,  and 
BENT,  A.  C.  The  Auk,  1910,  pp.  1-18;  93  species.) 

MANITOBA 

1886.  SETON,  E.  T.  The  Birds  of  Western  Manitoba.  Auk,  III,  pp. 
145-156,  320-329,  453;  258  species.— 1891.  SETON,  E.  T.  The  Birds  of 
Manitoba.  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  XIII,  pp.  457-643,  1  pi.;  266  species. 
(See  also  14  additions,  Auk,  1893,  p.  49.) — 1909.  SETON,  E.  T.  Fauna  of 
Manitoba.  British  Assc.  Handbook.  Winnipeg,  pp.  1-47;  273  species. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK 

1857.  BRYANT,  H.  A  List  of  Birds  Observed  at  Grand  Menan  and  at 
Yarmouth,  N.  S.,  from  June  16  to  July  8.  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  VI, 
pp.  114-123;  55  species. — 1873.  HERRICK,  H.  A  Partial  Catalogue  of  the 
Birds  of  Grand  Menan,  N.  B.,  Bull.  Essex.  Inst.,  V,  pp.  28-41;  194  species. — 
1879.  PEARSALL,  R.  F.  Grand  Menan  Notes;  Summers  of  1877  and  1878. 
Forest  and  Stream,  XIII,  p.  524;  43  species, — 1883*  BATCHELDER,  C.  F. 


504  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 

Notes  on  the  Summer  Birds  of  the  Upper  St.  John.  Bull.  N.  O.  C.,  VII, 
pp.  106-111,  147-152;  105  species. — 1882.  CHAMBERLAIN,  M.  A  Catalogue 
of  the  Birds  of  New  Brunswick.  Bull.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  New  Brunswick,  No. 
1,  pp.  23-68;  269  species. 

NEWFOUNDLAND 

1869.  REEKS,  H.  Notes  on  the  Zoology  of  Newfoundland.  Zoologist, 
2ndser.,  IV,  pp.  1609-1614,  1689-1695,  1741-1759,  1849-1858;  212  species. 
'See  also  Canad.  Nat.  and  Quart.  Journ.  Sci.,  V,  1870-71,  pp.  38-47,  151- 
159,  289-304,  406-416;  and  HARVEY,  M.  Forest  and  Stream,  III,  pp.  53, 
196,  341.— 1900.  PORTER,  L.  H.  Newfoundland  Notes.  Auk,  XVII,  pp.  71- 
73;  50  species  summer  birds. 

NOVA  SCOTIA 

1857.  BRYANT,  H.  (See  New  Brunswick.) — 1858.  BLAKISTON,  R.  A., 
BLAND,  R.  E.,  and  WILLIS,  J.  R.  List  of  Birds  of  Nova  Scotia.  Thirteenth 
Ann.  Rep.  Smiths.  Inst.,  pp.  280-286;  206  species.— 1879.  JONES,  J.  MAT- 
THEW. List  of  the  Birds  of  Nova  Scotia — Land  Birds.  Forest  and  Stream, 
XII,  pp.  65,  66,  105,  106,  205,  245;  128  species.— 1887.  DWIGHT,  J.,  JR. 
Summer  Birds  of  the  Bras  d'Or  Region  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  Nova  Scotia. 
Auk,  IV,  1887,  pp.  13-16;  59  species.  (See  also  ALLEN,  F.  H.,  Ibid.,  1891.) — 
1888.  DOWNS,  A.  Birds  of  Nova  Scotia,  edited  by  Harry  Piers.  Proc.  and 
Trans.  Nova  Scotia  Inst.  Nat.  Sci.,  VII,  ii,  pp.  142-178;  240  species. 

ONTARIO 

1860.  MclLWRAiTH,  T.  List  of  Birds  Observed  in  the  Vicinity  of  Hamil- 
ton. Canad.  Journ.  V,  pp.  387-396.  (See  also  Proc.  Essex.  Inst.,  V,  1866,  pp. 
79-96),  241  species. — 1882.  MORDEN,  J.  A.,  and  SAUNDERS,  W.  E.  List  of 
the  Birds  of  Western  Ontario.  Canad.  Sportsm.  and  Nat.  II,  pp.  183-187, 
192-194,  also  III,  pp.  218,  219,  243;  236  species.— 1891.  FARLEY,  F.  L.  A 
List  of  the  Birds  of  Elgin  County,  Ontario.  The  Oologist,  VIII,  pp.  81-87; 
190  species. — 1891.  Ottawa  Field  Nat.  Club.  The  Birds  of  Ottawa.  Ottawa 
Nat.  V,  pp.  31-47;  224  species. — 1894.  MCILWRAITH,  T.  The  Birds  of  Ontario, 
8vo,  x+426  pp.  Wm.  Briggs,  Toronto;  317  species. — 1897-8.  NASH,  C.  W. 
Birds  of  Ontario  in  Relation  to  Agriculture.  Rep.  Farmers'  Inst.  of  Ont. 
8yo,  32  pp. — 1900.  NASH,  C.  W.  Check  List  of  the  Birds  of  Ontario.  War- 
wick Bros,  and  Rutter,  Toronto.  8vo,  58  pp.;  302  species. — 1901.  FLEMING, 
J.  H.  A  list  of  the  Birds  of  the  Districts  of  Parry  Sound  and  Muskoka,  Ont. 
Auk,  XVIII,  1901,  pp.  33-45;  196  species.  (See  also  Ibid,  XIX,  p.  403.)— 
1905.  NASH,  C.  W.  Check  List  of  tho  Birds  of  Ontario.  L.  K.  Cameron, 
Printer,  Toronto,  Ont.  82  pp.;  324  species. — 1906.  SWALES,  B.  H.,  and 
TAVERNER,  P.  A.  Remarks  on  the  Summer  Birds  of  Lake  Muskoka,  Ont. 
Wilson  Bull.,  XVIII,  pp.  60-68;  59  species.— 1906-7.  FLEMING,  J.  H.  Birds 
of  Toronto,  Ont.  Auk,  XXIII,  pp.  437-453;  XXIV,  pp.  71-89;  290  species. 
— 1907.  HUBEL,  F.  C.  Preliminary  List  of  the  Summer  Birds  of  the  Cobalt 
Mining  Region,  Nipissing  District,  Ont.  Auk,  XXIV,  pp.  48-52;  76  species. 
— 1907-8.  TAVERNER,  P.  A.  and  SWALES,  B.  H.  The  Birds  of  Point  Pelee, 
Wilson  Bull.  XIX,  pp.  37-53;  82-99,  133-153;  XX,  pp.  79-96,  107-129; 
209  species.  See  also  WOOD,  N.  A.,  Ibid.,  1910,  pp.  63-78. — 1910.  EIFRIG, 
G.  A  Winter  of  Rare  Birds  at  Ottawa.  Auk,  XXVII,  pp.  53-59. 

QUEBEC 

1878.  CORY,  C.  B.  A  Naturalist  in  the  Magdalen  Islands  (Boston). 
Part  II,  pp.  33-83,  list  of  birds;  109  species.— 1882.  WINTLE,  E.  D.  Orni- 
thology of  the  Island  of  Montreal.  Canad.  Sportsm.  and  Nat.,  II,  pp.  108- 
110,  116,  117;  16S  species.— 1882-5.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.  List  of  Birds  Ascer- 
tained to  Occur  within  Ten  Miles  of  Point  des  Monts,  Province  of  Quebec, 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX  505 

Canada;  based  chiefly  upon  the  notes  of  Napoleon  A.  Comeau.  Bull.  N.  O. 
C.,  VII,  pp.  233-242,  and  Addenda;  VIII,  pp.  244,  245;  Auk,  I,  1884  p. 
295;  II,  1885,  pp.  113,  315;  180  species. — 1884.  BREWSTER,  W.  Notes  on 
the  Birds  Observed  During  a  Summer  Cruise  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XXII,  pp.  364-412;  92  species. — 1889.  BISHOP, 
L.  B.  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  the  Magdalen  Islands.  Auk,  VI,  pp.  144-150; 
66  species. — 1889.  DIONNE,  C.  E.  Catalogue  des  Oiseaux  de  la  Province  de 

Quebec  avec  des  Notes  sur  leur  Distribution  Geographique Quebec 

des  Presses  a  Vapeur  de  J.  Dussault,  Port  Dauphin,  8vo,  119  pp.;  273 
species. — 1891.  PALMER,  WILLIAM.  Notes  on  the  Birds  Observed  During  the 
Cruise  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  Schooner  Grampus  in  the 
Summer  of  1887.  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  XIII,  1890,  pp.  249-265;  78 
species. — 1893.  DWIGHT,  J.,  JR.  Summer  Birds  of  Prince  Edward  Island. 
Auk,  X,  1893,  pp.  1-15;  81  species.— 1896.  WINTLE,  E.  D.  The  Birds  of 
Montreal.  W.  Drysdale  &  Co.,  Montreal.  8yo,  xiv  +  181  pp.;  254  species. — 
1908.  MACSWAIN,  J.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Prince  Edward  Island. 
Proc.  and  Trans.  Nova  Scotia  Inst.  of  Science.  XI,  pp.  570-592;  220  species. 


UNITED    STATES 
MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 

1888.  COOKE,  W.  W.  Report  on  Bird  Migration  in  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley in  the  years  1884  and  1885.  Edited  and  revised  by  C.  Hart  Merriam. 
Bull.  No.  2,  Div.  Economic  Ornithology  [=  Biological  Survey].  313  pp., 
1  map. 

NEW  ENGLAND 

1877.  MINOT,  H.  D.  The  Land  and  Game  Birds  of  New  England. 
Second  Ed.,  edited  by  Wm.  Brewster,  1895,  492  pp.  (Houghton).— 1881-3. 
STEARNS,  W.  A.  and  COUES,  E.  New  England  Bird-Life.  2  vols.,  pp. 
324-409—1904.  HOFFMANN,  R.  A  Guide  to  the  Birds  of  New  England 
and  Eastern  New  York.  350  pp.  (Houghton). — 1909.  ALLEN,  G.  M. 
Birds  of  New  England.  Occ.  Papers  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  VII,  pp.  1-230, 
Annotated  list  of  402  species. 

ALABAMA 

1878-9.  BROWN,  N.  C.  A  List  of  Birds  Observed  at  Coosada,  Central 
Alabama.  Bull.  N.  O.  C.,  Ill,  pp.  168-174;  IV,  pp.  7-13;  119  species.— 
1890-1.  AVERT,  W.  C.  Birds  Observed  in  Alabama.  Am.  Field,  XXXIV, 
pp.  584,  607,  608;  XXXV,  1891,  pp.  8,  32,  55;  184  species.— 1908.  SAUNDERS, 
A.  A.  Some  Birds  of  Central  Alabama.  Auk,  XXV,  pp.  413-424;  129  species. 

CONNECTICUT  » 

1843.  LINSLEY,  J.  H.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Connecticut.  Am. 
Journ.  Sci.  and  Arts,  XLIV,  pp.  249-274,  302  species.  See  also  Ibid., 
XLVI,  1844,  pp.  50,  51.— 1877.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.  A  Review  of  the  Birds 
of  Connecticut,  with  Remarks  on  their  Habits.  Trans,  of  the  Conn. 
Acad.,  IV,  pp.  1-165;  292  species.— 1887.  PLATT,  F.  A  List  of  the 
Birds  of  Meriden,  Conn.  Trans.  Meriden  Scientific  Assoc.,  II,  1885-86, 
pp.  30-53;  III,  p.  41;  116  species.— 1892.  AVERILL,  C.  K.,  JR.  List 
of  Birds  Found  in  the  Vicinity  of  Bridgeport,  Connecticut.  Bridgeport 
Scientific  Society,  8vo,  pp.  1-19;  246  species. — 1906.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M. 
(see  New  York). — 1908.  COMMITTEE.  A  List  of  the  Birds  of  the  New 
Haven  Region.  -Bull.  No.  1,  New  Haven  Bird  Clubr  pp.  1-32;  217  species. 


506  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 

DELAWARE 

1905.  RHOADS,  S.  N.  and  PENNOCK,  C.  J.  Birds  of  Delaware:  A  Pre- 
liminary List.  Auk,  XXII,  1905,  pp.  194-205;  211  species.  (See  also  Auk, 
XXV,  1908,  pp.  282-288.) — 1897-1908.  STONE,  W.,  Editor.  Numerous 
Notes  on  Delaware  Birds.  Proc.  Del.  Valley  Orn.  Club,  Phila. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA 

1883.  COUES,  E.  and  PRENTISS,  D.  W.  Avifauna  Columbiana,  Second 
Edition.  Bull.  U.  S.  Natl.  Mus.  No.  26,  8vo,  pp.  1-133,  many  woodcuts, 
4  maps,  248  species. — 1888.  RICHMOND.  C.  W.  An  Annotated  List  of  Birds 
Breeding  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  Auk,  V,  pp.  18-25;  100  species. — • 
1888.  SMITH,  HUGH  M.,  and  PALMER,  WILLIAM.  Additions  to  the  Avifauna 
of  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  Vicinity.  Auk,  V,  pp.  147,  148.  Adds  12  species 
to  Coues'  and  Prentiss'  list  of  1883. 

FLORIDA 

1871.  ALLEN,  J.  A.  On  the  Mammals  and  Winter  Birds  of  East  Florida. 
Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  II,  pp.  161-450,  pll.  ix-xiii;  181  species. — 1888. 
CHAPMAN,  F.  M.  A  List  of  Birds  Observed  at  Gainesville,  Florida.  Auk,  V, 
pp.  267-277;  149  species. — 1888-90.  SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.  A  Summary  of  Observa- 
tions on  the  Birds  of  the  Gulf  Coast  of  Florida.  Auk,  V,  pp.  373-379;  VI,  pp. 
13-18,  152-160,  245-252,  318-326;  VII,  pp.  14-22,  114-120;  262  species.— 

1890.  SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.    On  Birds  Observed  at  the  Dry  Tortugas,  Florida, 
during  parts  of  March  and  April,  1890.   Auk,  VII,  pp.  301-314;  80  species.— 

1891.  BREWSTER,  W.  and  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.   Notes  on  the  Birds  of  the  Lower 
Suwanee  River.    Auk,  VIII,  pp.  125-138;  116  species.     (See  also  Brewster, 
Ibid.,  pp.  149-157.) — 1892.  SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  the  Calo- 
osahatchie  Region  of  Florida.   Auk,  IX,  pp.  209-218.  259  species. — 1895. 
WAYNE,  A.  T.    Notes  on  the  Birds  of  the  Wacissa  and  Aucilla  River  Regions 
of  Florida.    Auk,  XII,  1895,  pp.  362-367;  161  species.— 1896.    CORY,  C.  B. 
Hunting  and  Fishing  in  Florida  with  a  Key  to  the  Water  Birds  of  the  State. — 
1904.  WILLIAMS,  R.  W.,  JR.  A  Preliminary  List  of  the  Birds  of  Leon  County, 
Florida.    Auk,  XXI,  1904,  pp.  449-462;  156  species.    (See  also  Ibid.,  XXIII, 
pp.  153-161;  XXIV,  pp.  158,  159.)— 1906.  FOWLER,  H.  W.  Birds  Observed 
in  June  in  the  Florida  Keys.    Auk,  XXIII,  pp.  396-400;  33  species. 

GEORGIA 

1883.  BAILEY,  H.  B.  Memoranda  of  a  Collection  of  Eggs  from  Georgia. 
Bull.  N.  O.  C.,  VIII,  pp.  37-43;  104  species.— 1903.  SMITH,  R.  S.  Birds  of 
Kirkwood,  De  Kalb  Co.,  Ga.  Wilson  Bull.,  XV,  pp.  49-59;  125  species.— 
1909.  HOWELL,  A.  H.  Notes  on  the  Summer  Birds  of  Northern  Georgia. 
Auk,  XXVI,  pp.  129-137;  76  species. 

ILLINOIS 

1855.  KENNICOTT,  R.  Catalogue  of  Animals  Observed  in  Cook  County, 
Illinois.  Trans.  111.  State  Agric.  Soc.  for  1853-54,  I,  Birds,  pp.  580-589; 
187  species. — 1868.  ALLEN,  J.  A.  (See  Iowa.) — 1874.  RIDGWAY,  R.  Cata- 
logue of  the  Birds  Ascertained  to  Occur  in  Illinois.  Ann.  Lye.  Nat.  Hist. 
N.  Y.,  X,  pp.  364-394;  311  species. — 1876.  NELSON,  E.  W.  Birds  of  North- 
eastern Illinois.  Bull.  Essex  Inst.,  VIII,  pp.  90-155;  316  species. — 1877. 
NELSON,  E.  W.  Notes  upon  Birds  Observed  in  Southern  Illinois,  between 
July  17  and  September  4,  1875.  Bull.  Essex.  Inst.,  IX,  pp.  32-65;  133  species. 
1881.  RIDGWAY,  R.  A  Revised  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  Ascertained  to  Occur 
in  Illinois.  Ills.  State  Lab.  Nat.  Hist.,  Bull.  No.  4,  pp.  161-208;  352  species. 
— 1884.  COOKE,  W.  W.  Bird  Migration  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Southern 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX  507 

Illinois.  Forest  and  Stream,  XXIII,  pp.  444,  445,  463  464;  144  species  based 
on  Ridgway's  list  of  1881  and  observations  of  Cyrus  W.  Butler  in  the  vicinity 
of  Anna,  Ills.,  during  December  1882,  and  January  1883. — 1887.  RIDGWAY, 
R.  List  of  the  Birds  Found  Breeding  within  the  Corporate  Limits  of  Mt. 
Carmel,  Illinois.  Bull.  No.  2,  Ridgway  Orn.  Club,  pp.  26-35;  85  species. — 
1890-1895.  RIDGWAY,  R.  The  Ornithology  of  Illinois.  Roy.  8vo,  Vol.  I, 
1890,  520  pp.,  32  plls.  Land-birds  to  Gallinse;  Vol.  II,  1895,  282  pp.,  33  plls. 
Gallinae  and  Water-birds;  363  species. — 1891.  LOUCKS,  W.  E.  List  of  Birds 
Found  Breeding  in  the  Vicinity  of  Peoria,  Illinois.  The  Oologist,  VIII, 
pp.  224-226;  80  species.— 1904.  WALTER,  H.  E.  and  A.  W.  Wild  Birds  in 
City  Parks.  Rev.  Ed.,  Chicago,  16mo,  66  pp.;  145  species. — 1907.  WOOD- 
RUFF, F.  M.  The  Birds  of  the  Chicago  Area.  Chicago  Acad.  Sci.  Bull.  VI, 
Nat.  Hist.  Surv.,  221  pp.,  12  plls.;  318  species.— 1909.  CORY,  C.  B.  Birds  of 
Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  Field  Museum,  Zool.  Ser.  IX,  8vo,  764  pp.,  many 
ills.;  398  species. — 1910.  HESS,  I.  E.  One  Hundred  Breeding  Birds  of  an 
Illinois  Te^-Mile  Radius.  Auk,  XXVII,  pp.  19-32. 

INDIANA 

1869.  RAYMOND,  R.  Birds  of  Franklin  County,  Indiana.  Cox's  Geol. 
Surv.  Indiana,  Rep.  for  1869,  pp.  209-235;  163  species.— 1888-89.  EVER- 
MANN,  B.  W.  Birds  of  Carroll  County,  Indiana.  Auk,  V.  pp,  344-351;  VI, 
pp.  22-30;  203  species. — 1891.  BUTLER,  A.  W.  The  Birds  of  Indiana,  with 
Illustrations  of  Many  of  the  Species.  Prepared  for  the  Indiana  Horticul- 
tural Society,  and  Originally  Published  in  its  Transactions  for  1890.  8vo, 
135  pp. ;  305  species. — 1905.  McATEE,  W.  L.  Ecological  Notes  on  the  Birds 
Occurring  within  a  Radius  of  Five  Miles  of  the  Indiana  University  Cam- 
pus. Proc.  Ind.  Acad.  Sci.,  pp.  65-202,  32  ills.;  225  species. 

IOWA 

1868.  ALLEN,  J.  A.  Notes  on  Birds  Observed  in  Western  Iowa,  in  the 
Months  of  July,  August,  and  September;  also  on  Birds  Observed  in  Northern 
Illinois,  in  May  and  June,  and  at  Richmond,  Wayne  Co.,  Indiana,  between 
June  third  and  tenth.  Mem.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  I,  pt.  IV,  pp.  488-526. 
Ogle  County,  Ills.,  84  species;  Cook  County,  Ills.,  94  species;  Richmond, 
Ind.,  72  species;  Western  Iowa,  108  species. — 1873.  TRIPPE,  F.  M.  Notes 
on  the  Birds  of  Southern  Iowa.  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XV,  pp.  229-242; 
162  species. — 1888.  KEYES,  CHARLES  R.  amd  WILLIAMS,  H.  S.  A  Prelim- 
inary Annotated  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Iowa.  Proc.  Davenport  Acad. 
Nat.  Sci.,  V,  8vo,  49  pp.;  260  species. — 1890.  COONE,  JOHN  V.  Summer 
Residents  of  Buena  Vista  County,  Iowa.  The  Oologist,  VII,  pp.  45-47; 
52  species. — 1895.  JONES,  LYNDS.  Bird  Migration  at  Grinnell,  Iowa.  Auk, 
XII,  1895,  pp.  117-134,  231-237. — 1897.  ANDERSON,  R.  M.  An  Annotated 
List  of  the  Birds  of  Winnebago  and  Hancock  Counties,  Iowa.  Pub.  by 
Author,  Forest  City,  Iowa.  16mo,  19  pp.;  218  species. — 1906.  WILSON,  B. 
H.  Birds  of  Scott  Co.,  Iowa.  Wilson  Bull.,  XVIII,  pp.  1-11;  166  species. — 
1907.  ANDERSON,  R.  M.  The  Birds  of  Iowa.  Proc.  Davenport  Acad.  Sci., 
XI,  pp.  125-417;  355  species. 

KANSAS 

1875.  SNOW,  F.  H.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Kansas.  Contributed  to 
the  Kansas  Academy  of  Science.  8vo,  14  pp.  Third  Edition.  295  species. — 
1886.  Goss,  N.  S.  A  Revised  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Kansas,  with 
Descriptive  Notes  of  the  Nests  and  Eggs  of  the  Birds  Known  to  Breed  in 
the  State.  Topeka.  8vo,  vi+76pp. ;  335  species.  (See  also  review  in  Auk, 
III,  1886,  p.  399.)— 1891.  Goss,  N.  S.  History  of  the  Birds  of  Kansas.  Illus- 
trating 529  Birds.  Topeka,  Kansas.  Geo.  W.  Crane  &  Co.,  Royal  8vo,  692 
pp.,  35  photogravure  plates;  343  species. — 1899.  LANTZ,  D.  E.  A  Review 
of  Kansas  Ornithology,  Trans.  Kiuis.  Acad.  Sci.,  1896-7,  pp.  224-276; 


508  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   APPENDIX 

351  species. — 1903.   SNOW,  F.  H.   A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Kansas.  Fifth 
Edition.   Trans.  Kans.  Acad.  Sciences,  XVIII,  23  pp. ;  342  species. 

KENTUCKY 

1883.  BECKHAM,  C.  W.  A  List  of  the  Birds  of  Bardstown,  Nelson 
County,  Kentucky.  Journ.  Cine.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  VI,  pp.  136-147;  167 
species. — 1885.  BECKHAM,  C.  W.  List  of  the  Birds  of  Nelson  County. 
Kentucky.  Geol.  Surv.,  John  R.  Proctor,  Director.  Author's  Edition,  4to, 
pp.  1-58;  171  species. — 1887.  PINDAR,  L.  O.  List  of  the  Birds  of  Fulton 
County,  Kentucky.  Orn.  and  O61.,  XII,  pp.  54,  55,  84,  85;  122  species. — 
1889.  PINDAR,  L.  O.  List  of  the  Birds  of  Fulton  County,  Kentucky.  Auk, 
VI,  pp.  310-316;  183  species. — 1910.  HOWELL,  A.  H.,  Notes  on  the  Summer 
Birds  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Auk,  XXVII  pp.  295-304.  Kentucky, 
80  species. 

LOUISIANA 

1900.  BEYER,  G.  E.  The  Avifauna  of  Louisiana.  Proc.  La.  Soc.  Nat., 
45  pp.;  323  species. — 1904.  ALLISON,  A.  The  Birds  of  West  Baton  Rouge 
Parish,  Louisiana.  Auk,  XXI,  1904,  pp.  472-484;  130  species. — 1906. 
BEYER,  G.  E.,  ALLISON,  A.,  KOPMAN,  H.  H.  List  of  the  Birds  of  Louisiana. 
Auk,  XXIII,  1906,  pp.  1-15,  275-282,  XXIV,  314-321;  XXV,  173-180; 
339-448.  128  species  to  Pici.  1908.  HOWELL,  A.  H.  Notes  on  the  Winter  Birds 
of  Northern  Louisiana.  Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Washington,  XXI,  119-124  pp.;  70 
species. 

MAINE 

1862.  BOARDMAN,  G.  A.  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  Found  in  the  Vicinity 
of  Calais,  Maine,  and  about  the  Islands  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 
Edited  by  A.  E.  Verrill.  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  IX,  pp.  122-132; 
236+4  species.  (For  12  additions  see  Verrill,  Ibid.,  pp.  233,  234.) — 1862. 
VERRILL,  A.  E.  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  Found  at  Norway,  Oxford  Co., 
Maine.  Proc.  Essex.  Inst.,  Ill,  pp.  136-160;  159  species.— 1872.  MAY- 
NARD,  C.  J.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Coos  Co.,  N.  H.,  and  Oxford  Co., 
Maine.  With  notes  by  Wm.  Brewster,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XIV, 
1871,  pp.  356-385;  164  species. — 1882.  BROWN,  N.  C.  A  Catalogue  of  the 
Birds  Known  to  Occur  in  Portland,  Maine.  Proc.  Portl.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 
Dec.  14,  1882,  pp.  1-37;  250  species.  (See  also  Proc.  Portl.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 
1889,  pp.  37-40.)— 1900.  HOWE,  R.  H.,  JR.  Summer  Birds  near  Isleboro  and 
the  Fox  Islands.  Journ.  Maine  Orn.  Soc.  II,  pp.  28-32;  III,  pp.  14,  15;  IV, 
p.  18;  100  species.— 1908.  KNIGHT,  O.  W.  <The  Birds  of  Maine.  Pub. 
by  Author,  Bangor.  8vo,  693  pp.,  30  ills.;  327  species. 

MARYLAND 

1895.  KIRKWOOD,  F.  C.  A  List  of  the  Birds  of  Maryland.  Trans.  Md. 
Acad.  Sci.,  1895,  pp.  241-382;  290  species. — 1900.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.,  and 
PREBLE,  E.  A.  The  Summer  Birds  of  Western  Maryland.  Maryland  Geol. 
Surv.,  pp.  291-307;  100  species. — 1904.  EIFRIG,  G.  Birds  of  Allegany  and 
Garrett  Counties,  Western  Maryland.  Auk,  XXI,  1904,  pp.  234-250;  180 
species. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

1870.  MAYNARD,  C.  J.  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Eastern  Massachusetts. 
The  Naturalist's  Guide,  Part  II,  pp.  81-170;  299  species. — 1886.  ALLEN, 
J.  A.  A  Revised  List  of  the  Birds  of  Massachusetts.  Bull.  Am.  Mus.  Nat. 
Hist.,  I,  pp.  221-271;  349  species.— 1887.  CLARK,  H.  L.  The  Birds  of 
Amherst  and  Vicinity,  Including  Nearly  the  Whole  of  Hampshire  County, 
Mass.  8vo,  55  pp.;  177  species. — 1888.  BREWSTER,  W.  Notes  on  the  Birds 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX  509 

of  Winchendon,  Worcester  Co.  Auk,  V,  pp.  386-393;  82  species. — 1889. 
FAXON,  W.  On  the  Summer  Birds  of  Berkshire  County,  Mass.  Auk,  VI, 
pp.  39-46,  99-107.  Southern  Berkshire,  76  species;  Graylock  Mountain, 
80  species. — 1889.  INGALLS,  C.  E.  Birds  of  Templeton  and  the  Adjoining 
Towns.  Gardner  News,  XX,  June;  155  species.  Not  seen;  title  from  Howe 
and  Allen. — 1891.  COLBURN,  W.  W.,  and  MORRIS,  R.  O.  The  Birds  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley  in  Massachusetts.  16mo,  24  pp.  Springfield.  Published 
by  the  Authors.  212  species. — 1891.  WAKEFIELD,  J.  R.  A  List  of  the  Birds 
of  Dedham.  Dedham  Hist.  Reg.,  II,  pp.  70-74;  181  species.  Not  seen;  title 
from  Howe  and  Allen. — 1897.  MORSE,  A.  P.  Birds  of  Wellesley.  Published 
by  Author.  Wellesley.  16mo,  56  pp.;  224  species. — 1900.  FAXON,  W.,  and 
HOFFMANN,  R.  The  Birds  of  Berkshire  Co.  Coll.  Berkshire  Hist,  and  Sci. 
Soc.,  Ill,  pp.  109-166;  200  species. — 1901.  HOWE,  R.  H.  JR.,  and  ALLEN,  G. 
M.  The  Birds  of  Massachusetts.  Published  by  the  Authors.  8vo,  154  pp. ;  362 
species. — 1901.  MORRIS,  R.  O.  The  Birds  of  Springfield,  Mass,  and  Vicinity. 
H.  R.  Johnson,  Springfield.  8vo,  54  pp.;  255  species. — 1905.  TOWNSEND, 
C.  W.  The  Birds  of  Essex  County,  Massachusetts.  Memoirs  Nutt.  Orn. 
Club.  4to,  352  pp.  Frontispiece  and  Map;  319  species. — 1906.  BREWSTER, 
W.  The  Birds  of  the  Cambridge  Region  of  Massachusetts.  Memoirs  Nutt. 
Orn.  Club,  IV,  426  pp.,  plls.  7;  249  species. — 1909.  WRIGHT,  H.  W.  Birds 
of  the  Boston  Public  Garden.  (Houghton,  Mifflin),  16mo,  238  pp.;  116 
species. 

MICHIGAN 

1857.  KNEELAND,  S.  On  the  Birds  of  Keeweenan  Point,  Lake  Superior. 
Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  *VI,  231-241  pp.;  147  species. — 1875.  BOIES, 
A.  H.  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  Ascertained  to  Occur  in  Southern  Michigan. 
8vo,  12  pp.;  211  species. — 1876.  COVERT,  A.  B.  Birds  of  Lower  Michigan. 
Forest  and  Stream,  VI,  pp.  99,  132,  163,  214,  266,  318,  354,  402;  VII,  pp. 
147,  164,  276.  (See  also  VI,  p.  197.)  213  species. — 1879.  GIBBS,  M.  Anno- 
tated List  of  the  Birds  of  Michigan.  Bull.  U.  S.  Geol.  and  Geograph.  Survey 
of  the  Territories,  V,  3,  pp.  481-497;  310  species. — 1880.  STEERE,  J.  B.  A 
List  of  the  Mammals  and  Birds  of  Ann  Arbor  and  Vicinity.  8vo,  8  pp.;  Ill 
species  of  birds. — 1884.  ATKINS,  H.  A.  Summer  Birds  of  Locke,  Michigan. 
Orn.  and  O6L,  IX,  pp.  43-45;  80  species. — 1884.  ATKINS,  H.  A.  Winter 
Birds  of  Locke,  Michigan.  Orn.  and  O61.,  IX,  pp.  31,  32;  31  species. — 1885. 
ATKINS,  H.  A.  Summer  Birds  of  Locke,  Michigan.  Orn.  and  O6L,  X,  p.  3; 
82  species. — 1885.  GIBBS,  M.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Kalamazoo 
County,  Michigan.  Orn.  and  O6L,  X,  pp.  6,  7,  38,  39,  54,  55,  68-70,  86,  87, 
118,  119,  133-135,  149-151,  166,  167,  189,  190;  230  species.— 1885-7.  GIBBS, 
M.  The  Birds  of  Michigan.  Forest  and  Stream,  XXIII,  pp.  483,  484;  XXIV, 
pp.  5,  6,  26,  27,  44,  45,  65,  84,  104,  105,  124,  125,  144,  145,  184,  224, 
267,  268,  288,  289,  307,  347,  387,  388,  427;  XXV,  pp.  4,  5,  304,  305, 
365,  366;  XXVI,  pp.  305,  306;  XXVII,  pp.  123,  124,  223,  224;  68  spe- 
cies.— 1890.  WHITE,  T.  G.  Birds  of  Mackinac  Island,  Michigan.  The 
Oologist,  VII,  pp.  48,  49;  101  species. — 1893.  COOK,  A.  J.  Birds  of  Mich- 
igan. Bull.  94,  State  Agricultural  College.  8vo,  148  pp. ;  332  species. — 
1893.  WHITE,  S.  E.  Birds  Observed  on  Mackinac  Island,  Michigan, 
During  the  Summers  of  1889,  1890,  and  1891.  The  Auk,  X,  pp.  221-230;  143 
species. — 1897.  BOIES,  A.  H.  Birds  of  Neebish  Island,  St.  Mary's  River, 
Michigan.  Bull.  Mich.  Orn.  Club,  I,  pp.  17-20,  27-29;  149  species. — 1903. 
SWALES,  B.  H.  Notes  on  the  Winter  Birds  of  Wayne  Co.,  Michigan.  Wilson 
Bull.,  XIV,  pp.  20-24;  XV,  1904,  p.  82;  71  species.— 1903.  SWALES,  B.  H. 
A  List  of  the  Land  Birds  of  Southeastern  Michigan.  Bull.  Mich.  Orn.  Club, 
IV,  pp.  14-17,  35-40;  V,  pp.  37-43;  165  species.  (See  also  Wilson  Bull.  XVII, 
1905,  pp.  108-114);  Auk,  XXV,  pp.  230-232).— 1905  WTOOD,  N.  A.,  and 
FROTHINGHAM,  E.  H.  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  the  Au  Sable  Valley,  Michigan. 
Auk,  XXII,  1905,  pp.  39-54;  103  species. — 1906.  WOOD,  N.  A.,  PEET,  M. 
M.,  and  McCREARY,  O.  Annotated  List  of  the  Birds  of  Porcupine  Moun- 
tains [89  specie?]  and  Isle  Royale  [81  species],  Mich.  Rep.  Geol.  Surv. 


510  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 

Mich.,  1905,  pp.  113-127.  See  also  McCreary,  Ibid.,  pp.  56-67. — 1909. 
BLACKWELDER,  E.  Summer  Birds  of  Iron  County.  Auk,  XXVI,  pp.  363- 
370;  80  species. — 1910.  WOOD,  J.  CLAIRE.  Some  Winter  Birds  of  the 
Season  1908-9  in  Wayne  County.  Auk.  XXVII,  pp.  36-41. — 1910.  WOOD, 
N.  A.,  and  TINKER,  A.  D.  Notes  on  Some  of  the  Rarer  Birds  of  Washtenaw 
County.  Auk,  XXVII,  pp.  129-141;  34  species. — 1910.  CHANEY,  R.  W. 
Summer  and  Fall  Birds  of  the  Hamlin  Lake  Region,  Mason  County.  Auk, 
XXVII,  pp.  271-279;  119  species. — 1911.  WOOD,  N.  A.  Expedition  to 
Charity  Islands,  Lake  Huron.  Wilson  Bull.,  XXIII,  pp.  78-112;  162  species. 

MINNESOTA 

1871.  TRIPPE,  T.  M.  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  Minnesota.  Proc.  Essex 
Inst.,  VI,  pp.  113-119;  138  species. — 1874.  HATCH,  P.  L.  Report  on  the 
Birds  of  Minnesota.  Bull.  Minn.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  pp.  43-68;  230  species. — 
1876.  ROBERTS,  T.  S.  A  List  of  Some  Birds  Observed  in  the  Vicinity  of 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  not  Enumerated  in  Dr.  Hatch's  List.  The  Scientific 
Monthly  (Toledo,  Ohio),  I,  5,  p.  231.— 1880.  ROBERTS,  T.  S.,  and  BENNER, 
F.  A  Contribution  to  the  Ornithology  of  Minnesota.  Bull.  N.  O.  C.,  V, 
pp.  11-20;  86  species. — 1881.  HATCH,  P.  L.  A  List  of  the  Birds  of  Minne- 
sota. Ninth  Ann.  Rep.  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Surv.  Minn.,  for  1880,  1881,  pp. 
361-372;  281  species. — 1881.  ROBERTS,  T.  S.  The  Winter  Birds  of  Minnesota. 
9th  Ann.  Rep.  Geol.  and  N.  H.  Surv.  Minn.,  for  1880-1881,  pp.  373-383; 
52  species. — 1883.  BRACKETT,  F.  H.,  Ornithological  Notes  from  Minnesota. 
Quart.  Journ.  Bost.  Zool.  Soc.,  II,  pp.  47-49;  III,  pp.  7-16;  134  species. — 
1890.  CANTWELL,  G.  C.  A  List  of  the  Birds* of  Minnesota.  Orn.  and  O6L, 
XV,  p.  129-139.  (See  also  p.  156  and  XVI,  p.  157);  295  species.— 1892. 
HATCH,  P.  L.  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  Minnesota.  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist. 
Survey  of  Minn.  8vo,  487  pp.;  302  species. — 1904.  CURRIER,  E.  S.  Summer 
Birds  of  the  Leech  Lake  Region,  Minn.  Auk,  XXI,  pp.  29^44;  117  species. — • 
1907.  ROBERTS,  T.  S.  List  of  Birds  of  Becker  Co.,  Minn.,  Pioneer  Hist,  of 
Becker  Co.  (Pioneer  Press,  St.  Paul),  pp.  159-190;  262  species. 

MISSISSIPPI 

1905.  STOCKARD,  C.  R.  Nesting  Habits  of  Birds  in  Mississippi.  Auk, 
XXII,  1905,  pp.  146-158,  273-285;  83  species.— 1906.  ALLISON,  A.  Notes 
on  the  Winter  Birds  of  Hancock  Co.,  Miss.,  Auk,  XXIII,  1906,  pp.  44-47; 
61  species.  Also,  Ibid.,  p.  232. — 1907.  ALLISON,  A.  Notes  on  the  Spring 
Birds  of  Tishomingo  County,  Miss.  Auk,  XXIV,  pp.  12-25. 

MISSOURI 

1879.  SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.  Notes  on  Birds  Observed  During  the  Spring 
Migration  in  Western  Missouri.  Bull.  N.  O.  C.,  IV,  pp.  139-147;  148  species. 
• — 1884.  HURTER,  J.  List  of  Birds  Collected  in  the  Neighborhood  of  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  Orn.  and  O6L,  IX,  pp.  85-87,  95-97  (see  also  p.  128);  265 
species. — 1896.  WIDMANN,  O.  The  Peninsula  of  Missouri  as  a  Winter 
Home  for  Birds.  Auk,  XIII,  1896,  pp.  216-222.— 1907.  WIDMANN,  O.  A 
Preliminary  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Missouri.  Trans.  Acad.  Sci.,  St.  Louis, 
XVIII,  pp.  1-288;  383  species. — 1908.  WOODRUFF,  E.  S.  Birds  of  Shannon 
and  Carter  Counties,  Missouri.  Auk,  XXV,  pp.  191-213;  172  species. 

NEBRASKA 

1878.  AUGHEY,  S.  Notes  on  the  Nature  of  the  Food  of  the  Birds  of 
Nebraska.  First  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Ent.  Com.  for  the  year  1877.  Appendix 
II,  pp.  13-62;  252  species. — 1883.  HALL,  A.  Spring  Birds  of  Nebraska. 
Forest  and  Stream,  XX,  pp.  265,  266,  284;  114  species. — 1888.  TAYLOR,  W. 
EDGAR.  A  Catalogue  of  Nebraska  Birds  .  .  .  Ann.  Rep.  Nebr.  State  Board 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX  511 

of  Agric.  for  the  year  1887,  pp.  111-118;  314  species. — 1888-89.    TAYLOR, 

E.  W.,  and  VAN  VLEET,  A.  H.    Notes  on  Nebraska  Birds.    Orn.  and  O6L, 
XIII,  pp.  49-51,  169-172;  XIV,  pp.  163-165;  137  species. — 1896.    BRUNER, 
L.    Notes  on  Nebraska  Birds.    Rep.  Neb.  State  Hort.  Soc.,  1896,  pp.  48-178; 
415  species. — 1901.    BRUNER,  L.  Birds  that  Nest  in  Nebraska.   Proc.  Nebr. 
Orn.  Union,  1901,  pp.  48-61;  212  species. — 1904.    BRUNER,  L.,  WALCOTT, 
R.  H.,  and  SWENK,  M.  H.    A  Preliminary  Review  of  the  Birds  of  Nebraska, 
1-116+5  p.;  406  species.  Klopp  and  Bartlett,  Omaha,  Nebr. — 1909.  WAL- 
COTT,  R.    H.    An  Analysis  of  Nebraska's  Bird  Fauna.    Proc.   Neb.   Orn. 
Union,  IV,  pp.  25-55. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

1877.  GOODHUE,  C.  F.  The  Birds  of  Webster  and  Adjoining  Towns. 
Forest  and  Stream,  VIII,  pp.  33,  49,  96,  113,  146;  151  species.— 1872.  MAY- 
NARD,  C.  J.  See  Maine. — 1887.  CHADBOURNE,  A.  P.  A  List  of  the  Summer 
Birds  of  the  Presidential  Range  of  the  White  Mountains,  N.  H.  Auk,  IV, 
pp.  100-108;  47  species. — 1888.  FAXON,  W.,  and  ALLEN,  J.  A.  Notes  on  the 
Summer  Birds  of  Holderness  [65  species],  Bethlehem  [50  species],  and  Fran- 
conia,  N.  H.  [87  species].  Auk,  V,  pp.  149-155.— 1889.  ALLEN,  F.  H.  Sum- 
mer Birds  at  Bridgewater,  N.  H.  Auk,  VI,  pp.  76-79. — 1882.  KNOWLTON, 

F.  H.    A  Revised  List  of  the  Birds  of  Brandon,  Vt.    The  Brandon  Union, 
February  10,  1882;  149  species. — 1898.    DEARBORN,  N.    Preliminary  List 
of  the  Birds  of  Belknap  and  Merrimack  Counties,  N.  H.    New  Hampshire 
College,  Durham,  8vo,  34  pp. ;  175  species. — 1900.    BATCHELDER,  F.  W.  and 
FOGG,   E.   H.     Preliminary  List  of  Birds    ....    of   Manchester,   N.   H. 
Proc.  Manchester  Inst.  Arts  and   Sci.,    I,  pp.   123-138;    132  species.    (See 
also  Proc.  for  1901,  1902.) — 1900.  DEARBORN,  N.  The  Birds  of  Durham  and 
Vicinity.    Cont.  Zool.  Lab.  N.  H.  College  Agric.  and   Mech.  Arts,  VI,  121 
pp.,  map. — 1904.    ALLEN,   G.   M.     The  Birds  of  New  Hampshire.     Proc. 
Manchester  Inst.  Arts  and  Sciences,  IV,  pp.  23-222;  283  species. — 1904. 
COMEY,  A.  C.    A  Partial  List  of  the  Summer  Birds  of  Holderness,  N.  H. 
Wilson  Bull.,  XVI,  5-9  pp.;  94  species. 

NEW  JERSEY 

1885.  BARRELL,  H.  F.  Birds  of  the  Upper  Passaic  Valley,  New  Jersey. 
Orn.  and  O61.,  X,  pp.  21-23,  42,  43;  149  species. — 1887.  THURBER,  E.  A  List 
of  Birds  of  Morris  County,  New  Jersey.  True  Democratic  Banner  (news- 
paper), Morristown,  N.  J.,  Nov.  10,  17,  24;  205  species. — 1894.  STONE,  W. 
The  Birds  of  Eastern  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey.  8vo,  185  pp.  Del. 
Valley  Orn.  Club,  Phila. ;  346  species. — 1894.  STONE,  W.  Summer  Birds  of 
the  Ph  e  Barrens  of  New  Jersey.  Auk,  XI,  1894,  pp.  133-140;  90  species.— 
— 1897'1910.  STONE,  W.,  Editor.  Numerous  Notes  on  Birds  of  Chiefly 
Southern  New  Jersey.  Proc.  Del.  Valley  Orn.  Club,  Phila. — 1901.  BABSON, 
W.  A.  Ih?  Birds  of  Princeton,  N.  J.  Bull.  Bird  Club,  Princeton  Univ. 
I,  pp.  7-82;  230  species. — 1906.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.  (See  New  York.)— 1907. 
HOLMES,  L.  K.  Birds  Found  within  a  Radius  of  12  Miles  of  Summit,  N.  J. 
Wilson  Bull.  XIX,  pp.  21-27;  201  species.  See  also  list  of  Summer  Birds, 
Ibid.  XVII,  pp.  8-12;  and  Hann,  List  of  Summit  Birds,  Ibid.,  pp.  117-122. 
—1909.  STONE,  W.  The  Birds  of  New  Jersey.  Ann.  Rep.  N.  J.  State 
Museum  for  1908,  pp.  11-347,  409-419;  plls.  1-84. — 1909.  BAILY,  W.  L. 
Breeding  Birds  of  Passaic  and  Sussex  Counties.  Cassinia,  pp.  29-36;  94 
species. 

NEW  YORK 

1844.  GIRAUD,  J.  P.,  JR.  The  Birds  of  Long  Island  .  .  .  New  York. 
1  vol.,  8vo,  397  pp.:  286  species. — 1844.  DEKAY,  JAMES  E.  Zoology 
of  New  York.  Part  II,  Birds.  Albany.  1  vol.,  4to,  xii+380  pp.,  141  col.  plls. 
— 1876.  FOWLER,  H.  G.  Birds  of  Central  New  York.  Forest  and  Stream,  VI, 


512  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 

pp.  180,  233,  284,  337,  402;  VII,  pp.  36,  52,  84,  230.  Also  Additions  Ibid., 
p.  180;  170  species. — 1877.  ROOSEVELT,  T.,  JR.,  and  MINOT,  H.  D.  The 
Summer  Birds  of  the  Adiroiidacks  in  Franklin  County,  N.  Y.  8vo,  4  pp.;  97 
species. — 1879.  RATHBUN,  FRANK  R.  A  Revised  List  of  Birds  of  Central 
New  York.  (Cayuga,  Onondaga,  Seneca,  Wayne,  and  Yates  Counties, 
Auburn,  N.  Y.)  47  pp.  See  also  Orn.  and  O6L,  VII,  1882,  pp.  132,  133.  14 
additions. — 1879-80.  MEARNS,  E.  A.  A  List  of  the  Birds  of  the  Hudson 
Highlands.  Bull.  Essex.  Inst.,  X,  pp.  166-179;  XI,  pp.  43-52,  154-168,  189- 
204;  XII,  pp.  11-25,  109-128;  XIII,  pp.  75-93.  (See  also  Auk,  VII,  1890,  pp. 
55,  56) ;  214  species. — 1880.  GREGG,  W.  H.  Revised  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of 
Chemimg  County,  New  York.  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  O.  H.  Wheeler;  217  species. — 
1881-84.  MERRIAM,  C.  H.  Preliminary  List  of  Birds  Ascertained  to  Occur 
in  the  Adirondack  Region,  Northeastern  New  York.  Bull.  N.  O.  C.,  VI, 
pp.  225-235;  and  Addenda  VII,  1882,  pp.  128,  256,  257.  Auk,  I,  1884,  pp. 
58,  59;  211  species. — 1882.  BICKNELL,  E.  P.  A  Review  of  the  Summer 
Birds  of  a  part  of  the  Catskill  Mountains,  with  prefatory  remarks  on  the 
faunal  and  floral  features  of  the  region.  Trans,  of  the  Linn.  Soc.  of  New  York, 

1,  pp.  115-168;  90  species. — 1885.    HOLLICK,  A.    Preliminary  List  of  the 
Birds  Known  to  Breed  on   Staten  Island.     Proc.    Nat.   Sci.   Assc.   Staten 
Island.     Extra   No.    4,    December.    67    species. — 1886.     BARNUM,    M.    K. 
A    Preliminary    List    of    the    Birds    of    Onondaga    County,   N.  Y.     Bull, 
of  the   Biol.    Lab.   of   Syracuse  University.  8vo,  pp.    1-34;   204  species. — 
1886.     RALPH,    W.    L.,    and   BAGG,    E.    An  Annotated  List  of  the  Birds 
of   Oneida   County,   N.   Y.,  and    Its    Immediate  Vicinity.    Trans.   Oneida 
Hist.  Soc.,  Ill,  pp.   101-147;  224  species.    (See  also  Ibid.,  VII,   1890,  pp. 

2,  29-232.)    Orn.  and  Col.  XIII,  1888,  pp.  58,  59.  Auk,  XI,  1894,  pp.  162-164. 
— 1886.  WOODRUFF,  L.  B.,  and  PAINE,  A.  G.,  Jr.  Birds  of  Central  Park,  New 
York  City.    A  Preliminary  List.    Forest  and  Stream,  XXVI,  pp.  386,  387, 
487;  121  species. — 1889.   BERGTOLD,  W.  H.  A  List  of  the  Birds  of  Buffalo  and 
Vicinity.    Bull.  Buffalo  Nat.  Field  Club,  I,  7,  pp.  1-21;  237  species. — 1889. 
DAVISON,  J.  L.    Birds  of  Niagara  County,  New  York,  Forest  and  Stream, 
XXXIII,  pp.  164,  183,  303;  190  species.— 1892.    CLUTE,  W.  N.    The  Avi- 
fauna of  Broome  Co.,  N.  Y.    Wilson  Quart.,  pp.  59-64;  106  species. — 1896. 
SHORT,  E.  H.    Birds  of  Western  New  York.    F.  H.  Lattin,  Albion,  N,  Y. 
20  pp.;  229  species. — 1901.    EATON,  E.  H.    Birds  of  Western  New  York. 
Proc.  Roch.  Acad.  IV,  64  pp. ;  299  species. — 1901.    EMBODY,  G.  C.    Birds  of 
Madison  County,  N.  Y.    Bull.  Dep't.  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.,  Colgate  Uni- 
versity, Hamilton,  N.  Y.  8vo,  36  pp.;  191  species.   (See  also  Maxon,  Auk, 
XX,  p  .263.) — 1904.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.  An  Annotated  List  of  the  Birds  Known 
to  Breed  within  50  Miles  of  New  York  City.    Guide  Leaflet,  No.  14,  Am. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  31  pp.,  13  ills. — 1906.  CHAPMAN,  F.  M.  The  Birds  of  the 
Vicinity  of  New  York  City.    Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  Guide  Leaflet,  No.  22, 
Rev.    Ed.,  96  pp.    Numerous   ills.;   353   species. — 1907.   BRAISLIN,  W.  C., 
A  List  of  the  Birds  of  Long  Island,  N.  Y.  Abst.  Proc.  Linnsean  Society,  N.  Y., 
1907,  pp.  31-123;  364  species.     (See  also  Auk,  1909,  pp.  314-316.)— 1910. 
REED,  H.  D.,  and  WRIGHT,  A.  H.    Vertebrates  of  the  Cayuga  Lake  Basin. 
Proc.  Am.  Philos.  Soc.,  XLVIII,  pp.  370-459;  257  species.— 1910.   WRIGHT, 
A.  H.  and  ALLEN,  A.  A.    The  Increase  of  Austral  Birds  at  Ithaca.    Auk, 
XXVII,  pp.  63-66.— 1910.  EATON,  E.  H.  Birds  of  New  York.  I,  Water  and 
Game  Birds.   4to,  pp.  1-501,  col.  plls.  [by  Fuertes]  42. 

NORTH  CAROLINA 

1871.  COUES,  E.  Notes  on  the  Natural  History  of  Fort  Macon,  N.  C. 
and  Vicinity.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  XXIII,  Birds,  pp.  18-47.  Also 
Ibid.,  1878,  pp.  22-24;  133  species. — 1885.  BRIMLEY,  H.  H.  and  C.  S.  Sum- 
mer Birds  of  Raleigh,  N.  C.  Orn.  and  O61.,  X,  pp.  143,  144;  82  species. — 
1885.  BRIMLEY,  H.  H.  and  C.  S.  Winter  Birds  of  Raleigh,  N.  C.  Orn. 
and  O61.,  X,  p.  128;  72  species. — 1886.  BREWSTER,  W.  An  Ornitholog- 
ical Reconnaissance  in  Western  North  Carolina.  Auk,  III,  pp.  94-112,  173- 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX  513 

179;  102  species. — 1886.  BATCHELDER,  C.  F.  The  North  Carolina  Moun- 
tains in  Winter.  Auk,  III,  pp.  307-314;  40  species. — 1887.  ATKINSON,  G.  F. 
Preliminary  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  North  Carolina.  Journ.  Elisha  Mitchell 
Society,  1887,  Part  2,  pp.  44-87;  255  species.  A  compilation  with  some 
errors. — 1887.  CAIRNS,  J.  S.  A  List  of  Birds  of  Buncombe  Co.,  North  Caro- 
lina. Orn.  andOol.,  XII,  pp.  3-6;  169  species.— 1887.  BENNETT,  G.  B.  Ob- 
servations in  Western  North  Carolina  Mountains  in  1886.  Auk,  IV,  pp. 
240-245;  29  species. — 1888.  BRIMLEY,  C.  S.  A  List  of  Birds  Known  to 
Breed  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.  Orn.  and  O6L,  XIII,  pp.  42,  43;  54  species.  (See 
also  Ibid.,  p.  187.  Auk,  XIV,  p.  165.)— 1889.  CAIRNS,  J.  S.  The  Summer 
Birds  of  Buncombe  County,  North  Carolina.  Orn.  and  O61.,  XIV,  pp.  17-22; 
123  species. — 1893.  BRIMLEY,  C.  S.  Some  Additions  to  the  Avifauna  of 
North  Carolina,  with  Notes  on  Some  Other  Species.  Auk,  X,  1893,  pp. 
241-244;  48  species. — 1897.  SMITHWICK,  J.  W.  P.  Ornithology  of  North 
Carolina.  Bull.  144,  N.  C.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.,  pp.  193-228;  303  species. — 
1899.  PEARSON,  T.  G.  Preliminary  List  of  Birds  of  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. 
Journ.  Elisha  Mitchell  Sci.  Soc.,' XVI,  pp.  33-51;  132  species.  1901. 
BISHOP,  L.  B.  The  Winter  Birds  of  Pea  Island,  N.  C.  Auk,  XVIII,  pp. 
260-268;  42  species. — 1905.  OBERHOLSER,  H.  C.  Notes  on  the  Mammals 
and  Summer  Birds  of  Western  North  Carolina.  Published  by  Biltmore 
Forest  School.  Birds  pp.  11-24;  136  species. — 1910.  PHILIPP,  P.  B. 
(see  S.  C.). 

OHIO 

1877.  LANGDON,  F.  W.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  the  Vicinity  of 
Cincinnati.  8vo,  18  pp.  Salem,  Mass. ;  279  species. — 1879.  LANGDON,  F.  W. 
A  Revised  List  of  Cincinnati  Birds.  Journ.  Cm.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  I,  4,  pp. 
167-193.  (See  also  Ibid.,  Ill,  pp  121-127;  V,  1882,  p.  186;  VI,  1883,  pp.  12- 
31;  256  species.) — 1882.  WHEATON,  J.  M.  Report  on  the  Birds  of  Ohio.  Report 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  IV,  I,  pp.  188-628;  298  species.— 1891. 
SMITH,  R.  W.  A  List  of  the  Birds  of  Warren  County,  Ohio.  Journ.  Cin. 
Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XIV,  pp.  105-133;  189  species. — 1896.  OBERHOLSER,  H.  C. 
A  Preliminary  List  of  the  Birds  of  Wayne  Co.  Bull.  Ohio  Agric.  Exp. 
Sta.  I,  4,  pp.  243-354;  183  species. — 1902.  HENINGER,  W.  F.  A  Pre- 
liminary List  of  the  Birds  of  Middle  Southern  Ohio.  Wilson  Bulletin, 
IX,  pp.  77-93;  209  species.  (See  also  Ibid.,  pp.  130-132;  XII,  1905,  pp.  89- 
93). — 1902.  JONES,  L.  Bird  Studies  in  Lorain  Co.,  Ohio.  Wilson  Bull.,  IX, 
pp.  37-58;  also  pp.  94-100. — 1903.  DAWSON,  W.  L.  The  Birds  of  Ohio, 
4  to  xlv+671pp.  Manyillus.  Columbus,  Wheaton  Pub.  Co.— 1903.  FIELD, 
A.  I.  Birds  of  Lecking  Co.,  Ohio.  Bull.  Sci.  Lab.  Denison  Univ.,  XV; 
203  species. — 1903.  JONES,  L.  The  Birds  of  Ohio.  A  Revised  Catalogue. 
Ohio  State  Acad.  of  Sci.,  Special  Papers  No.  6,  141  pp.  1  map;  318  species. 
— 1906.  HENINGER,  W.  F.  A  Preliminary  List  of  Birds  of  Seneca  Co., 
Ohio.  Wilson  Bull.,  XVIII,  pp.  47-60;  205  species.— 1909-10.  JONES,  L. 
The  Birds  of  Cedar  Point  and  Vicinity.  Wilson  Bull.,  XXI,  pp.  55-76, 
115-131,  187-202;  XXII,  pp.  25-41.  97-115,  172-182.  Note.— Every  issue 
of  the  Wilson  Bulletin  (Oberlin,  Ohio)  contains  matter  of  special  inter- 
est to  bird  students  in  Ohio  and  the  adjoining  states. 

PENNSYLVANIA 

1844.  BAIRD,  W.  M.  and  S.  F.  List  of  Birds  Found  in  the  Vicinity  of 
Carlisle,  Cumberland  County,  Pa.  Am.  Journ.  Sci.  and  Arts,  XL VI,  pp. 
261-273.;  201  species. — 1845.  BAIRD,  S.  F.  Catalogue  of  Birds  Found  in  the 
Neighborhood  of  Carlisle,  Cumberland  County,  Pa.  Lit.  Rec.  and  Journ. 
Linn.  Assoc.  of  Penna.  College,  I,  pp.  249-257;  203  species. — 1861.  BARN- 
ARD, V.  A.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  Chester  County,  Pa.  Times  of 
Arrival  in  Spring.  Ann.  Rep.  Smiths.  Inst.,  1860,  pp.  434—438;  191  species. — • 
1869.  TURNBULL,  W.  P.  The  Birds  of  East  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 


514  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX 

...  1  vol.  roy.  8vo,  and  also  4to,  xii  +62  pp.;  342  species. — 1880.  WARREN, 
H.  B.  The  Birds  of  Chester  County,  Pa.  Forest  and  Stream,  XIII,  pp.1024, 
1025;  XIV,  pp.  6,  25;  218  species. — 1886.  PARKER,  H.  G.  List  of  Birds  near 
Philadelphia  with  the  Dates  That  Sets  of  Eggs  Were  Taken.  Orn.  and  O61. 
XI,  pp.  70, 71 ;  76 species. — 1887.  PENNOCK,  C.  J.  Birds  of  Chester  County  Pa. 
The  Oologist.  IV,  pp.  1-10;  234  species.— 1889.  RESSEL,  C.  B.  Birds  of  Ches- 
ter County,  Pa.  Orn.  and  O6L,  XIV,  97-101,  pp.  112-116, 129, 130;  199 species. 
— 1890.  WARREN,  B.  H.  Report  on  the  Birds  of  Pennsylvania.  With 
Special  Reference  to  the  Food  Habits.  Second  Edition.  Harrisburg.  8vo, 
xiv  +434  pp. ;  100  col.  plls. — 1891.  STONE,  W.  The  Summer  Birds  of  Harvey's 
Lake,  Luzerne  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  with  Remarks  on  the  Faunal  Position  of 
the  Region.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.  1891,  pp.  431-438;  54  species. — 
1892.  DWIGHT,  J.,  JR.  Summer  Birds  of  the  Crest  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Alleghanies.  Auk,  IX,  pp.  129-141;  84  species. — 1893.  JACOBS,  J.  W.  Summer 
Birds  of  Greene  Co.,  Pa.  8vo,  15  pages;  90  species.  Published  by  Author, 
Waynesburg,  Pa. — 1893.  TODD,  W.  E.  C.  Summer  Birds  of  Indiana  [65  spe- 
cies] and  Clearfield  [55  species]  Counties,  Pa.  Auk,  X,  1893,  pp.  35-46. — 1894. 
STONE,  W.  The  Birds  of  Eastern  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey.  8vo,  vii  + 
185  pp.  Del.  Valley  Orn.  Club,  Phila.  346  species. — 1895.  ROTZELL,  W.  E. 
Birds  of  Narbeth,Pa.,  and  Vicinity.  The  Citizen,  June  22  and  29,  and  reprinted 
in  pamphlet,  8  pp.;  108  species. — 1896.  BAILY,  W.  L.  Summer  Birds  of 
Northern  Elk  Co.  Auk,  XIII,  pp.  289-297;  69  species. — 1896.  YOUNG,  R. 
T.  Summer  Birds  of  Anthracite  Coal  Regions  of  Pennsylvania.  Auk,  XIII, 
1896,  pp.  278-285;  69  species. — 1897.  MONTGOMERY,  T.  H.,  JR.  A  List  of 
the  Birds  of  the  Vicinity  of  West  Chester,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.  Am.  Nat.,  1897, 
pp.  622-628,  812-814,  907-911;  145  species.— 1897-1910.  STONE,  W.  Editor. 
Numerous  Notes  on  and  Short  Lists  of  Eastern  Pennsylvania  Birds.  Proc. 
Del.  Valley  Orn.  Club,  Phila. — 1899.  RHOADS,  S.  N.  Notes  on  Some  of  the 
Rarer  Birds  of  Western  Pennsylvania.  Auk,  XVI,  pp.  308-313;  65  spe- 
cies.— 1901.  BURNS,  F.  L.  A  Sectional  Bird  Census,  at  Berwyn,  Pa.  Wil- 
son Bull.  No.  36,.  pp.  84-103;  62  species. — 1904.  TODD,  W.  E.  C.  The 
Birds  of  Erie  and  Presque  Isle,  Erie  Co.,  Pa.  Annals  Carnegie  Museum, 
II,  pp.  481-596,  4  plates;  237  species.— 1904.  TODD,  W.  E.  C.  The  Mam- 
mal and  Bird  Fauna  of  Beaver  County,  Pa.  Bausman's  History  of  Beaver 
County,  II,  1904,  pp.  1195-1202;  178  species. 

RHODE  ISLAND 

1899.  HOWE,  R.  H.,  JR.,  and  STURTEVANT,  E.  The  Birds  of  Rhode 
Island.  Published  by  Authors.  8vo,  111  pp;  291  species. — 1908.  Commis- 
sioners of  Birds.  A  Check-List  of  Rhode  Island  Nesting  Birds,  pp.  1-26; 
104  species. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 

1868.  COUES,  E.  Synopsis  of  the  Birds  of  South  Carolina.  Proc.  Bost. 
Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  XII,  pp.  104-127;  294  species. — 1879.  LOOMIS,  L.  M.  A 
Partial  List  of  the  Birds  of  Chester  County,  S.  C.  Bull.  N.  O.  C.,  IV,  pp. 
209-218;  140  species.  (See  also  additions  and  notes.  Auk.,  II,  1885,  pp. 
188-193;  VIII,  1891,  pp.  49-59,  167-173;  IX,  1892;  pp.  28-39;  XI,  1894, 
pp.  26-39,  94-117.) — 1885.  HOXIE,  W.  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  the  Sea  Islands. 
Orn.  and  O61.,  X,  pp.  13-27,  29,  44-46,  62,  63.  (Also  Corrections  and  Addi- 
tions, Ibid.,  XI,  1886,  pp.  33,  34)  238  species. — 1890.  LOOMIS,  L.  M. 
Observations  on  Some  of  the  Summer  Birds  of  the  Mountain  Portions  of 
Pickens  County.  Auk,  VII,  pp.  30-39,  124-130;  76  species. — 1891.  LOOMIS, 
L.  M.  June  Birds  of  Caesar's  Head,  S.  C.  Auk,  VIII,  pp.  323-333;  52  species. 
— 1910.  PHILIPP,  P.  B.  List  of  Birds  Observed  [in  the  Carolinas].  Auk, 
XXVII,  pp.  312-322.  (See  also  Wayne,  Ibid.,  p.  464.)— 1910.  WAYNE, 
A.  T.  Birds  of  South  Carolina.  Cont.  from  Charleston  Museum,  I,  8vo,  xxi 
+pp.  254;  337  species. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX  515 

TENNESSEE 

1886.  Fox,  W.  H.  List  of  Birds  Found  in  Roane  County,  Tennessee, 
During  April,  1884,  and  March  and  April,  1885.  Auk,  III,  pp.  315-320;  114 
species. — 1895.  RHOADS,  S.  N.  Cont.  Zool.  Tenn.,  Proc.  Acad.  Nati 
Sci.,  Phila.,  1895.  pp.  463-501.  Also  Auk,  XIII,  1896,  p.  181;  223  species.— 
1910.  HOWELL,  A.  H.  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 
Auk,  XXVII,  pp.  295-304.  Tenn. ;  162  species. 

VERMONT 

1901.  HOWELL,  A.  H.  Preliminary  List  of  Summer  Birds  of  Mount 
Mansfield,  Vt.  Auk,  XVIII,  pp.  337-347;  86  species.— 1902.  PERKINS, 
G.  H.  A  Preliminary  List  of  the  Birds  Found  in  Vermont.  21st  Ann.  Rep, 
Vt.  State  Bd.  Agric.,  pp.  85-118;  261  species.  See  also  HOWE,  R.  H.,  JR., 
Cont.  N.  A.  Orn.  II,  pp.  5-22. — 1903.  DAVENPORT,  E.  B.  Birds  Observed  on 
Mt.  Mansfield  and  the  West  End  of  Stowe  Valley  at  the  Base  of  the  Moun- 
tain, in  the  Summer  of  1902.  Wilson  Bull.,  XV,  pp.  77-86;  74  species.— 

1907.  DAVENPORT,  E.  B.    Birds  of  Windham  and  Bennington  Counties. 
Bull.  No.  2,  Vermont  Bird  Club  (Burlington,  Vt.),  pp.  5-14,;  176  species.— 

1908.  ALLEN,   F.  H.     Summer  Birds  of  Southern  Vermont.  Auk,  XXV, 
pp.  56-64;  86  species. 

VIRGINIA 

1890.  RIVES,  WM.  C.,  M.  D.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Birds  of  the  Virginias. 
Proc.  Newport  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  Document  VII,  Newport  R.  I.  8vo,  100 
pp.;  305  species. — 1902.  DANIELS,  J.  W.  Summer  Birds  of  the  Great  Dis- 
mal Swamp.  Auk  XIX,  15-18  pp.;  41  species. — 1910.  EMBODY,  G.  C.  A  List 
of  Birds  Observed  at  Ashland,  Va.  Auk,  XXVII,  pp.  169-177;  114  species. 

WEST  VIRGINIA 

1873.  SCOTT,  W.  E.  D.  Partial  List  of  the  Summer  Birds  of  Kanawha 
County,  West  Virginia,  with  Annotations.  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Hist.,  XV, 
pp.  219-227;  86  species. — 1875.  BREWSTER,  W.  Some  Observations  on  the 
Birds  of  Ritchie  County,  West  Virginia.  Annals  of  the  Lye.  Nat.  Hist.,  N. 
Y.,  XI,  pp.  129-146;  100  species.— 1888.  DOAN,  W.  D.  Birds  of  West 
Virginia.  Bull  3,  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.,  Morgantown;  200  species. — 1889.  SUR- 
BER,  T.  Birds  of  Greenbriar  County,  West  Va.  The  Hawkeye  Orn.  and 
O61.  (E.  B.  Webster,  Cresco,  Iowa),  II,  pp.  2-4  13-15,  29-32;  121  species. 
— 1890.  RIVES,  W.  C.  (See  Virginia.) — 1898.  RIVES,  W.  C.  Summer 
Birds  of  the  West  Virginia  Spruce  Belt.  Auk,  XV,  pp.  131-137;  46  species. — 

1909.  BROOKS,  E.  A.    West  Virginia  Birds  in  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 
Report  W.  Va.  State  Board  Agric.,  for  1908,  pp.  3-62;  193  species. 

WISCONSIN 

1853.  HOY,  P.  R.  Notes  on  the  Ornithology  of  Wisconsin.  Proc.  Acad. 
Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  VI,  pp.  304-313,  381-385,  423-429;  283  species.  (Revised 
with  additions  in  the  Trans.  Wise.  State  Agric.  Soc.,  1852,  II,  pp.  341-364.) — 
1854.  BARRY,  A.  C.  On  the  Ornithological  Fauna  of  Wisconsin.  Proc. 
Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  V,  1854,  pp.  1-13;  218  species.— 1882.  KING,  F.  H. 
Economic  Relations  of  Wisconsin  Birds.  Wis.  Geol.  Survey,  I,  pp.  441-610; 
figs.  103-144;  295  species. — 1883.  WILLARD,  S.  W.  Migration  and  Distri- 
bution of  North  American  Birds  in  Brown  and  Outgamie  Counties.  Trans. 
Wise.  Acad.  Sci.  Arts,  and  Letters,  VI,  pp.  177-196;  210  species.— 1894. 
GRUNDTVIG,  F.  L.  The  Birds  of  Shiocton  in  Bovina,  Outgamie  Co.,  Wise. 
Trans.  Wise.  Acad.  Sciences,  X,  pp.  73-158;  183  species. — 1903.  KUMLIEN, 
L.  and  HOLLISTER,  N.  The  Birds  of  Wisconsin.  Bull.  Wise.  Nat.  Hist. 
Soc.,  Ill  (N.  S.),  pp.  1-143,  8  half-tones;  357  species.— 1909.  CORY,  C.  B. 
(See  Ills.) 

35 


INDEX 


Acanthis  hornemanni  exilipes,  380. 

hornemanni  hornemanni,  380. 

linaria  holbcelli,  381. 

linaria  linaria,  380. 

linaria  rostrata,  381. 
Accipiter  cooperi,  294. 

velox,  293. 

Actitis  macularia,  261. 
^Echniophorus  occidentalis,  139. 
^Egialitis  hiaticula,  267. 

meloda,  266. 

nivqsa,  276. 

semipalmata,  266. 
iEstrelata  gularis,  176. 

hasitata,  176. 

scalaris,  176. 
Agelaius  phceniceus  bryanti,  361. 

phceniceus  floridanus,  362. 

phceniceus  fortis,  362. 

phceniceus  phceniceus,  361. 
Aix  sponsa,  197. 
Ajaja  ajaja,  217. 
Alauda  arvensis,  348. 
Alaudidse,  figured,  128. 
Albatross,  Wandering,  173. 

Yellow-nosed,  173. 
Albinism,  96. 
Alca  torda,  148. 
Alcedinidse,  320;  figured,  127. 
Alcida?,  145;  figured,  118. 
Alle  alle,  149. 
Alleghanian  fauna,  30. 
Altricial  birds,  75. 
Aluco  pratincola,  308. 
Aluconidse,  308;  figured,  125. 
American  Ornithologists'  Union,  23. 

Committee  of,  8. 
Ammodramus  bairdi,  389. 

savannarum  australis,  389. 

savannarum  floridanus,  390. 
Anas  fulvigula,  193. 

platyrhynchos,  191. 

rubripes  rubripes,  192. 

rubripes  tristis,  192. 
Anatidse,  186. 
Anatinse,  190;  figured,  121. 
Anhinga  anhinga,  181. 
Anhingidse,  181;  figured,  120. 
Ani,  70,  318. 

Groove-billed,  319. 
Anoiis  stqlidus,  171. 
Anser  albifrons  albifrons,  212. 

albifrons  gambeli,  212. 

brachyrhynchos,  213. 

fabalis,  213. 

Anseres,  186;  figured,  121. 
Anserinse,  121,  210. 
Anthrenus,  21. 
Anthus  pratensis,  472, 

rubescens,  471. 

spraguei,  471. 


Antrostomus  carolinensis,  331. 

vociferus  vociferus,  332. 
Aphelocoma  cyanea,  351. 
Aphrizidffi,  268. 
April,  birds  of,  34,  38. 
Aquila  chrysaetos,  301. 
Aramidae,  230;  figured,  123. 
Ararnus  vociferus,  230. 
Archibuteo  ferrugineus,  300. 

lagopus  sancti-johannis,  300. 
Archilochus  colubris,  336. 
Arctic  zone,  29. 
Ardea  cinerea,  224. 

herodias  herodias,  223. 

herpdias  wardi,  224. 

occidentalis,  223. 

wuerdmanni,  223. 
Ardeid*,  219;  figured,  122. 
Arenaria  interpres  interpres,  268. 

interpres  morinella,  268. 
Arquatella  maritima  maritima,  249. 
Asio  flammeus,  310. 

wilsonianus,  310. 
Astragalinus  tristis  tristis,  382. 
Astur  atricapillus  atricapillus,  382. 
Asturina  plagiata,  300. 
Audubon  Societies,  National  Association 

of,  24. 

August,  birds  of,  35,  39. 
Auk,  Great,  149. 

Little.    See  Dovekie. 

Razor-billed,  148. 
Auk,  The,  24. 
Austral  Region,  29. 
Austroriparian  fauna,  30. 
Auxiliary  barrel,  14. 
Avocet,  American,  241;  figured,  105. 

Bseolophus  bicolor,  485. 

Baldpate,  194. 

Banding  birds,  73. 

Banner  marks,  95. 

Bartramia  longicauda,  259. 

Beach-bird.    See  Sanderling. 

Beetle-head.    See  Plover,  Black-bellied. 

Bendire,  C.  E.,  22. 

Bill,  uses  of,  104. 

Bird,  young,  condition  of,  79. 

defense  of,  81. 

feeding  of,  80,  81. 

food  of,  80. 
Bird-Lore,  24. 
Birds  and  insects,  99. 

and  man,  114. 

and  rodents,  100. 

and  weeds,  100. 

as  scavengers,  101. 

care  of,  in  the  field,  16. 

collecting,  15. 

distribution  of,  27. 

economic  value  of,  98,  100. 


(517) 


518 


INDEX 


Birds,  food  of,  98. 

how  named,  5. 

how  to  find;  3. 

how  to  identify,  4, 

intelligence  of,  11. 

migration  of,  32. 

relation  of,  to  man,  1,  2. 

senses  of,  109. 

sexual  organs  of,  20. 

skinning,  16. 

study  of,  in  nature,  60. 

voice  of,  60. 

why  we  should  study,  1,  2. 
Birdskins,  15,  16. 
Bittern,  American,  221. 

Cory's  Least,  222. 

Least,  222. 
Blackbird,  Bahama  Red-wing,  362. 

Cow.    See  Cowbird. 

Crow.      See     Crackles,     Purple     and 
Bronzed. 

Florida  Red-wing,  362. 

Red-winged,  72,  361. 

Rusty,  365. 

Skunk.    See  Bobolink. 

Thick-billed  Redwing,  362. 

Yellow-headed,  360. 

Black-cap,  Wilson's.     See  Warbler,    Wil- 
son's. 

Black-head.    See  Duck,  Scaup. 
Black  Jack.    See  Scaup,  Lesser. 
Blind,  umbrella,  11. 
Bluebill.    See  Duck,  Scaup. 

Greater.    See  Scaup,  Duck,  Greater. 

Small.    See  Scaup,  Lesser. 
Bluebird,  115,  499. 
Blue  Peter.    See  Coot. 
Blue  Stocking.    See  Avocet. 
Bobolink,  358;  map  of  migration  of,  44. 
Bob-white,  100,  270. 

Florida,  271. 

Bog-sucker.    See  Woodcock. 
Bombycilla  cedrorum,  421. 

garrula,  420. 

BombycUlidae,  420;  figured,  130. 
Bonasa  umbellus  togata,  274. 

umbellus  umbellus,  273. 
Booby,  179. 

Blue-faced,  180. 

Red-footed,  180. 
Boreal  Region,  28. 
Botaurus  lentiginosus,  221. 
Brant,  214. 

Black,  214. 

White.    See  Goose,  Snow. 
Branta  bernicla  glaucogastra,  214. 

canadensis  canadensis,  213. 

canadensis  hutchinsi,  213. 

canadensis  minima,  213. 

leucopsis,  214. 

nigricans,  214. 
Brant-bird.    See  Turnstone. 
Brent.    See  Brant. 
Broadbill.    See  Ducks,  Scaup  and  Shove' 

ler. 

Brooding,  79. 
Broods,  number  of,  68. 
Brown-Back.    See  Dowitcher. 
Bubo  yirginianua  heterocnemis,  315. 

virginianus  subarcticus,  315. 

virginianus  virginianus,  315. 


Bufflehead,  204. 
Bull-bat.    See  Nighthawks. 
Bulweria  bulweri,  176. 
Bunting,  Bay-winged.    See  Sparrow,  Ves* 
per. 

Black-throated.    See  Dickcissel. 

Indigo,  410. 

Lark,  413. 

Painted,  411. 

Snow,  384. 

Varied,  411. 

Burgomaster.    See  Gull,  Glaucous. 
Butcher-bird.    See  Shrike,  Northern. 
Buteo  borealis  borealis,  295. 

borealis  calurus,  296. 

borealis  harlani,  296. 

borealis  krideri,  296. 

borealis  umbrinus,  296. 

brachyurus,  299. 

lineatus  alleni,  298. 

lineatus  lineatus,  296. 

platypterus  platypterus,  298. 

swainsoni,  298. 
Buteonidse,  287;  figured,  126. 
Butorides  virescens  virescens,  227. 
Butter-ball.    See  Bufflehead. 
Buzzard,  Turkey,  286. 

Cahow.    See  Shearwater,  Audubon's. 
Calampspiza  melanocorys,  413. 
Calcarius  lapponicus  lapponicus,  385. 

ornatus,  386. 

pictus,  386. 

Calico-back.    See  Turnstone. 
Calidris  leucophsea,  254. 
Call,  location,  60. 
Call-notes,  60. 

Callichelidon  cyaneoviridis,  419. 
Calls  of  prsecocial  birds,  60,  61. 
Camera,  13. 

Campephilus  principalis,  323. 
Camptorhynchus  labradorius,  206. 
Canachites  canadensis  canace,  272. 

canadensis  canadensis,  272. 
Canadian  zone,  28. 
Canary,  Wild.    See  Goldfinch. 
Canvasback,  201. 
Caprimulgidse,  331;  figured,  127. 
Caracara,  Audubon's,  307. 
Cardinal,  407. 

Florida,  408. 

Kentucky.    See  Cardinal. 
Cardinalis  cardinalis  cardinalis,  407. 

cardinalis  floridanus,  408. 
Carduelis  carduelis,  383. 
Carolinian  fauna,  30. 
Carpodacus  purpureus  purpureus,  377 
Casarca  ferruginea,  196. 
Cataloguing  birdskins,  20. 
Catbird,  473. 

Catharista  urubu  urubu,  287. 
Cathartes  aura  septentrionalis,  286. 
Cathartidse,  286;  figured,  126. 
Catoptrophorus  semipalmatus  inornatus, 
258. 

semipalmatus  semipalmatus,  258. 
Cedar-bird.    See  Waxwing,  Cedar. 
Centurus  carolinus,  329. 
Cepphus  grylle,  146. 

mandti,  147. 
Certhia  familiaris  americana,  481. 


INDEX 


519 


Certhiidse,  481;  figured,  131. 

Ceryle  alcyon,  321. 

Chsemepelia  passerina  bermudiana,  285. 

passerina  terrestris,  284. 
Chsetura  pelagica,  335. 
Chalk-line.    See  Heron,  Little  Green. 
Charadriidse,  124. 
Charadrius  apricarius,  265. 

dominicus  dominicus,  264. 
Charitonetta  albeola,  204. 
Chat,  Yellow-breasted,  467. 
Chaulelasmus  streperus,  193. 
Chebec.    See  Flycatcher,  Least. 
Chelidonaria  urbica,  419. 
Chen  caerulescens,  212. 

hyperboreus  hyperboreus,  211. 

hyperboreus  nivalis,  211. 
Cherry-bird.    See  Waxwing,  Cedar. 
Chewink.    See  Towhee. 
Chickadee,  100,  486. 

Acadian,  488. 

Carolina,  487. 

Florida,  488. 

Hudsonian,  488. 

Chicken,    Mother   Carey's.     See   Petrel, 
Wilson's. 

Prairie,  276. 
Chippy.    See  Sparrow,  Chipping. 

Winter.    See  Sparrow,  Tree. 
Chondestes  grammacus  grammacus,  394, 
Chordeiles  virginianus  chapmani,  334. 

virginianus  sennetti,  334. 

virginianus  virginianus,  333. 
Chuck-will's-widow,  331. 
Ciconiidse,  219. 
Circus  hudsonius,  292. 
Cistothorus  stellaris,  479. 
Civilization,  effects  of,  on  birds,  113. 
Clangula  clangula  americana,  203. 

islandica,  204. 
Clape.    See  Flicker. 
Climate,  27. 

Cobb.    See  Gull,  Great  Black-backed. 
Coccyges,  318;  figured,  126. 
Coccy  ;us  americanus  americanus,  319. 

erythrophthalmus,  320. 

minor  maynardi,  319. 

minor  minor,  319. 
Cockawee.    See  Old-Squaw. 
Ccereba  bahamensis,  430. 
Colaptes  auratus  auratus,  329. 

auratus  luteus,  329. 
Colinus  virginianus  floridanus,  271. 

virginianu.s  virginianus,  270. 
Collection,  care  of,  21. 
Collector,  outfit  of,  14. 
Colonial  birds,  nesting  habits  of,  71. 
Color  and  age,  87. 

and  climate,  89. 

and  concealment,  91. 

and  habit,  95. 

and  season,  87. 

and  sex,  87. 

Columbse,  281 ;  figured,  125. 
Columba  leucocephala,  281. 

squamosa,  282. 

Colymbidae,  138;  figured,  118. 
Colymbus  auritus,  140. 

holboelli,  140. 

nigricollis  calif  ornicus,  141. 
Compsothlypis  americana  americana,  447. 


Compsothlypis  americana  usnese,  447. 
Condor,  The,  23. 
Conuropsis  carolinensis,  317. 
Cooper  Ornithological  Club,  24. 
Coot,  American,  237;  figured,  109. 

Bumblebee.    See  Duck  Ruddy. 

Butter-billed.    See  Scoter,  American. 

Ivory-billed.    See  Coot,  American. 

Patch-head.    See  Scoter,  Surf. 

White -winged.       See   Scoter,    White- 
winged. 

Corvidse,  350;  figured,  128. 
Corvus   brachyrynchos   brachyrhynchos, 
353. 

brachyrhynchos  pascuus,  354. 

corax  principalis,  352. 

corax  sinuatus,  352. 

frugilegus,  355. 

ossifragus,  354. 

Coturnincops  noveboracensis,  235. 
Coturnix  coturnix,  271. 
Counter-shading,  93. 
Courlan.    See  Limpkin. 
Courlans,  230. 
Courtship,  70. 
Cowbird,  70,  77,  359. 
Crake,  Corn,  236. 

Spotted,  235. 
Crane,  Blue.    See  Heron,  Great  Blue. 

Brown.    See  Crane,  Sandhill. 

Little  Brown,  229. 

Sandhill,  229. 

White.    See  Crane,  Whooping. 

Whooping,  229. 
Creciscus  jamaicensis,  235. 
Creeper,  Black  and  White.    See  Warbler 
Black  and  White. 

Brown,  481;  figured,  107. 
Crex  crex,  236. 
Crossbill,  American,  379. 

White-winged,  379. 
Crotophaga  ani,  318. 

sulcirostris,  319. 
Crow,  110,  111,  353. 

Carrion.    See  Vulture,  Black. 

European  Hooded,  355. 

Fish,  354. 

Florida,  354. 
Crow-Duck.    See  Coot. 
Crying-bird.    See  Limpkin. 
Cryptoglaux  acadiea  acadica,  313 

funerea  richardsoni,  312. 
Cuckoo,  100. 

Black-billed,  320. 

Mangrove,  319. 

Maynard's,  319. 

Yellow-billed,  319. 
Cuculidse,  318;  figured,  127. 
Curlew,  Eskimo,  262. 

European,  263. 

Hudsonian,  262. 

Jack.    See  Curlew,  Hudsonian. 

Long-billed,  261. 

Pink.    See  Spoonbill,  Roseate. 

Spanish.    See  Ibis,  White. 
Cut-water.    See  Skimmer,  Black. 
Cyanocitta  cristata  cristata,  350. 

cristata  florincola,  351. 
Cygninae,  121,  215. 

Dabchick.   See  Grebe,  Pied-billed. 


520 


INDEX 


Dafila  acuta,  197. 
Daption  capense,  174. 
Darter,   Little  Blue.    See  Hawk,  Sharp- 
shinned. 

Big  Blue.    See  Hawk,  Cooper's. 
Darters,  181. 
December,  birds  of,  36. 
Decoration  of  nest,  74. 
Delaware  Valley  Ornithological  Club,  23. 
Dendrocygna  bicolor,  215. 
Dendroioa  sestiva  aestiva,  448. 

auduboni  auduboni,  451. 

cserulescens  cserulescens,  449. 

cserulescens  cairnsi,  450. 

castanea,  453. 

cerulea,  y452. 

coronata,  450. 

discolor,  460. 

dominica  albilpra,  456. 

dominica  dominica,  456. 

fusca,  455. 

kirtlandi,  457. 

magnolia,  451. 

palmarum  hypochrysea,  459. 

palmarum  palmarum,  459. 

pensylvanica,  453. 

striata,  454. 

tigrina,  448. 

townsendi,  457. 

vigorsi  vigorsi,  458. 

virens,  457. 
Dermestes,  21. 

Dichromanassa  rufescens,  225. 
Dichromatism,  96. 
Diedapper.    See  Grebe,  Pied-billed. 
Diomedea  exulans,  173. 
Diomedeidse,  172;  figured,  119. 
Distribution  and  food,  98. 

factors  influencing,  27. 

factors  governing  local,  104. 
Diver,  Great  Northern.    See  Loon. 

Hell.    See  Grebe,  Horned. 
Diving  Birds,  138. 
Dolichonyx  oryzivorus,  358. 
Dough-bird.    See  Curlew,  Eskimo. 
Dove,  Bermuda  Ground,  285. 

Carolina.    See  Dove,  Mourning. 

Ground,  284. 

Mourning,  100,  283. 

Turtle.    See  Dove,  Mourning. 

White-winged,  284. 

Zenaida,  284. 
Dovekie,  149. 
Dowitcher,  247. 

Long-billed,  247. 
Dryobates  borealis,  325. 

pubescens  medianus,  325. 

pubescens  pubescens,  325. 

villosus  auduboni,  324. 

villosus  leucomelas,  324. 

villosus  terrsenovse,  324. 

villosus  villosus,  323. 
Duck,  Black,  192. 

Black-head.    See  Duck,  Scaup. 

Blue-bill.    See  Duck,  Scaup. 

Bridal.    See  Duck,  Wood. 

Broad-bill.      See    Ducks,    Scaup    and 
Shoveller. 

Brown-legged  Black,  192. 

Butter.    See  Bufflehead. 

Crow.   See  Coot. 


Duck,  Dipper.    See  Bufflehead. 

Dusky.    See  Duck,  Black. 

English.    See  Mallard. 

Florida,  193. 

Gray.    See  Gadwall. 

Greater  Scaup,  202. 

Harlequin,  206. 

Labrador,  206. 

Lesser  Scaup,  202. 

Long-tailed.    See  Old-squaw. 

Masked,  210. 

Pied.    See  Duck,  Labrador. 

Raft.    See  Scaup,  Lesser. 

Red-legged  Black,  192. 

Ring-bill.    See  Duck,  Ring-necked. 

Ring-necked,  203. 

Ruddy,  210. 

Rufous-crested,  198. 

Scaup,  202. 

Spoonbill.    See  Shoveller. 

Spirit.    See  Bufflehead. 

Summer.    See  Duck,  Wood. 

Surf.    See  Scoter,  Surf. 

Wood,  186,  197. 
Ducks,  Molt  of,  86. 
Dumetella  carolinensis,  473. 
Dunlin,  253. 

Eagle,  Bald,  302. 

Caracara.    See  Caracara. 

Golden,  301. 

Gray  Sea,  302. 

Economic  Value  of  Birds,  98. 
Ectopistes  migratorius,  282. 
Eggs,  collecting  and  preserving,  21. 

colors  of,  78. 

number  of,  laid,  77. 

shape  of,  78. 

size  of,  78. 

variations  of,  78,  79. 
Egret,  224. 

Peale's.   See  Egret,  Reddish. 

Reddish,  225. 

Snowy,  225. 

White,  110. 

Egretta  candidissima  candidissima,  225 
Eider,  American,  207. 

King,  208. 

Northern,  207. 

Steller's,  207. 
Elanus  leucurus,  291. 
Empidonax  flaviventris,  344. 

trailli  alnorum,  346. 

trailli  trailli,  346. 

virescens,  345. 

Enemies  of  nesting  birds,  71. 
Environment  as  mold  for  habit,  73 
Ereunetes  mauri,  254. 

pusillus,  253. 

Erismatura  jamaicensis,  210. 
Erolia  ferruginea,  253. 
Erythrism,  96. 
Euphagus  carolinus,  365. 

Falco  sesalon,    306. 

columbarius  columbarius,  305. 
islandus,  303. 
mexicanus,  304. 
peregrinus  anatum,  305. 
peregrinus  peregrinus,  305. 
rusticolus  gyrfalco,  304. 


INDEX 


521 


Falco  rusticolus  pbsoletus,  304. 

rusticolus  rusticolus,  304. 

sparverius  paulus,  307. 

sparverius  sparverius,  307. 

sparveroides,  307. 

tinnunculus,  306. 
Falcon,  Peregrine,  305. 

Prairie,  304. 
Falconidae,  303. 
Faunal  areas,  28. 
February,  birds  of,  34,  38. 
Feet,  uses  of,  107. 
Field-glass,  5,  9. 
Finch,  Grass.   See  Sparrow,  Vesper. 

Lark.   See  Sparrow,  Lark. 

Pine.   See  Siskin,  Pine. 

Purple,  377. 

Summer.   See  Sparrow,  Bachman's. 
Firebird.   See  Oriole,  Baltimore. 
Flamingo,  216;  figured,  108. 
Flicker,  77,  100,  329. 

Northern,  329. 
Flight-song,  64. 
Flinthead.   See  Ibis,  Wood. 
Florida  cserulea  caerulea,  226. 
Floridian  fauna,  31. 
Flycatcher,  Acadian,  74,  345. 

Alder,  346. 

Crested,  74,  341. 

Fork-tailed,  340. 

Great-crested.  See  Flycatcher,  Crested. 

Green-crested.  See  Flycatcher,  Acadian. 

Least,  347. 

Olive-sided,  343. 

Scissor-tailed,  341. 

Traill's,  346. 

Vermilion,  347. 

Yellow-bellied,  344. 
Fly-up-the-creek.     See  Heron,  Little 

Green. 

Food  of  birds,  98. 
Fratercula  arctica  arctica,  145. 

arctica  naumanni,  146. 
Fregata  aquila,  186. 
Fregatidae,  185;  figured,  120. 
Fregetta  grallaria,  178. 
Frigate-bird,  185. 
Fringillidae,  369;  figured,  129. 
Frost-bird.   See  Plover,  Golden. 
Fulica  americana,  237. 

atra,  237. 

Fuligulinse,  198;  figured,  121. 
Fulmarus  glacialis  glacialis,  174. 
Fute.   See  Curlew,  Eskimo. 

Gadwall,  193. 

Gallinse  269;  figured,  125. 

Gallinago  delicata,  245. 

gallinago,  247. 

media,  247. 
Gallinula  galeata,  236. 
Gallinule,  Florida,  236. 

Purple,  236. 
Gannet,  180. 

Gannet.   See  Ibis,  Wood. 
Gare-fowl.   See  Auk,  Great. 
Carrot.   See  Golden-eyes. 
Gavia  adamsi,  144. 

arctica,  144. 

immer,  143. 

stellata,  144. 


Gaviidae,  142. 
Gelochelidon  nilotica,  164. 
Geothlypis  trichas  trichas,  466. 

trichas  ignota,  467. 
Geotrygon  chrysia,  285. 

montana,  285. 
Glacial  period,  56. 
Glottis  nebularia,  256. 
Gnatcatcher,  Blue-gray,  491. 
Godwit,  Black-tailed,  256. 

Hudsonian,  255. 

Marbled,  255. 
Golden-eye,  American,  203. 

Barrow's,  204. 
Goldfinch,  85,  88,  382. 

European,  383. 

Black-headed,  384. 
Goggle-nose.   See  Scoter,  Surf. 
Goosander.   See  Merganser,  American. 
Goose,  Barnacle,  214. 

Bean,  213. 

Blue,  212. 

Brant.   See  Brant. 

Cackling,  213. 

Canada,  213. 

European  White-fronted,  212. 

Greater,  Snow,  211. 

Hutchins's,  213. 

Laughing,   See   Goose,   White-fronted. 

Lesser  Snow,  211. 

Nigger.      See  Cormorant,  Double- 
crested. 

Pink-footed,  213. 

Sea.    See   Phalaropes,    Bed   and 
Northern. 

Solan.   See  Gannet. 

White-fronted,  212. 
Goshawk,  294. 

Mexican,  300. 
Crackle,  Boat-tailed,  368. 

Bronzed,  368. 

Florida,  367. 

Purple,  68,  366. 

Grassbird.   See  Sandpiper,  Pectoral. 
Grassquit,  412. 

Melodious,  412. 
Gray-Back.    See  Knot. 
Grebe,  Eared,  141. 

Holboell's,  140. 

Horned,  140 

Pied-billed,  141. 

Western,  139. 
Greenback.     See  Plover,  American 

Golden. 

Greenhead.    See  Mallard. 
Greenshank,  256. 
Grosbeak,  Black-headed,  409. 

Blue,  409. 

Cardinal.    See  Cardinal. 

Evening,  375. 

Pine,  376. 

Rose-breasted,  408. 

Grouse,  Black.    See    Partridge,    Canada 
Spruce. 

Canada.    See  Partridge,  Spruce. 

Canada  Ruffed,  274. 

Pinnated.   See  Chicken,  Prairie. 

Prairie  Sharp-tailed,  278. 

Ruffed,  273;  figured,  108. 

Sharp-tailed,  278. 

Spruce.  See  Partridge,  Canada  Spruce. 


522 


INDEX 


Grouse,  Willow.    See  Ptarmigan,  Willow. 
Gruidae,  229;  figured  123.. 
Grus  americana,  229. 

canadensis,  229. 

mexicana,  229. 
Guara  alba,  218. 

rubra,  218. 
Guillemot,  Black,  146. 

Common.   See  Murre. 

Mandt's,  147. 

Thick-billed.     See  Murre,  Briinnich's. 
Guiraca  caerulea  cserulea,  409. 
Gull,  Black-headed.    See  Gull,  Laughing. 

Bonaparte's,  160. 

Flood.    See  Skimmer,  Black. 

Fork-tailed.   See  Gull,  Sabine's. 

Franklin's,  160. 

Glaucous,  155. 

Great  Black-backed,  157. 

Herring,  157. 

Iceland,  156. 

Ivory,  154. 

Kumlien's,  156. 

Laughing,  159. 

Little,  161. 

Mackerel.   See  Tern,  Common. 

Mew,  159. 

Ring-billed,  158. 

Ross's,  161. 

Sabine's,  162. 

Short-billed,  159. 

Siberian,  159. 

Summer.   See  Tern,  Common. 

White-winged.   See  Gull,  Iceland. 
Gulls,  as  scavengers,  102. 
Gun  for  collecting,  14. 
Gyrfalcon,  304. 

Black,  304. 

Gray,  304. 

White,  303. 

Habit  and  Structure,  104. 

Habitat,  103. 
Hsematopodidse,  268. 
Hsematopus  ostralegus,  269. 

palliatus,  268. 
Hagdon,   See  Shearwater,  Greater. 

Black.   See  Shearwater,  Sooty. 
Hair-bird.    See  Sparrow,  Chipping. 
Haliseetus    leucocephalus    leucocephalus, 

302. 

Hang-nest.   See  Oriole,  Baltimore. 
Harelda  hyemalis,  205. 
Harrier.    See  Hawk,  Marsh. 
Hawk,  Black.    See  Hawk,  Rough-legged 

Blue  Hen.   See  Goshawk. 

Broad-winged,  298. 

Chicken.    See    Hawks,  Red-shouldered 
and  Red-tailed. 

Cooper's,  296. 

Cuban  Sparrow,  307. 

Duck,  305. 

Fish,  73,  307. 

Florida  Red-shouldered,  298. 

Florida  Sparrow,  307. 

Harlan's,  296. 

Harris's,  295. 

Hen.    See  Hawks,  Red-shouldered  and 
Red-tailed. 

Killy.   See  Hawk,  Sparrow. 

Krider's,  296. 


Hawk,  Little  Black.     See  Hawk,  Short- 
tailed 

Marsh,  72,  292. 

Pigeon,  305. 

Red-shouldered,  296. 

Red-tailed,  295. 

Rough-legged,  300. 

Sharp-shinned,  293. 

Short-tailed,  299. 

Snail.    See  Kite,  Everglade. 

Sparrow,  306. 

Squirrel,  301. 

Swainson's,  298. 
Hawks,  economic  value  of,  100. 
Hearing,  sense  of,  109. 
Helinaia  swainsoni,  440. 
Hell-Diver.   See  Grebe,  Pied-billed. 
Helmitheros  vermivorus,  440. 
Helodromas  ocrophus,  258. 

solitarius  solitarius,  257. 
Hen,  Heath,  276. 

Indian.   See  Bittern,  American. 

Meadow.      See    Coot,    American    and 
Rail,  Clapper. 

Mud.     See    Rail,  Clapper   and    Coot, 
American. 

Prairie.    See  Chicken,  Prairie. 
Herodias  egretta,  224. 
Herodiones,  217;  figured,  122. 
Heron,  Black-crowned  Night,  228. 

European,  224. 

Great  Blue,  72,  223. 

Great  White,  223. 

Little  Blue,  226. 

Little  Green,  227. 

Louisiana,  226. 

Night,  74. 

Snowy.   See  Egret,  Snowy. 

Ward's,  224. 

Yellow-crowned  Night,  228. 
Hesperiphona   vespertina   vespertina, 

375. 

High-hole.   See  Flicker. 
Himantopus  mexicanus,  242, 
Hirundinidse,  415;  figured,  130. 
Hirundo  erythrogaster,  417. 

rustica,  418. 

Histrionicus  histrionicus,  206. 
Honey  Creeper,  Bahama,  430. 
Horse-head.   See  Scoter,  Surf. 
Hudsonian  zone,  28. 
Hummingbird,  Ruby-throated,  336. 
Hydranassa  tricolor  ruficollis,  226. 
Hydrochelidon  leucpptera,  171. 

nigra  surinamensis,  170. 
Hylocichla  aliciue  aliciae,  494. 

alicise  bicknelli,  495. 

fuscescens  fuscescens,  493. 

fuscescens  salicicolus,  494. 

guttata  pallasi,  496. 

mustelina,  492. 

ustulata  swainsoni,  495. 

Ibididse,  218;  figured,  122. 
Ibis,  Glossy,  218. 

Scarlet,  218. 

White,  218. 

White-faced  Glossy,  219. 

Wood,  219. 
Ice  Age,  57. 
Icteria  virens  virens,  467. 


INDEX 


523 


Icteridse,  357;  figured,  129. 
Icterus  galbula,  365. 

spurius,  364. 

Ictinia  mississippiensis,  291. 
Incubation,  68,  79. 

period  of,  79. 

Indigo-bird.    See  Bunting,  Indigo. 
Inheritance  of  nesting  habit,  76. 
Insects,  loss  caused  by,  99. 

taste  of,  to  birds,  109. 
Intelligence  of  birds,  111. 
lonornis  martinicus,  236. 
Iridoprocene  bicolor,  418. 
Ixobrychus  exilis,  222. 

neoxenus,  222. 
Ixoreus  naevius  naevius,  499. 

Jacana,  Mexican,  269. 

spinosa,  269. 

Jackdaw.    See  Grackle,  Boat-tailed. 
Jaeger,  Long-tailed,  152. 

Parasitic,  151. 

Pomarine,  150. 
January,  birds  of,  33. 
Jay,  Blue,  113,  350. 

Canada,  352. 

Florida,  352. 

Florida  Blue,  351. 

Labrador,  352. 
Joree.   See  Towhees. 

Journal  Maine  Ornithological  Society,  24. 
Journals,  9. 
Junco,  Carolina,  401. 

hyemalis  carolinensis,  401. 

hyemalis  hyemalis,  400. 

hyemalis  montanus,  401. 

Montana,  401. 

Slate-colored,  400. 
July,  birds  of,  35. 
June,  birds  of,  35. 

Kestrel,  306. 

Key,  field,  to  common  birds,  133. 

to  orders  and  families,  118. 
Kildee.   See  Killdeer. 
Killdeer,  265. 
Kingbird,  339. 

Arkansas,  340. 

Gray,  340. 

Kingfisher,  Belted,  321. 
Kinglet,  Golden-crowned,  489. 

Ruby-crowned,  490. 
Kite,  Blue.    See  Kite,  Mississippi. 

Everglade,  291. 

Fork-tailed.    See  Kite,    Swallow-tailed. 

Hook-bill.    See  Kite,  Everglade. 

Mississippi,  291. 

White-tailed,  291. 
Kittiwake,  155. 
Knot,  248. 

Labeling  birdskins,  20. 
Lagopus  lagopus  alleni,  275. 

lagopus  lagopus,  274. 

rupestris  reinhardi,  276. 

rupestris  rupestris,  275. 

welchi,  276. 

Lamellirostral  swimmers,  186.  . 

Laniidae,  422;  figured,  130. 
Lanius  borealis,  422. 

ludovicianua  ludovicianus,  423. 


Lanius  ludovicianus  migrans,  423. 
Laniyireo  flavifrons,  427. 

solitarius  solitarius,  427. 

solitarius  alticola,  428. 
Lapwing,  264. 
Larinse,  152;  figured,  119. 
Lark,  Field.    See  Meadowlark. 

Horned.  348. 

Hoyt's  Horned,  349. 

Prairie.    See  Meadowlark. 

Prairie  Horned,  349. 

Shore.    See  Lark,  Horned. 
Larus  affinis,  157. 

argentatus,  157. 

atricilla,    159. 

brachyrhynchos,  159. 

canus,  159. 

delawarensis,  158. 

franklini,  160. 

hyperboreus,  155. 

kumlieni,  156. 

leucppterus,  156. 

marinus,  157. 

minutus,  161. 

Philadelphia,  160, 

Leadback.     See  Sandpiper,   Red-backed/ 
Lens,  photographic,  13. 
Leptoptilos  crumeniferus,  219. 

dubius,  219. 

Limicolae,  238;  figured,  124. 
Limosa  fedoa,  255. 

haemastica,  255. 

limosa,  256. 
Limpkin,  230. 
-Linnet.  See  Finch,  Purple. 

Pine.    See  Siskin,  Pine. 

Redpoll.   See  Redpoll. 
Lobipes  lobatus,  240. 
Log-cock.   See  Woodpecker,  Pileated. 
Longipennes,  150;  figured,  118. 
Longspur,  Chestnut-collared,  386. 

Lapland,  385. 

McCown's,  386. 

Smith's,  385. 
Loon,  143. 

Black.   See  Cormorant,  Double-crested. 

Black-throated,  144. 

Red-throated,  144. 

Yellow-billed,  144. 
Lophodytes  cucullatus,  189. 
Lord  and   Lady.   See   Duck,   Harlequin. 
Loxia  curvirostra  minor,  379. 

leucoptera,  379. 
Lunda  cirrhata,  146. 

Machetes  pugnax,  259. 
Machrochires,  331;  figured,  127. 
Macrorhamphus  griseus  griseus,  247. 

griseus  scolopaceus,  247. 
Magazines,  ornithological,  24. 
Maine  Ornithological  Society,  24. 
Mallard,  191. 

Black.    See  Duck,  Black. 
Man-o'-war-bird,  186;  figured,  106. 
Marabou,  219. 
March,  birds  of,  34,  38. 
Mareca  americana,  194. 

penelope,  194. 
Marila  affinis,  202. 

americana,  200. 

collaris,  203. 


524 


INDEX 


Marila  mania,  202. 

valisineria,  201. 
Marlin,  Brown.    See  Godwit,  Marbled 

Ring-tailed.    See  Godwit,  Hudsonian. 
Marsh-Hen.    See  Rail,  Clapper. 
Martin,  Bee.    See  Kingbird. 

Cuban,  416. 

European,  419. 

Purple,  416. 
Mating,  70. 

Maybird.    See  Bobolink. 
May,  birds  of,  34,  38. 
Meadowlark,  362. 

Southern,  363. 

Western,  363. 
Megalestris  skua,  150. 
Megaquiscalus  major  major,  368. 
Melanerpes  erythrocephalus,  328. 
Melanism,  96. 
Meleagridse,  278. 
Meleagris  gallopavo  osceola,  279. 

gallopavo  silyestris,  279. 
Melopelia  asiatica  asiatica,  284. 
Melospiza  georgiana,  404. 

lincolni  lincolni,  403. 

melodia  melodia,  402. 
Memory  of  birds,  113. 
Merganser,  American,  188. 

Hooded,  189. 

Red-breasted,  188. 
Mergellus  albellus,  190. 
Merginse,  187;  figured,  121. 
Mergus  americanus,  188. 

serrator,  188. 
Merlin,  306. 

Micropalama  himantopus,  248. 
Micropodidse,  334;  figured,  127. 
Migration,  at  night,  50. 

extent  of,  40. 

height  of,  51. 

how  performed,  48. 

of  western  birds,  40. 

routes  of,  41.  * 

speed  of,  51,  52. 

times  of,  32. 

why  performed,  55. 
Mimidffi,  472;  figured,  131. 
Mirnus  polyglottos  polyglottos,  472. 
Mniotilta  varia,  438. 
Mniotiltidae,  430;  figured,  130. 
Mockingbird,  65,  472. 

Finch.    See  Shrike,  Loggerhead. 
Mollimoke,  174. 
Molothrus  ater  ater,  359. 
Molt,  85. 
Motacilla  alba, 
Motacillidse,  470;  figured,  131 
Mother  Carey's  Chicken,  173,  178. 
Moose-bird.    See  Jay,  Canada. 
Mud-Hen.    See  Coot. 

White-billed.    See  Coot. 
Murre,  147. 

Briinnich's,  148. 
Murrelet,  Ancient,  146. 
Muscivora  forficata,  341. 

tyrannus,  340. 
Myadestes  towndsendi,  497. 
Mycteria  americana,  219. 
Myiarchus  crinitus,  341. 
Myiochanes  richardsoni  richardsoni,  344. 

virens,  343. 


Names  of  birds,  6. 

Nannus  hiemalis  hiemalis,  478. 

Nesting  dates,  69. 

season,  date  of,  66-68. 

site,  71. 
Nests,  70. 

character  of,  75. 

collecting  and  preserving  of,  21. 

construction  of,  74. 

exercises  in,  81. 

material  for,  73. 

sanitation  of,  81. 
Netta  rufina,  198. 
Nettion  carolinense,  195. 

crecca.  195. 
Nighthawk,  100,  333. 

Florida,  334. 

Sennett's,  334. 
Noddy,  54,  171. 
Noddy.   See  Fulmar. 
Nomenclature  system  of,  6. 
Nomonyx  dominicus,  210. 
Nonpareil.    See  Bunting,  Painted. 
Note-books,  9. 
Notes,  recognition  of,  61. 
November,  birds  of,  36,  39,  40. 
Numenius  americanus,  261. 

arcuatus,  263. 

borealis,  262. 

hudsonicus,  262. 

phseopus,  263. 
Nuthatch,  Brown-headed,  484. 

Florida  White-breasted,  484. 

Red-breasted,  484. 

White-breasted,  483. 
Nuttallornis  borealis,  343. 
Nyctanassa  violacea,  228. 
Nyctea  nyctea,  315. 
Nycticorax  nycticorax  nsevius,  228. 

Oceanites  oceanicus,  177. 
Oceanodroma  castro,  177. 

leucorhoa,  177. 

Ochthodromus  wilsonius  wilsonius,  367. 
October,  birds  of,  36,  39,  40. 
Odontoglossee,  216;  figured,  122. 
Odontophoridse,  269. 
Oidemia  americana,  208. 

deglandi,  209. 

fusca,  209. 

perspicillata,  209. 
Old-squaw,  205. 
Old-wife.   See  Old-squaw. 
Olor  buccinator,  216. 

columbianus,  215. 

cygnus,  216. 
Oologist,  The,  25. 
Opera-glass,  5,  9. 
Oporornis  agilis,  465. 

formosus,  464. 

Philadelphia,  465. 
Oreospiza  chlorura,  407. 
Orientation,  power  of,  53. 
Oriole,  Baltimore,  65,  74,  365. 

Orchard,  364. 
Oscines,  62. 
Osprey,  307. 

fo«3t  of,  108. 
Otocoris  alpestris  alpestris,  348. 

alpestris  hoyti,  349. 

alpestris  praticola,  349. 


INDEX 


525 


Otus  asio  asio,  313. 

asio  floridanus,  314. 
Oven-bird,  460. 
Owl,  Acadian.   See  Owl,  Saw-whet. 

Barn,  309. 

Barred,  109,  110,  311. 

Burrowing,  317. 

Cat.   See  Owl,  Screech. 

Day.   See  Owl,  Hawk. 

Florida  Barred,  312. 

Florida  Burrowing,  316. 

Florida  Screech,  314. 

Great  Gray,  312. 

Great  Horned,  315. 

Hawk,  316. 

Hoot.   See  Owl,  Barred. 

Labrador  Horned,  315. 

Long-eared,  310. 

Marsh,  311. 

Monkey-faced.   See  Owl,  Barn. 

Mottled.   See  Owl,  Screech. 

Richardson's,  312. 

Saw-whet,  313. 

Screech,  313. 

Short-eared,  310. 

Snowy,  315. 

Owls,  economic  value  of,  101. 
Oxeye,  Meadow.    See  Sandpiper,  Least. 

Sand.    See    Sandpiper,    Semipalmated. 
Oxyechus  vociferus  vociferus,  265. 
Oyster-catcher,  268. 

European,  269. 

Pandion  haliaetus  carolinensis,  307. 
Pagophila  alba,  154. 

Palmetto-bird.    See  Yellow-throat,    Flor- 
ida. 

Paludicolse,  229;  figured,  123. 
Pandionidae,  307. 
Parabuteo  unicinctus  harrisi,  295. 
Parasitism,  76. 
Paridse,  485;  figured,  131. 
Paroquet,  Carolina,  317. 
Parrakeet.    See  Paroquet,  Carolina. 
Parrot,  Sea.    See  Puffin. 
Partridge.    See  Grouse,  Ruffed,  and  Bob- 
white. 

Birch.   See  Grouse,  Ruffed. 

Canada  Spruce,  272. 

Hudsonian  Spruce,  272. 

Hungarian,  280. 

Swamp.   See  Grouse,  Canada  Spruce. 
Passer  domesticus  domesticus,  378. 

montanus,  379. 
Passerculus  princeps,  387. 

sandwichensis  savanna,  388. 
Passerella  iliaca  iliaca,  405. 
Passeres,  337;  figured,  128. 
Passerherbulus  caudacutus,  391 

henslowi  henslowi,  390. 

lecontei,  391. 

maritimus  fisheri,  394. 

maritimus  macgillivrai,  394. 

maritimus  maritimus,  393. 

maritimus  peninsulse,  394. 

nelsoni  nelsoni,  392. 

nelsoni  subvirgatus,  392. 

nigrescens,  395. 
Passerina  ciris,  411. 

cyanea,  410. 

versicolor  vefsicolor,  411. 


Peabody-bird.       See     Sparrow,     White- 
throated. 
Pedicecetes  phasian^llus  campestris,  278. 

phasianellus  phasianellus,  278. 
Peep.   See  Sandpipers,  Least  and  Semi- 
palmated. 

Peet-weet.   See  Sandpiper,  Spotted. 
Pelagodroma  marina,  178. 
Pelecanidse,  183;  figured,  120. 
Pelecanus  erythrorhynchus,  184. 

occidentalis,  184. 
Pelican,  56. 

Brown,  184. 

Frigate.   See  Man-o'-war-bird. 

White,  27,  57,  184. 
Pelidna  alpina  alpina,  253. 

alpina  sakhalina,  252. 
Perdix  perdix,  280. 
Penthestes  atricapillus  atricapillus,  486. 

carolinensis  carolinensis,  487. 

carolinensis  impiger,  488. 

hudsonicus  hudsonicus,  488. 

hudsonicus  littoralis,  488. 
Peregrine.    See  Hawk,  Duck. 
Perisoreus    canadensis    canadensis,    352. 

canadensis  nigricapillus,  352. 
Permanent  residents,  32,  37. 
Petrel,  Black-capped,  176. 

Bulwer's,  176. 

Hawaiian,  177. 

Leach's,  177. 

Peale's,  176. 

Pintado,  174. 

Scaled,  176. 

Storm,  176. 

White-bellied,  178. 

White-faced,  178. 

Wilson's,  177. 
Petrochelidon  fulva,  417. 

lunifrons  lunifrons,  417. 
Peucsea  sestivalis  sestivalis,  401. 

sestivalis  bachmani,  402. 
Pewee,  Wood,  343. 
Pewit.    See  Phrebe. 
Phaethon  athereus,  179. 

flavirostris,  178. 

Phaethontidse,  178;  figured,  120. 
Phalacrocoracidse,  182;  figured,  120. 
Phalacrororax  auritus  auritus,  182. 

auritus  floridanus,  183. 

carbo,  182. 

vigua  mexicanus,  183. 
Phalarope,  Northern,  240. 

Red,  239. 

Wilson's,  241. 

Phalaropodida3,  239;  figured,  124. 
Phalaropus  fulicarius,  239. 
Phasianidse,  280. 
Phasianus  colchicus,  280. 

torquatus,  280. 
Pheasant.    See  Grouse,  Ruffed. 

English,  280. 

Ring-necked,  280. 
Pheugopedius  rutilus,  62. 
Philohela  minor,  244. 
Phlceotomus  pileatus  abieticola,  328. 

pileatus  pileatus,  327. 
Phcebe,  342. 

Say's,  342. 

Phcenicopteridse,  216;  figured,  122, 
Phcenicopterus  ruber,  216, 


526 


INDEX 


Photographic  outfit,  13. 

Pici,  figured,  127. 

Picidae,  figured,  127. 

Picoides     americamis    americanus,     C2J. 

arcticus,  325. 
Pigeon,  Homing,  53. 

Passenger,  282. 

Prairie.    See  Plover,  Upland. 

West  Indian  Scaled,  282. 

White-crowned,  281. 

Wild,  282. 
Pintail,  197. 
Pipilo  erythrophthalmus  alleni,  407. 

erythrophthalmus     erythrophthalmus, 
406. 

maculatus  arcticus,  407. 
Pipit,  American,  471. 

European  Meadow, 

Sprague's,  471. 
Piranga  erythromelas,  413. 

ludoviciana,  414. 

rubra  rubra,  414. 
Pisobia  bairdi,  251. 

fuscicollis,  250. 

maculata,  249. 

minutilla,  251. 

Planesticus    migratorius    achrusterus,  8, 
499. 

migratorius  migratorius,  7,  8,  497. 
'migratorius  propinquus,  8. 
Plataleidae,  217;  figured,  122. 
Plautus  impennis,  figured,  149. 
Plectrophenax  nivalis  nivalis,  384. 
Plegadis  autumnalis,  218. 

guarauna,  219. 
Plover,  Black-bellied,  263. 

Chicken.   See  Turnstone. 

European  Golden,  265. 

Field.   See  Plover,  Upland. 

Golden,  264. 
map  of,  47. 
migration  of,  46. 

Grass.    See  Plover,  Upland. 

Mountain,  268. 

Piping,  266. 

Ringed,  267. 

Semipalmated,  266. 

Snowy,  267. 

Upland,  94,  259. 

Wilson's,  267. 
Plumage,  84. 

colors  of,  87. 

color  of  and  climate,  90. 

color  of  and  concealment,  92. 

color  of  and  season,  88. 

color  of  and  sex,  88. 

wear,  86. 

Podasocys  montanus,  268. 
Podilymbus  podiceps,  141. 
Poisoning  collections,  21. 
Polioptila  cserulea  caerulea,  491. 
Polyborus  cheriway,  307. 
Polygamy,  70. 
Polysticta  stelleri,  207. 
Pooecetes  gramineus  gramineus,  386. 
Porzana  Carolina,  234. 

porzana,  235. 
Praecocial  birds,  75. 
Prairie-Pigeon.   See  Gull,  Franklin's. 
Preacher.    See  Vireo,  Red-eyed. 
Procellariidse,  173;  figured,  119. 


Progne  cryptoleuca,  416. 

subi.s  subis,  416. 
Protonotaria  citrea,  439. 
Psittaci,  126,  317. 
Psittacidse,  317. 
Ptarmigan,  Allen's,  275. 

Greenland.      See      Ptarmigan,      Rein- 

hardt's. 
Ptarmigan,  molt  of,  86. 

Reinhardt's,  276. 

Rock,  275. 

Welch's,  276. 

Willow,  274. 
Puffin,  145. 

Large-billed,  146. 

Tufted,  146. 
Puffinus  assimilis,  176. 

borealis,  175. 

gravis,  175. 

griseus,  176. 

Iherminieri,  175. 

puffinus,  175. 

Pygopodes,  138;  figured,  118. 
Pyrocephalus  rubinus  mexicanus,  347. 

Qua-bird.    See      Heron,      Black-crowned 

Night. 
Quail.    See  Bob-white. 

Migratory,  271. 
Quail-Dove,  Blue-headed,  285. 

Key  West,  285. 

Ruddy,  285. 
Quawk.       See     Heron,      Black-crowned 

Night. 
Querquedula  cyanoptera,  196. 

discors,  195. 
Quiscalus  quiscula  seneus,  368. 

quiscula  aglseus,  367. 

quiscula  quiscula,  366. 

Rail,  Carolina.   See  Sora. 

Clapper,  232. 

Florida  Clapper,  232. 

King,  231. 

Little  Black,  235;  figured,  105. 

Louisiana,  232. 

Virginia,  233. 

Yellow,  235. 

Rain-crow.    See  Cuckoos. 
Rallidae,  230;  figured,  123. 
Rallus  crepitans  crepitans,  232. 

crepitans  saturatus,  232. 

crepitans  scotti,  232. 

crepitans  waynei,  233. 

elegans,  231. 

virginianus,  233. 
Range,  103. 

Raptores,  286;  figured,  125. 
Raven,  352. 

Northern,  352. 

Reason,  definition  of,  111,  112. 
Recurvirostra  americana,  241. 
Recurvirostridse,  241. 
Red-bird.   See  Cardinal. 
Red-head,  200,  201. 
Redpoll,  380. 

Greater,  381. 

Greenland,  380. 

Hoary,  380. 

Holboell's,  381. 

Mealy.  See  Redpoll,  Hoary. 


INDEX 


527 


Red-shank,  257. 

Redstart,  470;  map  of  migration  of,  45. 

Red-tail,  Western,  296. 

Reed-bird.    See  Bobolink. 

Reeve,  259. 

Regulus  calendula  calendula,  490. 

satrapa  satrapa,  489. 
Rhodostethia  rosea,  161. 
Rhyncophanes  mccowni,  386. 
Ricebird.    See  Bobolink. 
Ring-neck.    See  Plover,  Semipalmated. 
Riparia  riparia,  419. 
Rissa  tridactyla  tridactyla,  155. 
Robin,  7,  68,  73,  74,  114,  497. 

Golden.   See  Oriole,  Baltimore. 

Ground.   See     Towhee. 

Southern,  499. 

Swamp.   See     Thrush,  Hermit. 
Rocker.    See  Ptarmigan,  Rock. 
Rockweed  Bird.    See  Sandpiper,  Purple. 
Rook,  European,  355. 
Rostrhamus  sociabilis,  291. 
Rough-leg,  Ferruginous,  300. 
Ruff,  259. 

Rynchopidse,  172;  figured,  119. 
Rynchops  nigra,  172. 

Saddle-back.      See    Gull,    Great    Black- 
backed. 

Sanderling,  254. 
Sandpiper,  Baird's,  251. 

Bartramian.    See  Plover,  Upland. 

Black-bellied.    See  Dunlin. 

Buff-breasted,  260. 

Curlew,  253. 

Green,  258. 

Least,  251. 

Pectoral,  249. 

Purple,  249. 

Red-backed,  252. 

Red-breasted.    See  Knot. 

Semipalmated,  253. 

Solitary,  257. 

Spotted,  261. 

Stilt,  248. 

Western,  254. 

White-rumped,  250. 
Sanitation  of  nest,  81. 
Sapsucker,  Yellow-bellied,  326. 
Saw-bill.   See  Merganser,  American. 
Saxicola  cenanthe  leucorhoa,  499. 
Sayornis,  phcebe,  342. 

saya,  342. 

Scalp  Act  in  Pennsylvania,  101. 
Scissor-bill.    See  Skimmer,  Black. 
Scolopacidse,  figured,  124. 
Scolopax  rusticola,  245. 
Scoter,  American,  208. 

Surf,  209. 

Velvet,  209. 

White-winged,  209. 
Scotiaptex  nebulosa  nebulosa,  312. 
Sea-Dove.   See  Dovekie. 
Sea-Parrot.    See  Puffin. 
Sea-Pigeon.    See  Guillemot,  Black. 
Sea-Swallow.    See  Tern,  Common. 
Sedge-hen.   See  Rail,  Clapper. 
Seiurus  aurocapillus,  460. 

noveboracensis  notabilis,  463. 

noveboracensis   noveboracensis,  4;'l. 

motacilla,  463. 


Senses  of  birds,  109. 
September,  birds  of,  36,  39. 
Setophaga  ruticilla,  470. 
Sexing  Birds,  20. 
Sexual  characters,  89. 
Shag.    See  Cormorant. 
Shearwater,  Allied,  176. 

Audubon's,  175. 

Cory's,  175. 

Dark-bodied,  49. 

Greater,  175. 

Manx,  175. 

Sooty,  176. 

Shelldrake.      See    Merganser,    American 
and  Red-breasted. 

Pond.    See  Merganser,  American. 

Ruddy,  196. 

Shells,  for  collecting,  14. 
Shore-birds,  238. 
Shoveller,  196. 
Shrike,  Loggerhead,  423. 

Migrant,  423. 

Northern,  422. 
Sialia  sialis  sialis,  499. 
Sickle-bird.    See  Curlew,  Long-billed. 
Sight,  sense  of,  110. 
Siskin,  Pine,  383. 
Sitta  canadensis,  484. 

carolinensis  atkinsd,  484. 

carolinensis  carolinensis,  483. 

pusilla,  484. 

Sittidae,  482;  figured,  131. 
Skimmer,  Black,  172. 
Skua,  150. 

Skunk-head.    See  Scoter,  Surf 
Skylark,  348. 
Smell,  sense  of,  109. 
Smew,  190. 

Snail-Hawk.    See  Kite,  E^  ^rglade. 
Snake-bird,  181. 
Snipe,  American.    See  Snipe,  Wilson1  n. 

Brown.    See  Dowitcher. 

English.    See  Snipe,  Wilson's. 

European,  247. 

Grass.    See  Sandpiper,  Pectoral. 

Gray.   See  Knot  and  Dowitcher. 

Great,  247. 

Jack.   See  Snipe,  Wilson's. 

Red-breasted.    See      Dowitcher,      and 
Knot. 

Robin.    See  Knot  and  Dowitcher 

Rock.    See  Sandpiper,  Purple 

Surf.    See  Sanderling. 

Wilson's,  94,  245. 

Winter.    See  Sandpiper,  Purple 
Snowbird.    See  Junco,  Slate-colored. 

White.    See  Snow  Bunting. 
Snow  Bunting,  86,  100. 
Snowflake.    See  Bunting,  Snow. 
Societies,  Ornithological,  23. 
Solitaire,  Townsend's,  497. 
Somateria  dresseri,  207. 

molissima  borealis,  207. 

spectabilis,  208. 
Song,  62. 

functions  of,  62. 

geographical  variations  of,  64. 

imitation  of,  65. 

inheritance  of,  64. 
Sora,  234. 
South-southerly.   See  Old-squaw. 


528 


INDEX 


Sparrow.   Acadian  Sharp-tailed,  392. 

Aleutian  Song,  90. 

Bachman's,  402. 

Baird's,  389. 

Brewer's,  399. 

Bush.    See  Sparrow,  Field. 

Chipping,  398. 

Clay-colored,  399. 

Desert  Song,  90. 

Dusky  Seaside,  394. 

English,  378. 

European  Tree,  379. 

Field,  399. 

Florida  Grasshopper,  390. 

Fox,  405. 

Gambel's,  406. 

Grasshopper,  389. 

Harris's,  395. 

Henslow's,  390. 

House,  54,  68,  70,  114,  116,  378. 

Ipswich,  387. 

Lark,  394. 

Leconte's,  391. 

Lincoln's,  403. 

Louisiana  Seaside,  394. 

Macgillivray's  Seaside,  394. 

Mexican  Song,  90. 

Nelson's,  392. 

Pine-woods,  401. 

Savannah,  388. 

Scott's  Seaside,  393. 

Seaside,  85,  393. 

Sharp-tailed,  85,  391. 

Song,  68,  80,  402;     climatic  races  of, 
90-92. 

Sooty  Song,  90. 

Swamp,  404. 

Tree,  100,  397. 

Vesper,  386. 

Western  Field,  400. 

White-crowned,  396. 

White-throated,  397. 

Yellow-winged.   See    Sparrow,    Grass- 
hopper. 

Spatula  clypeata,  196. 
Species,  life  of,  115. 

status  of,  113. 
Speckle-belly.        See     Goose,     American 

White-fronted. 
Speed  of  birds,  51. 
Speotyto  cunicularia  floridana,  316. 

cunicularia  hypogaea,  317. 
Sphyrapicua  varius  varius,  326. 
Spine-tail.    See  Duck,  Ruddy. 
Spinus  notatus,  384. 

pinus  pinus,  383. 
Spiza  americana,  412. 
Spizella  breweri,  399. 

monticola  monticola,  397. 

pallida,  399. 

passerina  passerina,  398. 

pusilla  arenacea,  400. 

pusilla  pusilla,  399. 
Spoonbill.    See  Shoveller. 

Roseate,  110,  217. 
Sprigtail.    See  Pintail. 
Squatarqla  squatarola,  263. 
Stake-driver.    See  Bittern,  American. 
Starling,  98,  355. 
Starncenas  cyanocephala,  285. 
Steganopodes,  178;  figured,  120. 


Steganopus  tricolor,  241. 
Stelgidopteryx  serripennia,  419. 
Stercorariidse,  150;  figured,  119. 
Stercorarius  longicaudus,  150. 

parasiticus,  151. 

pomarinus,  150. 
Sterna  anaethetus,  170. 

antillarurn,  169. 

caspia,  165. 

dougalli,  168. 

forsteri,  166. 

fuscata,  170. 

hirundo,  167. 

maxima,  165. 

paradisea,  168. 

sandvicensis  acuflavida,  166. 

trudeaui,  166. 
Sterninae,  162;  figured,  119. 
Stiff  Tail.    See  Duck,  Ruddy. 
Stilt,  Black-necked,  242. 
Stone-chat.   See  Wheatear. 
Storks,  219. 

Wood.   See  Ibis,  Wood. 
Strigidse,  309;  figured,  125. 
Striker,  Little.    See  Tern,  Least. 
Strix  yaria  alleni,  312. 

varia  varia,  311. 
Sturnella  magna  argutula,  363. 

magna  magna,  362. 

neglecta,  363. 

Sturnidse,  355;  figured,  129. 
Sturnus  vulgaris,  355. 
Sula  bassana,  180. 

cyanops,  180. 
Sula  leucogastra,  179. 

piscator,  180. 
Sulidse,  179;  figured,  120. 
Summer  residents,  32. 

visitants,  33. 

Surina  ulula  caparoch,  316. 
Swallow,  Bahama,  419. 

Bank,  419. 

Barn,  417. 

Chimney,  335. 

Cliff,  417. 

Cuban  Cliff,  417. 

Eaves.   See  Swallow  Cliff. 

European,  418. 

Rough-winged,  419. 

Tree,  45,  76,  418;  figured,  105. 

White-bellied.   See  Swallow,  Tree. 
Swan,  Trumpeter,  216. 

Whistling,  215. 

Whooping,  216. 
Swift,  Chimney,  335. 
Sylviidae,  488;  figured,  132. 
Synthliboramphus  antiquus,  146. 

Tail,  uses  of,  106. 

Tanager,  Scarlet,  85,  88,  94,  100,  413 

Summer,  414. 

Western,  414. 
Tangaridse,  figured,  129. 
Taste,  sense  of,  109. 
Tattler.   See  Yellow-legs,  Greater. 
Teal,  Blue-wing,  195. 

Cinnamon,  196. 

European,  195. 

Green-winged,  195. 

Summer.   See  Teal,  Blue-wing. 

Winter.   See  Teal,  Green-wing. 


INDEX 


529 


Teeter-tail.    See  Sandpiper,  Spotted. 
Tell-tale.    See  Yellow-legs,  Greater. 
Telmatodytes  palustris  griseus,  481. 

palustris  iliacus,  481. 

palustris  marianse,  481. 

palustris  palustris,  480. 
Temperament  of  birds,  114. 
Temperature  control,  laws  of,  28. 
Tern,  Arctic,  168. 

Black,  46,  170. 

Bridled,  170. 

Cabot's,  166. 

Caspian,  165. 

Common,  167. 

Forster's,  166. 

Gull-billed,  164. 

Least,  169. 

Marsh.   See     Tern,  Gull-billed. 

Roseate,  168. 

Royal,  165. 

Sandwich.   See  Tern,  Cabot's. 

Short-tailed.    See  Tern,  Black. 

Sooty,  54,  170. 

Trudeau's,  166. 

White-winged  Black,  171. 

Wilson's.   See  Tern,  Common. 
Tertiary  period,  57. 
Tetraonidse,  272. 
Thalassidroma  pelagica,  176. 
Thalassogeron  culminatus,  173. 
Thayer,  A.  H.,  researches  of,  93. 
Thistle-bird.    See  Goldfinch. 
Thrasher,  Brown,  474. 
Thrush,     Alice's.      See     Thrush,     Gray- 
cheeked. 

Bicknell's,  495. 

Brown.    See  Thrasher,  Brown. 

Golden-crowned.    See  Oven-bird. 

Gray-cheeked,  494. 

Hermit,  496. 

Olive-backed,  495. 

Red-winged,  497. 

Swainson's.    See  Thrush,  Olive-backed. 

Tawny.   See  Veery. 

Varied,  499. 

Willow,  494. 

Wood,  492. 

Thryomanes  bewicki  bewicki,  477. 
Thryothorus    ludovicianus    ludovicianus, 
476. 

ludovicianus  miamensis,  476. 
Thunder-pumper.    See  Bittern,  American. 
Tiaris  bicolor,  412. 

canora,  412. 

Timberdoodle.   See  Woodcock. 
Tinea,  21. 

Tinker.   See  Auk,  Razor-billed. 
Tip-up.   See  Sandpiper,  Spotted. 
Titlark.   See  Pipit,  American. 
Titmouse,  Tufted,  485. 
Totanus  flavipes,  256. 

melanoleucus,  256. 

totanus,  257. 
Towhee,  406. 

Arctic,  407. 

Green-tailed,  407. 

White-eyed,  407. 
Toxostoma  rufum,  474. 
Transient  visitants,  33. 
Tree-duck,  Fulvous,  215. 
Tringa  canutus,  248. 

EH 


Trinomials,  7. 

Trochilidse,  335;  figured,  127. 

Troglodytes  ae'don  aedon,  477. 

ae'don  parkmani,  478. 
Troglodytidse,  475;  figured,  131. 
Tropic-birds,  Red-billed,  179. 

Yellow-billed,  178,  179. 
Tryngites  subruficollis,  260. 
Tube-nosed  Swimmers,  172. 
Tubinares,  72;  figured,  119. 
Turdidse,  491;  figured,  132. 
Turdus  iliacus.  musicus,  497. 
Turkey,  Florida,  279. 

Wild,  279. 
Turnstone,  46.  268. 

Ruddy,  268. 

Tympanuchus    americanua    americanus, 
276. 

cupido,  277. 

Tyrannidae,  338;  figured,  128. 
Tyrannus  dominicensis  dominicensis,  340. 

tyrannus,  339. 

verticalis,  340. 

Uria  lomvia  lomvia,  148. 
ringvia,  147. 
troile  troile,  147. 

Vanellus  vanellus,  264. 

Veery,  493. 

Vermivora  bachmani,  441. 

celata  celata,  444. 

chrysoptera,  443. 

lawrencei,  443. 

leucobronchialis,  442. 

peregrinus,  446. 

pinus,  441. 

rubricapilla  rubricapilla,  444. 
Vireo  belli  belli,  429. 

Bell's,  429. 

Bermuda,  White-eyed,  429. 

bermudianus,  429. 

Black-whiskered,  424. 

Blue-headed,  427. 

griseus  griseus,  428. 

griseus  maynardi,  429. 

Key  West,  429. 

Mountain  Solitary,  428. 

Philadelphia,  426. 

Red-eyed,  425. 

Solitary.   See  Vireo,  Blue-headed. 

Warbling,  426. 

White-eyed,  428. 

Yellow-throated,  427. 
Vireonidse,  424;  figured,  130. 
Vireosylva  calidris  barbatula,  424. 

gilva  gilva,  426. 

oliyacea,  425  . 

philadelphica,  426. 
Vulture,  Black,  287. 

Turkey,  287. 
Vultures,  as  scavengers,  101. 

Wagtail,  European  White,  472. 
Warbler,  Audubon's,  451. 

Bachman's,  441. 

Bay-breasted,  453. 

Black  and  White,  438. 

Black  and  Yellow.   See  Warbler, 
Magnolia. 

Blackburnian,  455. 


530 


INDEX 


Black-throated  Blue,  449. 

Black-throated  Green,  457. 

Blackpoll,  454;  map  of  migration  of,  42. 

Blue-winged,  441. 

Blue  Yellow-backed.   See  Warblers. 

Brewster's,  442. 

Cairnss,  450. 

Canadian,  469. 

Cape  May,  448. 

Cerulean,  452. 

Chestnut-sided,  453. 

Connecticut,  465. 

Golden-winged,  443. 

Hooded,  468. 

Kentucky,  464. 

Kirtland's,  457. 

Lawrence's,  443. 

Magnolia,  451. 

Mourning,  465 ;  map  of  migration  of,  43. 

Myrtle,  450. 

Nashville,  444. 

Northern  Parula,  447. 

Orange-crowned,  444. 

Palm,  459. 

Parula,  447. 

Pine,  458. 

Prairie,  460. 

Prothonotary,  439. 

Red-poll.    See     Warblers,     Palm     and 
Yellow  Palm. 

Summer.    See  Warbler,  Yellow. 

Swainson's  440. 

Sycamore,  456. 

Tennessee,  446. 

Townsend's  457. 

Wilson's,  468. 

Worm-eating,  440. 

Yellow,  65,  448. 

Yellow  Palm,  459. 

Yellow-rumped.    See  Warbler,  Myrtle. 

Yellow-throated,  456. 
Warblers,  migration  of,  41. 
Water-Thrush,  461. 

GrinneH's,  463. 

Louisiana,  463. 
Water-Turkey,  181. 
Water-witch.    See    Grebe,    Pied-billed. 
Wave,  bird,  52. 
Wavey.   See  Goose,  Snow. 

Blue.   See  Goose,  Blue. 
Warwing,  Bohemian,  420. 

Cedar,  80,  99,  421. 
Whale  bird.   See  Phalarope,  Red. 
Wheatear,  Greenland,  499. 
Whimbrel,  263. 
Whip-poor-will,  72,  332. 
Whiskey-Jack.    See  Jay,  Canada. 
Whistler.   See  Golden-eyes. 
Widgeon.   See  Baldpate. 

European,  194. 
Willet,  258. 

Western,  258. 
Wilson  Bulletin,  25. 
Wilson  Ornithological  Club,  23. 
Wilsonia  canadensis,  469. 

citrina,  468. 

pusilla  pusilla,  468. 
Wing,  uses  of,  105. 
Winter  residents,  33,  37. 
Woodcock,  94;  American  figured,  104, 106. 

American,  244. 


Woodcock,  Black.    See  Woodpecker. 

Pileated. 
European,  245. 

Woodpecker,  American  Three-toed,  326. 
Arctic  Three-toed,  325. 
Black-backed.    See  Woodpecker  Arctic 

Three-toed. 

Downy,  325;  figured,  107. 
Golden-winged.    See  Flicker. 
Hairy,  323. 
Ivory-billed,  323. 
Ladder-backed.     See    Woodpecker, 

American  Three-toed. 
Newfoundland,  324. 
Northern  Hairy,  324. 
Northern  Pileated,  328. 
Pigeon.    See  Flicker. 
Pileated,  327. 
Red-bellied,  329. 
Red-cockaded,  325. 
Red-headed,  328. 
Southern  Downy,  324. 
Southern  Hairy,  324. 
Yellow-bellied.    See  Sapsucker,  Yellow 

bellied. 

Wren,  Bewick's,  477. 
Carolina,  476. 
Florida,  476. 
House,  477. 

Long-billed  Marsh,  480. 
Marian's  Marsh,  481. 
Mocking.    See  Wren,  Carolina. 
Prairie  Marsh,  481. 
Short-billed  Marsh,  479. 
Western  House,  478. 
Winter,  478. 

Worthington's  Marsh,  481. 
Wood.    See  Wren,  House. 

Xanthocephalus  xanthocephalus,  360. 
Xanthochroism,  96. 
Xema  sabini,  162. 

Yellow-bird.    See  Goldfinch. 

Summer.    See  Warbler,  Yellow. 
Yellow-hammer.    See  Flicker. 
Yellow-legs,  256 

Greater,  256. 

Summer.    See  Yellow-legs. 

Winter.    See  Yellow-legs,  Greater. 
Yellow-throat,  Florida,  467. 

Maryland,  65,  100,  466. 

Northern,  466. 
Young  birds,  colors  of,  95. 

condition  of,  at  birth,  79. 

defense  of,  81. 

exercises  of,  81. 

fear  in,  81. 

feeding  of,  80. 

flight  of,  82. 

growth  of,  80. 

voice  of,  81. 
Yucker.    See  Flicker. 

Zamelodia  ludoviciana,  408. 

Zebra-bird.  See  Woodpecker.  Red  bellied 

Zenaida  zenaida,  284. 

Zenaidura     macroura    carolinensis,    283 

Zonotrichia  albicollK  397. 

leucoph'rys  gambeli,  396. 

leucophrys  leucophrys,  396. 

querula,  395. 

(16) 


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